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For your assigned cultural tradition, please add posts to its column that address the guiding questions below. In your posts for this culture, please investigate and answer the following aspects. Your posts can include text, images of representative artworks, links to videos, and sources. Put your name in the initial post.

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What is the central philosophical or spiritual concept that defines this culture's approach to art? Explain what it means.

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What is the primary function of art in this tradition? Is it for aesthetic beauty, spiritual connection, healing, storytelling, or something else?

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What is the role of the artist? Are they seen as an individual genius or a community member preserving tradition?

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What are the main characteristics of the art (e.g., use of symbols, specific materials, abstraction vs. realism)?

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How does this culture's definition of art challenge the Western theories we've studied (Representation, Formalism, Expressionism, Institutionalism)?

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In Navajo culture, art function is a spiritual practice used for healing, maintaining balance (hozho - harmony, well-being and peace). It is used as a tool for connecting with the natural world, ancestors, and the Holy People. Art is deeply connected with rituals and ceremonies, for example as jewelry-making, which help with keeping harmony and telling important cultural stories. In Navajo, beauty of art does not necessary be shown through it appearance, it is shown through spiritual meaning, healing power, part in their cultural traditions.

references:

https://discovernavajo.com/navajo-arts/

https://omeka.reclaim.stkate.edu/exhibits/show/s

wp/storytellers/navajo

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Approach to art - There is no "arts" in our basic perception, for Aztec it was the way, to connect them to the god and touch the border to the other reality, showing the mastery and ability to use skill given by gods

http://rubens.anu.edu.au/raid1/student_projects97/aztec/AArtSculpture.html/Art1a.html

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Margarita Camarena The symbol of The Toltecayotl

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Wabi-sabi originates from Japanese aesthetics and philosophy, especially Zen Buddhism. The essence of the concept is the acceptance of impermanence and imperfection, and the understanding of beauty through modesty and simplicity. In wabi-sabi aesthetics, objects with slight defects or used objects, even those with cracks, are often valued if they have history and patina, because this emphasizes the past, time, and context. Wabi and Sabi are often separated: Wabi is an internal quality: modesty, state of mind; Sabi is external signs of time: aging, wear and tear, simplicity.

https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/wabi-sabi

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-aesthetics/

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The aim was to visualise ability to use god-given skills that were given to the survivors

http://rubens.anu.edu.au/raid1/student_projects97/aztec/AArtSculpture.html/Art1a.html

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Aztec Art and Religion.

"The Aztecs did not have a term for art as such. In fact they had no notion of art for art's sake. Artists, though well regarded as a class were subordinate to the priest and were given little scope for creative imagination. Their skills were bent in glorifying the gods and the rulers and in communicating religious ideas by visual means to a largely illiterate populace. Thus as with all other aspects of Aztec culture, art was governed by religion, and indeed it played a very important part in religious life."
(Baquedano 1984:20)

Aztec art included metalwork, jewellery, textiles and featherwork, and paintings and sculptures found in the temples and palaces. However, not all such art work has survived; textiles and featherwork have naturally perished; the paintwork on the sculptures has deteriorated and precious and valuable art, such as the metalwork and jewellery has been either lost, raided, or stolen. Further,in their effort to obliterate Aztec religion, the Spanish also destroyed much Aztec Art.

However, while they greatly admired and appreciated art, jewellery and the craftsmanship involved in producing these artworks, in most cases it was not the Aztecs themselves who were responsible. The Aztecs employed foreign artisans; Mixtec craftsmen are supposedly responsible for the exquisite gold and lapidary work:

These god-given skills (supposedly taught to men by Quetzalcoatl), were thought to have been preserved by survivors of the Toltec culture, and in fact the term Tolteca referred collectively to goldsmiths, lapidaries and those skilled in featherwork. The skills of these craftsmen were largely exercised in the production of luxury items of jewellery and ornament for the upper classes, as well as in making objects to decorate statues in the temples. Gold and silver was used for jewellery and trinkets, and the magnificient feathers of tropical birds were used for making head-dresses, costumes and capes, and for decorating shields, helmets and so on, worn by those of high rank and used for ritual purposes. A wide range of articles, from ear-plugs to sculpture, was produced by the lapidaries working with precious gemstones."
(Baquedano 1984:21)

