# data[].attributes.body
https://theconversation.com/antarctique-dans-les-coulisses-dune-mission-scientifique-qui-suit-les-manchots-adelie-144366

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Antarctique : dans les coulisses d’une mission scientifique qui suit les manchots Adélie

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Aux pôles, l’étude du comportement de certaines espèces offre des indices précieux sur les variations de l’environnement et leurs conséquences sur la faune locale.

# data[].attributes.body
-Yes

-No

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.question
Why did countries create the Treaty of Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.poll_choices[].choice_text
to put an end to differences over territorial claims

# data[].attributes.headline
Is fishing authorised in the Antarctic? 

# data[].attributes.subject
Is fishing authorised in the Antarctic? 

# data[].attributes.body
TRUE

FALSE

# data[].attributes.body
1854

1804

1819

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the measure of the highest mountain between these in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the measure of the highest mountain between these in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
4892 m

5024 m

4972 m

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.question
What are the two principal colours of aurora borealis ?

# data[].attributes.headline
Why did country create the treaty of Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
Why did country create the treaty of Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
(two answers possible)

-to enhance scientific research

-to favour pinguins hunting

-to stop the cold war

-to put an end to differences over territorial claims

# data[].attributes.headline
Are penguins aggressive towards scientific ?

# data[].attributes.subject
Are penguins aggressive towards scientific ?

# data[].attributes.body
TRUE FALSE

# data[].attributes.headline
How many  penguins are there in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.subject
How many  penguins are there in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.body
12 million

10 million

8 million

# data[].attributes.headline
How many scientific bases are there in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
How many scientific bases are there in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
a) 38

b) 106

c) 70

d) 12

# data[].attributes.body
Antarctica is the best place to observe stars such as the Southern Cross, the Toucan, the Fly and others.

in all we can count 32 constellations in Antarctica

# data[].attributes.body
does pinguins steal other baby pinguins

-yes

-no

# data[].attributes.body
The Big Dipper and the North Star are not visible from there. On the other hand, some constellations visible from this distant continent are unknown to us: these are the Southern Cross, the Toucan, the Fly, etc.

# data[].attributes.body
At the lowest altitudes, the most frequently observed colour is purple (altitudes of 90 to 100 km).

The main colours are produced by the excitation of nitrogen and oxygen molecules, atoms and ions.

Oxygen emits mainly green and red, while nitrogen emits blue, red and violet.

The density of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere varies with altitude, with oxygen becoming denser than nitrogen above an altitude of 200 km, which partly explains the predominance of green in the polar aurora.

Translated with DeepL.com (free version)

# data[].attributes.body
Science

astronomie

etude des animaux (les manchots hémisphère sud, pingouins hémisphère nord)

voir quiz 2021 du ministère des affaires étrangères

continent le plus élevé 2500m

discussion nombre de touristes, problème? quels risques?

2 stations scientifiques françaises

que font les militaires en Antarctique

le marathon annuel

concert

trouver logo officiel du traité

voir les cartes sur le site du ministère des affaires étrangères

pour oral DNB thème possible , parler date du traité et début guerre froide, faire un parallèle

# data[].attributes.headline
Researchers live in Antarctica during the southern winter, but there is never any human life during the summer.

# data[].attributes.subject
Researchers live in Antarctica during the southern winter, but there is never any human life during the summer.

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.headline
Antarctica has never had any active volcanoes.

# data[].attributes.subject
Antarctica has never had any active volcanoes.

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.headline
There is an international treaty that bans mining activities in Antarctica.

# data[].attributes.subject
There is an international treaty that bans mining activities in Antarctica.

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.body
a) Christophe Colomb

b) James Cook

c) Bartolomeu Dias

# data[].attributes.headline
Who was this great polar explorer who was the first to reach the South Pole in 1911 ?

# data[].attributes.subject
Who was this great polar explorer who was the first to reach the South Pole in 1911 ?

# data[].attributes.body
Roald Amundsen

Robert Peary

Robert Scott

# data[].attributes.headline
How many species of penguin live on the Antarctic Peninsula?

# data[].attributes.subject
How many species of penguin live on the Antarctic Peninsula?

# data[].attributes.body
3

2

6

# data[].attributes.headline
The emperor penguin is one of the only animals that live in Antarctica year-round.

# data[].attributes.subject
The emperor penguin is one of the only animals that live in Antarctica year-round.

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.headline
Antarctica is the coldest continent on Earth.

