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The Neolithic age started in the fertile crescent. Civilizations and cities grew out of innovations of the Neolithic Revolution. The neolithic Revolution came from Africa, and it was in mesopotamia and between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

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Invention of the first Wheel ( 4200 BC )

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Invention of the first Wheel ( 4200 BC )

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The invention of the first wheel impacted almost the whole world. it impacted egypt chariots gave the egyptians a military advantage in warfare. wheeled chairs allowed new transport of crops, raw materials and finished goods. the impact of the wheel impacted chariots, wheelbarrows, agriculture, etc.

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Invention of the first Wheel ( 4200 BC )

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The Agricultural Revolution ( 10,000BCE)

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The Agricultural Revolution ( 10,000BCE)

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The Agricultural Revolution started around 10,000 BCE and its importance was it changed the way people grew food, which led to big improvements in farming. before all of this people used to farm by hand and the food was limited. The impact was a turning point that led to more food, larger populations and the development of modern cities.

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The Agricultural Revolution ( 10,000BCE)

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The Gunpowder Revolution was invented in 1300. The Gunpowder Revolution altered the landscape of warfare, politics, and society. The impact of the Gunpowder Revolution changed how wars were fought, led to the rise of powerful states and influenced global expansion and political structures.

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The printing press was invented in 1448. The importance of the printing press was it made books and writing way easier. before the printing press, books were copied by hand and it took a while and was expensive. It allowed people to learn how to read and access information. The impact was it made books and information more accessible.

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In full:

Johann Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg

What is Johannes Gutenberg known for?

What did Johannes Gutenberg do to change the world?

Where did Johannes Gutenberg work?

Johannes Gutenberg, (born 14th century, Mainz [Germany]-died probably February 3, 1468, Mainz), German craftsman and inventor who originated a method of printing from movable type. Elements of his invention are thought to have included a metal alloy that could melt readily and cool quickly to form durable reusable type, an oil-based ink that could be made sufficiently thick to adhere well to metal type and transfer well to vellum or paper, and a new press, likely adapted from those used in producing wine, oil, or paper, for applying firm even pressure to printing surfaces. None of these features existed in the European technique used up to that time for stamping letters on various surfaces or in woodblock printing. Gutenberg's printing press was considered a history-changing invention, making books widely accessible and ushering in an "information revolution."

Gutenberg was long thought to have also invented the punch-matrix system of casting metal type (in which a character engraved on one end of a hard metal rod, the punch, was used to strike an impression into a softer metal plate, the matrix, into which molten metal was poured to form any number of virtually identical pieces of type). However, in the early 2000s a computer-aided analysis of Gutenberg's printed work showed that there was too much variation in characters of a given sort (e.g., the letter i) for his type to have been cast that way. Some scholars now think that the punch-matrix system emerged several years after Gutenberg's death.

Life

Gutenberg was the son of a patrician of Mainz. What little information exists about him, other than that he had acquired skill in metalwork, comes from documents of financial transactions. Exiled from Mainz in the course of a bitter struggle between the guilds of that city and the patricians, Gutenberg moved to Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France) probably between 1428 and 1430. Records put his presence there from 1434 to 1444. He engaged in such crafts as gem cutting, and he also taught a number of pupils.

Some of his partners, who became aware that Gutenberg was engaged in work that he kept secret from them, insisted that, since they had advanced him considerable sums, they should become partners in these activities as well. Thus, in 1438 a five-year contract was drawn up between him and three other men: Hans Riffe, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas Heilmann. It contained a clause whereby in case of the death of one of the partners, his heirs were not to enter the company but were to be compensated financially.

Invention of the press

When Andreas Dritzehn died at Christmas 1438, his heirs, trying to circumvent the terms of the contract, began a lawsuit against Gutenberg in which they demanded to be made partners. They lost the suit, but the trial revealed that Gutenberg was working on a new invention. Witnesses testified that a carpenter named Conrad Saspach had advanced sums to Andreas Dritzehn for the building of a wooden press, and Hans Dünne, a goldsmith, declared that he had sold to Gutenberg, as early as 1436, 100 guilders' worth of printing materials. Gutenberg, apparently well along the way to completing his invention, was anxious to keep secret the nature of the enterprise.