The most precious gemstone was jade, while green stones such as jadeite, turquoise and cornelian were also prized. Jade was known as chalchiuitl (Nahuatl for 'precious stone'), and the importance and value of which is exemplified in the myth that the house of Quetzalcoatl was completely covered in jade. Further;

"[T]he Ancient Mexicans considered it even more precious than gold, and Moctezuma's words when making a presentation of jade to Cortes are very revealing:'I will give you some very valuable stones which you will send to him (Charles V, King of Spain) in my name; they are chalchiuitls and are not to be iven to any one else but to him, your great Prince. Each stone is worth two loads of gold."
(Baquedano 1984:22)

Further, the Spanish were able to record their impressions of aztec art and as such are beneficial in recreating and realising the skill involved in making such objects:

The lapidary is well-reared, well advised; a councelor, informed in his art; an abrader, a polisher; one who works with abrasive sand, rubs stones with fine cane and, makes them shine. He makes them shine.
The good lapidary is a creator of works of skill. He is adroit, a designer of works of skill, a gluer of mosiacs of stone. They are glued. He creates, he designs works of skill. He grinds down, he polishes, he applies abrasive sand to stones, cuts them into triangles, forms designs of them.

(Baquedano 1984:22)

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Aztec Art and Religion. "The Aztecs did not have a term for art as such. In fact they had no notion of art for art's sake. Artists, though well regarded as a class were subordinate to the priest and were given little scope for creative imagination.

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The central concept underlying Polynesian art is the relationship between mana, which is a sacred spiritual power and tapu - sacred restriction or taboo. These two are interlinked: mana is the energy or supernatural force possessed by people, objects, or places, and tapu are the rules or prohibitions meant to protect mana or prevent its misuse. Such art as carvings, tattoos, dances, and chants is not understood simply as decoration but more as a vessel through which mana flows and is preserved. To create, perform, or wear art is to participate in a cosmological system where humans, nature, and gods are interconnected. So Polynesian art is not “art for art’s sake,” but art as living power.

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Classical Indian art is built on Rasa ("juice, essence or taste”) - the idea that art's purpose is to evoke a universal emotions in the audience.

This type of art is not telling a story literally, but uses specific tools (like music, expression, and words) to create a dominant emotion or mood - like love, heroism, peace, or fury. It lets the audience temporarily “leave” their own reality and feel this pure emotional essence, achieving a state of bliss (ānandarasa). Art is a vehicle for spiritual experience, not just decoration.

https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/anandarasa

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)

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Central philosophical concept behind Islamic art is Tawhid

Tawhid: the fundamental Islamic concept of the absolute oneness of God (Allah), meaning God is indivisibly one, unique, and has no equal or partners.

Islamic Art is not about imitating the material world but about reflecting God’s unity, harmony, and infinity. This is why geometry, symmetry, and repetition is central:they point to reality beyond the visible

In this worldview, creating lifelike images of living beings is often discouraged because it might rival divine creation. Instead, art serves as a visual meditation on God’s perfection.

https://ziyadtheartnerd.wordpress.com/2018/05/21/78/#:~:text=Oneness%20of%20God%20%26%20Unity,with%20smaller%20shapes%20surrounding%20it.

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The central philosophy of Navajo art is mainly connected with hozhó, the translation to english is well-being beating and harmony. it implies a deep connection between people and the land

references:

https://sacredecology.com/projects/navajo-nation

https://theojac.org/blog/2020/11/23/an-art-of-healing-navajo-sandpainting

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The role was the same as missionary, to provide the meaning of life, guidance, help to observe something, that people cannot see without hospital art, connect to god and space

According to ChatGpt, with prompt Toltecayotl what is the role of the artist.