# data[].attributes.subject
Antarctica is the coldest continent on Earth.

# data[].attributes.body
True or False?

# data[].attributes.headline
Do you think there are bears in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
Do you think there are bears in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
yes

no

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the main cause of glacier melting in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the main cause of glacier melting in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
a) The increase in volcanic activity
b) Global warning

d) Seismic activity

# data[].attributes.body
Ecrivez ici les thèmes à explorer encore, les brouillons de vos travaux, les tâches en cours, etc... C'est la partie fourre-tout, votre mémo

# data[].attributes.headline
has there ever been a war in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.subject
has there ever been a war in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.body
TRUE

FALSE

# data[].attributes.body
a) The Atlantic Ocean
b) The Indian Ocean
c) The Pacific Ocean
d) The Southern Ocean

# data[].attributes.headline
What do penguins eat? (Multiple answers possible)

# data[].attributes.subject
What do penguins eat? (Multiple answers possible)

# data[].attributes.body
Krills (shrimps)

Squids (calamari)

Mice

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the main animal species living in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the main animal species living in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
a) The emperor penguin
b) The sea lion
c) The polar bear
d) The dolphin

# data[].attributes.headline
Does Antarctica have permanent habitants?

# data[].attributes.subject
Does Antarctica have permanent habitants?

# data[].attributes.body
a) Yes, there are several cities on the continent.
b) No, there are no permanent inhabitants, only temporary scientists.
c) Yes, but only animals.
d) Yes, but only scientists and military personnel.

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the name of the French scientific base on the continent?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the name of the French scientific base on the continent?

# data[].attributes.body
Marion Dufresne

Paul-Émile Victor

Dumont D URVILLE

# data[].attributes.headline
Question 9: What is the name of the light phenomne that can be seen at the South Pole and illustrated in this photo?

# data[].attributes.subject
Question 9: What is the name of the light phenomne that can be seen at the South Pole and illustrated in this photo?

# data[].attributes.body
Aurora Australis

Midnight sun

Rainbow

Aurora boreale

# data[].attributes.headline
Antarctica is the world's largest freshwater reservoir ?

# data[].attributes.subject
Antarctica is the world's largest freshwater reservoir ?

# data[].attributes.body
true

false

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the main geographical characteristic of Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the main geographical characteristic of Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
a) It is primarily covered in sand.
b) It is a frozen desert.
c) It is a dense forest.
d) It is made up of volcanic mountains.

# data[].attributes.body
when was the treaty formed?

-1939

-1959

-1949

how many country signed it ?

-12

-14

-22

the nickname of antarctic is the country of peace

-true

-false

# data[].attributes.body
What is Antarctica?

An ocean

A continent

A territory belonging to Norway

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the record temperature ever recorded in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the record temperature ever recorded in Antarctica?

# data[].attributes.body
-79°

-89°

-99°

# data[].attributes.body
13,66 milions km²

13,66 miles km²

22,2 milion km²

# data[].attributes.headline
what is the difference between the 59 treaty and the 91 one

# data[].attributes.subject
what is the difference between the 59 treaty and the 91 one

# data[].attributes.body
Antarctic Treaty (1959): Ensures Antarctica is used for peaceful purposes and scientific research, without military interference or territorial claims.

Protocol on Environmental Protection (1991): Enhances environmental protection by prohibiting mineral exploitation and imposing strict regulations on human activities in Antarctica.

# data[].attributes.headline
What does the environmental science study ?

# data[].attributes.subject
What does the environmental science study ?

# data[].attributes.body
climate change

humans

computers

# data[].attributes.headline
What are  the different animals in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.subject
What are  the different animals in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.body
polar bears

penguins

seals

pigs

# data[].attributes.headline
How long is the longest polar night in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.subject
How long is the longest polar night in Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.body
a) 3 months

b) 5 days

c) 24 hours

d) 28 days

# data[].attributes.body
discreetly=discretement

# data[].attributes.body
some countries refused to sign the treaty becaue it wasn't advantageous

# data[].attributes.body
Scientists have begun exploring the seabed around Antarctica. They are discovering fascinating marine creatures that are adapted to darkness, cold, and extreme pressure.