After March 12, 1444, Gutenberg's activities are undocumented for a number of years, but it is doubtful that he returned immediately to Mainz, for the quarrel between patricians and guilds had been renewed in that city. In October 1448, however, Gutenberg was back in Mainz to borrow more money, which he received from a relative. By 1450 his printing experiments had apparently reached a considerable degree of refinement, for he was able to persuade Johann Fust, a wealthy financier, to lend him 800 guilders-a very substantial capital investment, for which the tools and equipment for printing were to act as securities. Two years later Fust made an investment of an additional 800 guilders for a partnership in the enterprise. Fust and Gutenberg eventually became estranged, Fust, apparently, wanting a safe and quick return on his investment, while Gutenberg aimed at perfection rather than promptness.

Fust won a suit against him, the record of which is preserved, in part, in what is called the Helmaspergersches Notariatsinstrument (the Helmasperger notarial instrument), dated November 6, 1455, now in the library of the University of Göttingen. Gutenberg was ordered to pay Fust the total sum of the two loans and compound interest (probably totaling 2,020 guilders). Traditional historiography suggested that this settlement ruined Gutenberg, but more recent scholarship suggests that it favoured him, allowing him to operate a printing shop through the 1450s and maybe into the 1460s.

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Johannes Gutenberg | Printing Press, Inventions, Facts, Accomplishments, & Biography

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Johannes Gutenberg, German craftsman and inventor who originated a method of printing from movable type. Elements of his invention included a durable type-metal alloy, an oil-based ink that adhered well to metal type and transferred well to vellum or paper, and a press for applying even pressure to printing surfaces.

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas ( 1492) 

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas ( 1492) 

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas started in 1492. The importance of it opened the door for exploration and colonization of the new world. columbus voyages connected Europe with the americans and this led to the exchange of goods, ideas, plants, animals and diseases within both of the worlds. The impact was it opened the way for european countries to colonize.

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Columbus led his three ships - the Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Maria - out of the Spanish port of Palos on August 3, 1492. His objective was to sail west until he reached Asia (the Indies) where the riches of gold, pearls and spice awaited. His first stop was the Canary Islands where the lack of wind left his expedition becalmed until September 6.

Once underway, Columbus benefited from calm seas and steady winds that pushed him steadily westward (Columbus had discovered the southern "Trades" that in the future would fuel the sailing ships carrying goods to the New World). However, the trip was long, longer than anticipated by either Columbus or his crew. In order to mollify his crew's apprehensions, Columbus kept two sets of logs: one showing the true distance traveled each day and one showing a lesser distance. The first log was kept secret. The latter log quieted the crew's anxiety by under-reporting the true distance they had traveled from their homeland.

This deception had only a temporary effect; by October 10 the crew's apprehension had increased to the point of near mutiny. Columbus headed off disaster by promising his crew that if land was not sighted in two days, they would return home. The next day land was discovered.

Columbus's journal of his first voyage to America has been lost. However, we do have an accurate abstract of the journal written by Bartolome de las Casas in the 1530s. Las Casas was an historian and Columbus's biographer who had access to the original journal of the voyage. We join Columbus's account as his expedition approaches the islands of the Bahamas. Throughout the account, Columbus refers to himself in the third person as the "Admiral":

"Thursday October 11

The course was W.S.W., and there was more sea than there had been during the whole of the voyage. They saw sand-pipers, and a green reed near the ship. Those of the caravel Pinta saw a cane and a pole, and they took up another small pole which appeared to have been worked with iron; also another bit of cane, a land-plant, and a small board. The crew of the caravel Nia also saw signs of land, and a small branch covered with berries. Everyone breathed afresh and rejoiced at these signs. The run until sunset was 27 leagues.