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The primary purpose of art lies not in mere aesthetic pleasure but in ritual and communal connection. Tattooing, carving, dance, and chant serve to strengthen bonds with ancestors, gods, and the natural world. Art also functions as storytelling, since it preserves genealogies and myths through visual motifs and oral performance. Art can as well serve protective or healing roles - objects, tattoos or chants channel mana to shield or heal individuals and communities.

Although beauty often appears, it is never the main aim. Maintaining a balance between the physical and spiritual realms is paramount.

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The art of the Islamic world reflects its cultural values, and reveals the way Muslims view the spiritual realm and the universe

For the Muslim, reality begins with and centers on Allah.

Allah is at the heart of worship and aspirations for Muslims, and is the focus of their lives.

So Islamic art focuses on the spiritualrepresentation of objects and beings, and not their physical qualities

The purpose of Islamic art is spiritual connection. Rather than existing for decoration, it creates an environment that draws the believer toward remembrance of God (dhikr).

https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/art_1.shtml#:~:text=The%20idea%20is%20that%20as,things%20of%20everyday%20life%20beautiful.

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Artists are not celebrated as individual geniuses, but honored as custodians of sacred knowledge and community ritual.

Tattooists, carvers, dancers and chanters are specialists who undergo years of training - often hereditary - to master the spiritual and technical intricacies of their craft. Their responsibility is to preserve tradition, adhere to ritual protocol, and ensure that mana is properly embodied through their work. There is room for creativity, but it is always exercised within cultural and spiritual boundaries, with the value of the artist seen in sustaining continuity across generations rather than personal expression.

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Core Philosophy

The central concept of Yoruba art is Àṣẹ, the divine life energy breathed into creation and communicated by Olódùmarè, the Almighty. Àṣẹ resonates through deities, ancestors, and all living beings, and Yoruba art is important because it has the power to capture and express this force. Yoruba art is not about beauty or imitation, as proposed by some aspects of Western European thought, but about how effectively it can summon and communicate this spiritual power.

The Purpose of Art

The purpose of Yoruba art is, above all, community connection to the divine through spirit. Masks provide an avenue for ancestors to animate and participate in community masquerades, shrines and figures invite deities, while textiles or drums support ritual practice. While Yoruba art also communicates stories and wisdom, it is not primarily for entertainment or decoration. Its purpose lies in connecting the divine world to the lived world.

The Artist’s Role

Rather than being viewed as singular geniuses in the Western sense, Yoruba artists work within their communities, often trained through guilds or family traditions. The value of their work is not determined by originality, but by the efficacy of its use in ritual. Yoruba art carries an assumed responsibility to preserve traditions, and artists have the duty to ensure that the object serves its functional and spiritual purpose.

Key Characteristics

Yoruba art is characterized by balance, proportion, and symbolism. For example, the heads of sculptures are often enlarged to signify the inner or spiritual self (òrí). Materials are used for their assumed power: wood, bronze, beads, and textiles are considered carriers of spirit. Figures are generally stylized to emphasize moral and spiritual meaning rather than exact realistic likeness. Many works are “activated” - that is, they channel divine energy, only during ritual use. Masks, for example, only come alive when performed.

Challenging Western Concepts

Yoruba art challenges Western art theories by focusing on spiritual function over representation or form. It does not fit representation theory, since accuracy matters less than the effectiveness of its spiritual impact. It also rejects formalism, because form is not pursued for aesthetic purity but for channeling Àṣẹ. Yoruba art is not primarily concerned with personal expressiveness, which contrasts with expressionism, where the artist’s emotions are central. Finally, Yoruba art resists institutionalism, since recognition by museums or critics has little impact compared to its ritual life as an artwork.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/yoruba-art-and-language/ase/DA20ADAE93A1D28B66AE4885D2C91AFE

https://www.historyofcreativity.com/mid122/yoruba-art

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/yoruba-art-and-language/yoruba-aesthetics/4880B7663B3B8330976F379FD80774DE