# data[].attributes.body
Despite the intense cold, some plants survive in Antarctica, such as mosses and lichens. They can grow in warmer or less icy areas, often near the coasts.

# data[].attributes.body
Antarctica has long been an inaccessible area for humans due to its extreme conditions. However, several notable expeditions took place, such as those of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton in the early 20th century. These expeditions contributed to the mapping of the continent and the understanding of its geographical and climatic challenges.

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Melting Ice: Global warming has significant effects on Antarctica, including an acceleration of the melting of glaciers and the ice sheet, which contributes to rising sea levels. Some regions are losing billions of tons of ice each year.

Climate Research: Scientists closely monitor Antarctica to understand its role in the global climate and to anticipate the effects of climate change.

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Scientific Research: Antarctica is primarily a site for scientific research. The Antarctic Treaty (1959) stipulates that the continent should not be exploited for military or commercial purposes, and that science is the priority. There are over 30 permanent and temporary scientific research stations on the continent.

Tourism: Although limited, tourism in Antarctica is growing, with cruises bringing travelers to observe wildlife and glacial landscapes. However, strict regulations are in place to limit the ecological impact.

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Fauna: Antarctica is home to various marine species and birds. Notably, it hosts penguins (such as the emperor penguin), seals, whales, and a wide variety of krill (a crustacean essential to the marine food chain).

Flora: Although there is little vegetation, certain plants such as mosses and lichens survive in the less icy regions.

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Area: Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, covering about 14 million km², nearly 1.5 times the size of Europe.

Ice and Glaciers: Nearly 98% of the surface of Antarctica is covered by ice. This represents about 60% of the world’s fresh water.

South Pole: The geographic South Pole is located at the center of the continent, while the magnetic South Pole, which indicates the direction of compasses, is located elsewhere.

Climate: It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth. Temperatures can drop below -80°C during the winter. The absolute coldest record was recorded at -89.2°C at the Soviet Vostok station in 1983.

# data[].attributes.body
warm = réchaufer

retreating = qui se retire

glacial retreat: le recul des glaciers

# data[].attributes.body
sight =la vue

enter = entrer

seabed = fonds marins

seal= phoque

# data[].attributes.body
multidisciplinary : multidisciplinaire

pathogens : agents pathogènes

# data[].attributes.body
claims=revendications

broad=large

deals=affaires

weather=le temps, la météo

# data[].attributes.body
shall=devoir

ozone hole =trou dans la couche d'ozone

# data[].attributes.body
Captain James Cook became the first adventurer to enter Antarctica. He did so in the year 1773.

On 17 November 1820, an American sealer, Nathaniel Palmer, became the first to sight Antarctica. The first landing was most likely just over a year later when English-born American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice.

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The Antarctic as a cold, isolated, pristine environment is undergoing significant change through regional climate warming, ozone depletion, alien introductions, long range transport of contaminants and increased global attention as a scientific and tourist destination and a fisheries provider. Over the 21st century, the Antarctic is projected to warm by 3.4 ± 1°C and lose about 30% of its sea ice extent. Biologically, the Antarctic is a centre of evolutionary divergence and adaptation to polar extremes. Its diversity is now threatened by environmental changes occurring on short time scales that do not accommodate natural selection.

Understanding the impact of past, current and predicted environmental change on biodiversity and the consequences for adaptation and function.Determining the effects of cold, darkness, isolation and pathogens on the health and welfare of scientists and support staff in the Antarctic.Through multidisciplinary collaborations, understanding the complexities of the Antarctic environment and predicting the consequences of change.

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There are fewer than 140 permanent residents—mostly scientists and researchers—on the entire continent, but in 2016, thousands of people will temporarily work at Antarctic research stations—but no one “lives” in Antarctica full time. In fact, no one country “owns” the Antarctic, so there isn’t what you’d consider a “citizenry.”