After sunset the Admiral returned to his original west course, and they went along at the rate of 12 miles an hour. Up to two hours after midnight they had gone 90 miles, equal to 22 1/2 leagues. As the caravel Pinta was a better sailer, and went ahead of the Admiral, she found the land, and made the signals ordered by the Admiral. The land was first seen by a sailor named Rodrigo de Triana. But the Admiral, at ten o'clock, being on the castle of the poop, saw a light, though it was so uncertain that he could not affirm it was land. He called Pero Gutierrez, a gentleman of the King's bedchamber, and said that there seemed to be a light, and that he should look at it. He did so, and saw it. The Admiral said the same to Rodrigo Sanchez of Segovia, whom the King and Queen had sent with the fleet as inspector, but he could see nothing, because he was not in a place whence anything could be seen.

After the Admiral had spoken he saw the light once or twice, and it was like a wax candle rising and failing. It seemed to few to be an indication of land; but the Admiral made certain that land was close. When they said the Salve, (Salve Regina) which all the sailors were accustomed to sing in their way, the Admiral asked and admonished the men to keep a good look-out on the forecastle, and to watch well for land; and to him who should first cry out that he saw land, he would give a silk doublet, besides the other rewards promised by the Sovereigns, which were 10,000 maravedis to him who should first saw it. At two hours after midnight the land was sighted at a distance of two leagues."

Columbus ordered the three ships to halt and wait for daylight before venturing further. His journal continues:

"Friday October 12

The vessels were hove to, waiting for daylight; and on Friday they arrived at a small island of the Lucayos, called, in the language of the Indians, Guanahani. Presently they saw naked people. The Admiral went on shore in the armed boat, and Martin Alonso Pinzon, and Vicente Yanez, his brother, who was captain of the Nia. The Admiral took the royal standard, and the captains went with two banners of the green cross, which the Admiral took in all the ships as a sign, with an F and a Y and a crown over each letter, one on one side of the cross and the other on the other.
Having landed, they saw trees very green, and much water, and fruits of diverse kinds. The Admiral called to the two captains, and to the others who leaped on shore, and to Rodrigo Escovedo, secretary of the whole fleet, and to Rodrigo Sanchez of Segovia, and said that they should bear faithful testimony that he, in presence of all, had taken, as he now took, possession of the said island for the King and for the Queen his Lords, making the declarations that are required, as is now largely set forth in the testimonies which were then made in writing."

Shortly after landing, many of the island's inhabitants assembled on the beach and Columbus gave them gifts of red hats and beads. The natives reciprocated with gifts of parrots, cotton and other goods. In describing the natives, Columbus wrote: "They go as naked as when their mothers bore them, and so do the women, although I did not see more than one girl. They are very well made, with very handsome bodies, and very good countenances."

References:
Columbus's journal appears in Olson, Julius, The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503 (1926); Dyson, John, Columbus: for Gold, God, and Glory (1991); Morrison, Samuel Eliot, Admiral of the Ocean Sea (1942);

How To Cite This Article:
"Christopher Columbus Discovers America, 1492," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2004).

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Christopher Columbus Discovers America, 1492

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An eyewitness account of Columbus's first landfall in the New World.

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The Protestant Reformation impacted switzerland because calvinism spread to other countries and geneva became the center for protestant refugees. new branches of christianity were formed, and protestant services focused on preaching the bible rather than elaborate catholic rituals.

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Council of Trent impacted Germany because the council of trent was a direct response to the protestant reformation. the divisions caused by the reformation and counter reformation played an important role in in sparking the thirty years war. the council of trent played an important role in catholic missionary work in africa, asia, and the americas.

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The steam engine started in 1712. The importance of the steam engine was it was an energy source for a lot of machines and cars. It made it cheaper and easier to produce commodities. The impact on steam engines was people could make machines that worked faster than the stuff they were using before the steam engine and this built more jobs for people and new inventions. The steam engine made life much easier and faster.

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The industrial Revolution started in 1760. The importance of the industrial revolution was that it transformed how people worked, lived, and produced their goals. it led to a modern industrial society. The impact of the industrial revolution was increased production, efficiency, lower prices, more goods, improved wages, etc.

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The American Revolution started in 1775 and the importance was it helped the american colonies become free from british rule. It inspired other countries around the world to fight for their freedom. It showed people they can work together to build a fair and independent country so everyone had rights.

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The French Revolution is from France. The participants are bourgeoisie, Montagnard, Peasant, Philosophe, and Sansculotte. The causes of the French revolution was the estate system, absolutism, enlightenment ideas, food shortages, and the american revolution.