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For over a century Britain has been at the forefront of exploration and scientific research in Antarctica. The scientific advances that have been made over recent decades have gained international recognition and have changed humankind’s understanding of planet Earth. The UK’s vibrant Antarctic research community plays a leading role in the international efforts to investigate and monitor environmental change in the Polar Regions.

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Among the scientific disciplines covered by this broad remit are environmental science, for example

Environmental science deals with climate change, biodiversity loss, severe weather, pollution and other issues.

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Skip to content

There are few places on Earth where there has never been war, where the environment is fully protected, and where scientific research has priority. The whole of the Antarctic continent is like this. A land which the Antarctic Treaty parties call a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science.

The Antarctic Treaty came into force on 23 June 1961 after ratification by the twelve countries then active in Antarctic science. The Treaty covers the area south of 60°S latitude. Its objectives are simple yet unique in international relations. They are:

to demilitarize Antarctica, to establish it as a zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste, and to ensure that it is used for peaceful purposes only;

to promote international scientific cooperation in Antarctica;

to set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty.

The treaty remains in force indefinitely. The success of the treaty has been the growth in membership. Forty six countries, comprising around 80% of the world's population, have acceded to it. Consultative (voting) status is open to all countries who have demonstrated their commitment to the Antarctic by conducting significant research.
Signatories to the Antarctic Treaty:
Twenty eight nations, including the UK, have Consultative status. The Treaty parties meet each year at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. They have adopted over 300 recommendations and negotiated separate international agreements, of which three are still in use. These, together with the original Treaty provide the rules which govern activities in Antarctica. Collectively they are known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS).

The three international agreements are:

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)

The full text of the Treaty is given in The Antarctic Treaty (1959)

Flags of the Antarctic Treaty Nations, as at June 2015

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Skip to content There are few places on Earth where there has never been war, where the environment is fully protected, and where scientific research has priority. The whole of the Antarctic continent is like this. A land which the Antarctic Treaty parties call a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science.

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In total, 12 countries have made territorial claims or are involved in some way with Antarctica. These 12 countries are:

Argentina

Australia

Chile

France

New Zealand

Norway

United Kingdom

United States

Russia

Germany

Japan

South Korea

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Antarctica, countries in Antarctica, What are the 12 countries in Antarctica?

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There are few places on Earth that have never known war and where the environment is highly protected, and where scientific research has priority. The whole of the Antarctic continent (nearly 10% percent of the planet Earth emerged surface). A land which the Antarctic Treaty parties call a « natural reserve, devoted to peace and science ». The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by twelve polar nations including France. These nations came together to adopt a treaty « in the interest of all mankind ». According to this international agreement, Antarctica should not become the scene or object of international discord nor be used for nothing but peaceful purpose.

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A team of scientists has found and collected microbes for the first time in an Antarctic lake located climatology a layer of ice more than 800 metres thick. For the first time, a team of scientists claims to have found life forms under the Antarctic ice cap.

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This is the ecosystem of marine areas. The major producers are phytoplankton, tiny speck-sized plants that float in the currents. They are usually single celled and use photosynthesis to make energy. There are many different types and species of phytoplankton, for example, one type is called the diatoms, of which there are around 100 known species. Phytoplankton can be thought of as the base of a food chain or web.

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The Antarctic treaty and the scientific activity permitted to discover things such as the ozone and data on the climate of the last hundreds of thousands years .

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These include the Adélie penguin, the Papuan penguin, the King penguin, the Emperor penguin, the rockhopper penguin, the chinstrap penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the golden gorfu. Around 12 million penguins live in the relatively mild conditions of the Antarctic Peninsula.

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Antarctica is the coldest, driest region on the planet. An immense sheet of ice covers almost the entire territory, which is home to one of the most pristine environments on the planet.

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It's impossible for humans to live in Antartica, as it's the coldest region in the world, with temperatures as low as -80°C on certain days. What's more, the winds here are the most violent on earth, reaching speeds of up to 300 km/h!

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Antarctica was officially discovered in 1819. British sea captain William Smith, aboard his ship the Williams of Blyth, revealed the existence of the southern continent to the world on February 19, 1819, when he reported seeing land south of 62 degrees.