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The cotton gin impacted faster production, the cotton gin increased cotton production from 1 pound per day to 50 pounds per day. cotton became the dominant cash crop in the american south. it impacts the world today because it entrenched systems of oppressions that shaped US history.

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The Haitian Revolution started in Haiti. The participants were Haiti, France, and the United Kingdom. This was a Revolution between 1791-1804 and it was between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the british, and the french colonizers.

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the Internal combustion engine was invented in 1860. The importance of the Internal combustion engine was it paved the way for mass mobility and the steadily rising exchange for people. The impact of the Internal combustion engine was It made cars, trucks, and planes. It was really powerful and that's why it was made for trucks and cars so people could travel faster. It helped with making farming easier with the tractors and powered engines.

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The first Airplane was invented (Wright brothers) (1871)

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The first Airplane was invented (Wright brothers) (1871)

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The first airplane impacted transportation because it was faster travel, and birth of commercial aviation. it impacted the economy too with growth of tourism, and jobs in aviation industry. it impacted the world today by with the development of spaceflight, and the rise of drone technology.

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The first Airplane was invented (Wright brothers) (

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The Maxim Gun was invented in 1884. The importance of the Maxim Gun was it was the first fully automatic machine gun and it was able to fire multiple bullets fast without reloading. The impact of the Maxim gun was as the first fully automatic gun it changed the nature of warfare by allowing a single soldier to fire hundreds of rounds per minute.

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1840, Sangersville, ME
1916, London, England

At the Paris Exhibition in 1881, a man told Maxim that if he wanted to make a fortune, he should invent a machine that would help these Europeans kill each other. Maxim did and sold his machine guns to European countries on the eve of World War I, changing the nature of combat.

Photos: (left) Library of Congress; (right) USMC Historical Society

Machine Guns

Maxim harnessed a bullet's recoil power to create a portable machine gun needed only one barrel to fire all of its bullets automatically. A gun based on his design became standard issue for the British Army during World War I, which became known as "the machine gun war."

A Knack for Invention
In 1884, Hiram Maxim built the first effective machine gun, which revolutionized warfare. Born in 1840 in Sangersville, Maine, Maxim was apprenticed at 14 to a carriage maker. While learning that trade, he exhibited a knack for invention, designing a mousetrap that automatically reset and rid local mills of rodents. He obtained the first of his 271 patents at age 26 for a curling iron. By his 30s, Maxim was becoming chief engineer of the United States Electric Lighting Co. in New York, for which he introduced carbon filaments for electric light bulbs. At the 1881 Paris Exhibition, he demonstrated an electric pressure regulator and was awarded the Legion d'Honneur. That same year he arrived in England to reorganize the London offices of U.S. Electric Lighting Company. There he began work on his machine gun.

The Power of Recoil
Its precursor, the Gatling gun, was a hand-driven, crank-operated gun with first six, later ten, barrels and a maximum fire rate of 1,200 rounds per minute. A magazine mounted on top of the gun fed bullets via gravity. Maxim's innovation was to harness the recoil power of each bullet, a force strong enough to eject the used cartridge and draw in the next one. Structured in this way, the portable gun needed only one barrel to fire all of its bullets automatically. To maximize the gun's effectiveness, Maxim also developed his own smokeless powder, cordite. In 1884, he founded the Maxim Gun Company in Britain to produce his new weapon. Five years later, he licensed it to the British Army in 1889; the following year the Austrian, German, Italian, Swiss, and Russian armies also incorporated it into their firearm auxiliary.

The Machine Gun War
In 1896, the Maxim Gun Company was bought out by Vickers Ltd., of which Maxim became a director. The Vickers machine gun would become standard issue of the British Army during World War I, which became known as "the machine gun war." The gun's destructive abilities necessitated trench warfare as a defensive strategy.

Legacy of Death
Later in life, Maxim turned his attention from warfare to flight, building a steam engine-powered airplane that briefly rose from the ground. While he was unable to achieve sustained flight, his amusement ride, the Captive Flying Machine, became a staple of British fairgrounds. Maxim died on November 24, 1916, only days before the Battle of the Somme, where over one million soldiers fell in four months of machine gun warfare.

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Who Made America? | Innovators | Hiram Maxim

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1840, Sangersville, ME 1916, London, England At the Paris Exhibition in 1881, a man told Maxim that if he wanted to make a fortune, he should invent a machine that would help these Europeans kill each other. Maxim did and sold his machine guns to European countries on the eve of World War I, changing the nature of combat.

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Plastic was invented in 1907. The importance of plastic was it was lightweight, strong, and lasts for a while. it was great for like toys, bottles, bags, and parts for cars and computers. Before there was plastic they used glass, metal, and wood and that broke easily but when they got plastic that changed everything because plastic doesn't break easy and its last longing. The impact was it made things cheaper, lighter and durable. It helped make the invention of useful things that we never had before. Plastic takes a while to break down and it causes pollution especially in the oceans.

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The Chinese Revolution started in 1911 and it led to the fall of Qing Dynasty that began in Wuchang. China had became the biggest socialist state by population and a third force in the cold war. It changed China from a country ruled by emperors and leaders who only helped by the rich into a country where the government promised to take care of everyone especially the workers and farmers.

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it has impacted Western Europe, the battle was fought on french soil causing devastation, and villages. it also impacted germany because germany army suffered around 450,000 casualties. the battle of the somme is central to many national narratives of sacrifice and heroism. its legacy woven into fabric of national identity in a lot of countries.

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The Russian Revolution in 1917 overthrew the imperial government and the second placed Bolsheviks in power. It ended many centuries of autocratic rule in russia that led to the fall of the Romanov dynasty. Its impact extended to the social, economic, and cultural transformations in russia.

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An atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki ( 1945 )

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An atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki ( 1945 )

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it impacted nagasaki with direct devastation, health impact and cultural trauma. it also impacted the United States with political, military, and ethical debate. the events at nagasaki serve as a constant number of the destructive potential of atomic weapons.

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An atomic bomb is dropped on Nagasaki ( 1945 )

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The Cuban Revolution started in 1953. The impact of the cuban revolution was the overthrow of Batista and the rise to power of the revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro. The Cuban Revolution helped people of Cuba take control of their country which is a big step. They helped do that because the leader was not treating them well. It changed Cuba into a communist country so the government made decisions to help everyone not just the people with money.

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The Green Revolution started in 1966. The importance of The Green Revolution was it helped farmers grow more food, especially in the countries where people were hungry. The impact was The green revolution helped feed millions of people and improved fod security but it also brought challenges that made people think more about how to protect the environment.

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon ( 1969 )

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon ( 1969 )

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon started in 1969. The importance of it was he was the first person to walk on the moon. The impact was this was a monumental achievement in the human exploration.

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon ( 1969 )

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The Digital Revolution began in 1980. The importance of the Digital Revolution was it changed how people live, worked and communicated. people could send messages instantly, store big amounts of information and access knowledge from all over. It helped make the businesses faster. The Digital Revolution made life more connected and efficient so this meant alot of learning new skills and being careful about things like online privacy.

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World wide web made it so much easier for people to get information and share. it allows documents and other web resources to be accessed over the internet. the global economy facilitated the rise of digital economy with businesses expanding.

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facebook impacts north america, like social connection, business and marketing, and politics. It impacts Latin America and Caribbean. its essential for keeping families connected due to the high use of facebook and messenger. there were limited phone calls before facebook, facebook created a digital town square. facebook market allows users to buy, sell, etc.

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The Syrian Civil War started in 2011. The importance of The Syrian Civil War was that it started a peaceful protest against the government but it escalated fast into a complex involving a lot of groups. the war led to a big humanitarian crisis. The impact was The loss of life, there was hundreds and thousands of deaths after the war. they destroy a lot of hospitals, and schools too.

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The civil uprising against the longtime rule of the Assads deteriorated into protracted civil war. Here's a look at the elements that have deepened Syria's tragedy.