# data[].attributes.headline
What is the biggest mass of ice in the world?

# data[].attributes.subject
What is the biggest mass of ice in the world?

# data[].attributes.body
The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the single biggest mass of ice in the world .

# data[].attributes.body
The Dry Valleys in Antarctica are the driest places on earth.

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Antarctica is the coldest continent, covered by ice. It has no permanent residents, but scientists live there temporarily to study the environment. It’s home to animals like penguins and seals.

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Is Antarctica an ocean, a continent or an iceberg ?

# data[].attributes.subject
Is Antarctica an ocean, a continent or an iceberg ?

# data[].attributes.headline
Which is the coldest between Artic and Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.subject
Which is the coldest between Artic and Antarctica ?

# data[].attributes.body
Antarctica is Earth's driest continent. It's colder than the Arctic. Temperatures in Antartic can reach -80°C, than in Arctic it can reach -30°C

# data[].attributes.headline
The difference between antarctica and arctic.  

# data[].attributes.subject
The difference between antarctica and arctic.  

# data[].attributes.body
Antarctica is a continent, and the Arctic is an ocean!

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First of all the Antartic treaty is a treaty designating Antartica as as a scientific preserve where military activity is stricly banned. It was signed on december 1st 1959 in Washington by Argentina,Australia,Chile,France,Norway,New Zealand, the UK, the USSR,South Arfrica, the USA,Belgium,and Japan.

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The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War, setting aside the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2023, the treaty has 56 parties.

After the Second World War, the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From August 26, 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test materiel in conditions of extreme cold for a hypothetical war in the Antarctic.

On September 2, 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression.

In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of the United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on August 28, 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and this was supported by the United Kingdom. Chile responded by presenting a plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years, while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance.

In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making a territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none.

Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic.

Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War, and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on February 1, 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on February 4. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948.

On January 17, 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island, leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On February 15, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and a nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on February 18 near South Georgia. A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April.

On May 4, 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on August 1, the Argentine government also did so, so on March 16, 1956, the claims were closed.

In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly.

In 1950, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year. At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from September 9 to 11, 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica.

Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on the continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies being carried out had been completed.

Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from October 15 to December 1, 1959, when the Treaty was signed.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of the continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991-1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years.

The positions of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused a crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition.

The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in the framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty.

Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments - include:

Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, October 25, 1938)

Treaty Between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on Cooperation in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, November 24, 2003)

Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, January 8, 2007)

The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 56 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 27 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM), which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts.

As of 2023, there are 56 states party to the treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty".

Country[2][20][22][23]

Signature

Ratification/
Accession

Consultative
status[20][23]

Notes

Argentina (claim)*

Dec 1, 1959

Jun 23, 1961

Jun 23, 1961

Belgium

Dec 1, 1959

Jul 26, 1960

Jun 23, 1961

No

May 16, 1975

Sep 27, 1983

Chile (claim)*

Dec 1, 1959

Jun 23, 1961

Jun 23, 1961

Czech Republic

No

Jan 1, 1993

Apr 1, 2014

No

Feb 5, 1979

Mar 3, 1981

Ratified as West Germany.

East Germany also acceded on November 19, 1974, and received consultative status on October 5, 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany.[23][25]

Iceland

No

Oct 13, 2015 [26]

No

Papua New Guinea

No

Mar 16, 1981

No

Russia †

Dec 1, 1959

Nov 2, 1960

Jun 23, 1961

Slovakia

No

Jan 1, 1993

No

South Africa[30]

Dec 1, 1959

Jun 21, 1960

Jun 23, 1961

United Kingdom (claim)*

Dec 1, 1959

May 31, 1960

Jun 23, 1961

United States †

Dec 1, 1959

Aug 18, 1960

Jun 23, 1961

* Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants.
† Reserved the right to make a claim.

The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until August 31, 2009. He was succeeded on September 1, 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China.

The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:

Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).

Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.

Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.

Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities.

Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country. Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to the area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole.

Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle.

Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows the laws of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981.

The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.

Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute:

the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds

the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals

entry into specially protected or scientific areas

the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters

the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica

Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation.

In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to co-operate with the investigation.

Under the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962, South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town. The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.

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The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population.