Twelve years after protesters in Syria first demonstrated against the four-decade rule of the Assad family, hundreds of thousands of Syrians have been killed and nearly thirteen million people-more than half the country's prewar population-have been displaced. Today, the country is fractured by actors with apparently irreconcilable interests: in areas beyond the regime's control, extremists promoting a Sunni Muslim theocracy have eclipsed opposition forces fighting for a democratic and pluralistic Syria, while regional powers have backed various local forces to advance their geopolitical interests on Syria's battlefields.

The United States was at the forefront of a coalition conducting air strikes on the self-proclaimed Islamic State, but it abruptly pulled back some of its forces in 2019 ahead of an invasion of northern Syria by Turkey, a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ally. Since then, the Turkish military has pushed Kurdish forces, the United States' main local partner in the fight against the Islamic State, from border areas. Russia, too, has carried out air strikes in Syria, coming to the Assad regime's defense. Iranian forces and their Hezbollah allies have done the same on the ground, inadvertently making themselves the targets of strikes by Iran's enemy Israel.

The war whose brutality once dominated headlines has settled into an uncomfortable stalemate. Hopes for regime change have largely died out, peace talks have been fruitless, and some regional governments are reconsidering their opposition to engaging with Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad. The government has regained control of most of the country, and Assad's hold on power seems secure. Meanwhile, the Syrian people are suffering an economic crisis, and a massive earthquake at the start of 2023 cast much of the population in the north into further despair.

Despite a UN Security Council resolution in 2014 aimed at securing humanitarian aid routes, aid became politicized as Assad would grant UN convoys permission to distribute food and medicine in government-held areas while denying them access to rebel-held areas, and rights advocates charged the regime with targeting medical facilities and personnel [PDF]. In 2020, Syria's ally Russia used its veto at the Security Council to allow UN aid deliveries to the rebel-held north through only one border crossing, down from four the previous year.

Opposition forces, too, have had foreign backers. For several years, the United States covertly trained and armed rebel fighters. France and the United Kingdom have provided logistical and military support. Additionally, the short-lived rapprochement by Qatar and Saudi Arabia in 2015 enabled the formation of the Army of Conquest, which comprised an array of opposition and extremist groups but effectively disbanded after several years.

UN-backed attempts to mediate a conflict-ending political transition in Syria have been stymied by differences among veto-wielding permanent members of the UN Security Council and other powers. Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey aligned with the United States against the Assad regime, while Iran joined Russia in backing it. Russia and China have cast multiple vetoes on Syria-related Security Council resolutions, and the threat of veto has deterred or watered down humanitarian and human rights measures, reinforcing a view of the council as toothless. A June 2012 multilateral document known as the Geneva Communiqué became the basis for one set of negotiations. It calls for "a Syrian-led political process," beginning with the establishment of a transitional governing body "formed on the basis of mutual consent." But multiple rounds of peace talks to implement these principles have yielded little. A core issue is Assad himself: he has no interest in negotiating his own political demise and retains Russia's and Iran's backing, while the possibility of Assad staying on in a transition is anathema to the opposition.

Because prospects for a negotiated settlement are dim, the United States has focused on counterterrorism activities while calling for de-escalation. Meanwhile, Iran, Russia, and Turkey have taken the diplomatic initiative, sidelining the UN-led process and excluding the United States. But though they have agreed in principle on maintaining Syria's territorial integrity and achieving a "lasting cease-fire," their agreements to work through their respective local allies to de-escalate the conflict have come to naught.

More than half of Syria's prewar population of twenty-two million has been displaced by the violence, with almost seven million people displaced internally and nearly the same amount having fled abroad. Neighboring countries have borne the heaviest burden: Lebanon, a country of just over five million people, is hosting eight hundred thousand Syrians, and Jordan, with more than half a million Syrians, for years blocked would-be refugees from crossing the border. Turkey is host to more than three million Syrians, straining government resources. With limited work and educational opportunities, and little hope that they will soon be able to return safely home, more than one million asylum seekers and refugees have journeyed to Europe, contributing to what the United Nations called the largest migrant and refugee crisis since World War II.

Disputes over how to settle refugees across the European Union (EU) have posed a severe challenge to the bloc, threatening to bring an end to the Schengen system of open borders on the continent and contributing to the rise of anti-immigrant, far-right parties. The EU struck an agreement with Turkey to block refugees' northward migration in 2016, but since then, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has periodically threatened to permit hundreds of thousands of migrants to cross into Europe.

The Turkish incursion drew international condemnation. The United States sanctioned top Turkish officials and threatened to raise tariffs on steel, but a brief cease-fire led Trump to lift the sanctions after one week, and the tariffs ultimately remained unchanged. Erdogan says his troops will not back down until they establish a twenty-mile-deep buffer zone in Syria for returned refugees.

With the assistance of their foreign backers, Assad's forces besieged and bombarded the rebels' final redoubts in Syria's northwest in late 2019, imperiling hundreds of thousands of civilians. By December, the regime and its allies advanced into Idlib, where Russia-backed forces launched a devastating air campaign and clashes resumed between the regime and Turkish forces seeking to protect their opposition posts in the area. A cease-fire agreement signed by Ankara and Moscow in January quickly collapsed as regime forces captured cities along the strategically significant M5 highway, which connects Damascus and Aleppo.

Hostilities between the regime and the Turks intensified in February 2020, when Syrian government forces killed Turkish troops in direct combat for the first time, spurring Turkey to retaliate with strikes against dozens of regime targets. The fighting endangered Idlib's population, which ballooned to three million as government authorities offered rebel fighters and civilians the choice of surrendering-risking conscription or arrest-or being bused north to the province. The heightened violence resulted in the war's largest mass displacement to date, with some nine hundred thousand people forced from their homes A March 2020 cease-fire agreement between Moscow and Ankara has largely quelled the fighting, despite violations on both sides.

Meanwhile, the Islamic State increased its attacks [PDF] in Syria's northeast soon after the U.S. killing of the group's leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, in October 2019. Despite the troop drawdown announced in October, some five hundred American soldiers remain in eastern Syria to prevent the Islamic State from accessing the region's oil fields.

A decade after the uprising that sparked the war, Syria was still mired in low-level conflict, political instability, and economic turmoil. The 2020 cease-fire stemmed violence in the Turkey-controlled northwest, while the regime maintained control of most of the rest of the country with help from Russia and Iran. At the same time, Israel increasingly began bombing targets in Syria said to belong to Iran-linked militias, including Hezbollah. A U.S. air strike targeted an Iraq-based militia in Syria just weeks after the inauguration of President Joe Biden in 2021.

While the violence has waned, civilians are now suffering an economic crisis. More than 90 percent of the population lives in poverty. Syrians have been the main victims of international sanctions, including the U.S. Caesar Act, which is meant to pressure the regime to reform but appears to have little effect on Assad.

Diplomacy also has yet to sway Assad's government. A UN-facilitated constitution-drafting committee that was formed in 2019 brought together 150 representatives of civil society, the regime, and the opposition. But the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic stalled talks for months, and the committee quickly reached an impasse. While the UN-led talks founder, the rival process led by Iran, Russia, and Turkey is no closer to resolving Syria's political crisis. Further complicating the diplomatic field, Qatar, Russia, and Turkey began another track of negotiations on Syria's peace process in March 2021.

Even nature has refused to spare Syria-a 7.8-magnitude earthquake rocked the country's north in February 2023. In the first week after the disaster, more than three thousand were confirmed dead in Syria and over twenty-nine thousand in Turkey. The quake leveled thousands of buildings in Syria alone, and the United Nations estimated that at least eleven thousand Syrians lost their homes. Already, nearly two million people had lived in camps or other areas with poor access to water, heat, and protection from the elements. Much of the area constituted the last rebel-held territory in Syria, and it was tragically ill-equipped for a natural disaster; not even half the country's prewar health facilities remained in operation.

Affected areas under government control appeared best prepared to cope with the earthquake, with aid immediately flowing in from longtime regime allies including Iran and Russia, as well as from others such as Egypt, India, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates. State media reported that the government would direct some of that aid to opposition-held areas hit hardest by the quake, with assistance from international agencies. Some four million people in the mainly rebel-held northwest depend on humanitarian aid to survive, but the United Nations reported that the tremor threatened to overwhelm its response capabilities. Winter weather and equipment shortages bogged down rescue and relief efforts directly after the disaster, which also damaged the sole remaining UN-authorized border crossing to the region from Turkey. With former al-Qaeda affiliate Hayat Tahrir al-Sham in control of the city of Idlib, international sanctions against the Islamist group also hampered the delivery of assistance there.

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The civil uprising against the longtime rule of the Assads deteriorated into protracted civil war. Here's a look at the elements that have deepened Syria's tragedy.

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt (2018)

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt (2018)

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt impacted united states, us citizens became more aware of how social media platforms collect and use personal data. it impacted united kingdom too, the scandal increased public concern about how personal data is handled. many countries now have privacy laws that mimic GDPR. people now demand more control over their personal data.

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Cambridge Analytica goes bankrupt (2018)

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https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Revolution

and google

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Date:

November 6, 1917 - November 7, 1917 October 24, 1917 - October 25, 1917(Anniversary in 3 days)

What caused the Russian Revolution of 1917?

Why is it called the October Revolution if it took place in November?

How did the revolution lead to the Russian Civil War?

What happened to the tsar and his family?

Russian Revolution, also called Russian Revolution of 1917, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power.
(Read Leon Trotsky's 1926 Britannica essay on Lenin.)

World War I and the decline of the Russian Empire

Centuries of virtually unchecked Russian expansion in Asia ended with an embarrassing defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). This military reverse shattered Russia's dreams of establishing hegemony over the whole of Asia, but it also contributed to a wave of domestic unrest. The Revolution of 1905 compelled Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, which ostensibly transformed Russia from an unlimited autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. The tsar's reactionary policies, including the occasional dissolution of the Duma, or Russian parliament, the chief fruit of the 1905 revolution, had spread dissatisfaction even to moderate elements of the nobility. The Russian Empire 's many ethnic minorities grew increasingly restive under Russian domination.

Despite some reforms that followed the Russo-Japanese War, the Russian army in 1914 was ill-equipped to fight a major war, and neither the political nor the military leadership was up to the standard required. Nevertheless the army fought bravely in World War I, and both soldiers and junior officers showed remarkable qualities. The Russian invasion of East Prussia in August 1914 was defeated by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff at Tannenberg, but it required the Germans to send reinforcements from the Western Front and so saved France from defeat and made possible the victory on the Marne. The campaigns of 1915 and 1916 on the Eastern Front brought terrible casualties to the Russian forces, which at times did not even have sufficient rifles. As late as July 1916, however, the Russian army was capable of making a successful offensive under Gen. Aleksey Brusilov in Volhynia and Bukovina.

Plots and Revolutions Quiz

The Russian people did not respond to the war with real enthusiasm. The government could not overcome its traditional distrust of any public initiative, even in the organization of medical supplies or munitions for the forces at the front. In the Fourth Duma a majority of the centre and moderate right formed a Progressive bloc and proposed the creation of a national coalition government "possessing the confidence of the country" and a program of reforms which could be carried out even in wartime. The emperor rejected the proposal and prorogued the Duma on September 3 (September 16, New Style), 1915. Eleven days earlier Nicholas had decided to assume personal command of the armies in the field. The result was that in Petrograd (as the capital had been renamed at the beginning of the war, in place of the German-sounding St. Petersburg) the empress Alexandra was in fact in control. She herself was under the influence of the self-styled "holy man" Grigori Rasputin, whose hold over her was because of his ability to arrest the bleeding of the hemophiliac tsarevich, Alexis. Thus to the massive casualties at the front, the retreat of the armies, and the growing economic hardships was added the knowledge, widespread in the capital and among the upper classes, that the government was in the hands of incompetents. Rumours of treason in high places were widely believed, though the historical evidence does not suggest that they were true. On the night of December 16-17 (December 29-30, New Style), 1916, Rasputin was murdered by a group of conservative nobles, but by then the system was beyond salvation. There was no hand at the helm, and the ship was drifting onto the rocks.

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Russian Revolution | Definition, Causes, Summary, History, & Facts

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Russian Revolution, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union. Learn more about the Russian Revolution in this article.