https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/cubism

https://www.theartstory.org/artist/braque-georges/

https://news.masterworksfineart.com/2025/07/01/georges-braque-pablo-picasso

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It is distinguished by strong symbolism, abstraction, and rhythmic repetition. Its motifs often include geometric patterns, spirals, waves, birds, sharks and other natural forms, each carrying spiritual meaning. Materials are drawn from the natural environment, such as wood, stone, shells, feathers, bark cloth - and the human body itself becomes a sacred canvas through tattooing. Performative arts (dance, chants) combine movement, gesture, and sound in ways that are as important as the visual. There is frequently no boundary between art and function - for example, carved canoe prows, carved meeting houses, masks, garments, and tattooed bodies are simultaneously utilitarian, beautiful, and sacred.

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In traditional Japanese aesthetics, through wabi-sabi, art and objects serve as a means of contemplation and spiritual experience, rather than mere decoration. Focusing on the breath of nature, on the passage of time; art is often created to stimulate mindfulness, humility, and acceptance.

The goal is also ethical and spiritual: through material things, it serves as a reminder of transience, seasonality, impermanence, and that everything changes. This helps us live more consciously and be grateful for simple things.

https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/b02355/

https://twatanabe.faculty.wesleyan.edu/the-philosophy-of-wabi-sabi-by-quentin-rollet-2021/

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Usually artist relay on traditions with a little mix of their own creativity. Meaning they create unique art with parts of their culture. Precisely the artist responsibility is to express personally while still valuing and honoring traditions.

references:

https://albiongould.com/a-brief-history-of-navajo-arts-and-crafts/

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The core philosophical notion is "harmony of man and nature" (Tian Ren He Yi), which has its roots in Taoism and Confucianism. Art, particularly landscape painting, expresses the spiritual resonance and connectivity between humans and the natural world. This notion emphasizes that the artist's state of mind and the viewer's perception should be in balance with the "spirit" or "Qi" of nature, which is conveyed through metaphorical mountains, water, and blank space.

Emotion and scene are essential components of imaging and aesthetic idea, and their combination serves as the foundation for both. Each image in traditional Chinese paintings (such as mountains, trees, water, boats, birds, and so on) is inspired by a specific scene and represents the artist's deep emotions. The artwork transforms into an artistic world where emotions and scenes blend, producing a cohesive aesthetic concept.

Source:

Aesthetic conceptions and cultural symbols in traditional Chinese painting:

https://www.scielo.br/j/trans/a/8nGty4ggNZLKddpqzgG8bPj/?format=html&lang=en

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In Islamic traditions, the artist is not viewed as an isolated genius but as a person who serves tradition and faith.

Their task is to transmit the spiritual truths embedded in sacred geometry, calligraphy, and ornament.

An artist’s skill lies in their mastery of craft and their ability to harmonize human creativity with divine order, not in personal self-expression

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In the classical Indian tradition defined by Rasa, the primary function of art is spiritual connection.

Art is designed to be a vehicle for transcendence. By influencing specific emotions (the Rasas), a work of art allows both the artist and the audience to temporarily escape this reality.

The viewer becomes a "feeling-hearted connoisseur" (sahṛdaya) who tastes these universal emotional essences. This experience leads to a state of “ānandarasa” and slight spiritual liberation (mokṣa).

https://renaissance.aurosociety.org/the-spiritual-roots-of-art-in-india/

https://www.wisdomlib.org/history/compilation/triveni-journal/d/doc73710.html

https://www.prekshaa.in/indian-art-and-moksha

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Uses symbols which represent nature, spirituality, and beliefs.

Made from materials like wool, silver, clay, and natural dyes.

Includes bold geometric patterns .

More abstract than realistic

Strong connection to spiritual and ceremonial traditions

references:

https://albiongould.com/a-brief-history-of-navajo-arts-and-crafts/

https://theojac.org/blog/2020/11/23/an-art-of-healing-navajo-sandpainting

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Polynesian art challenges many Western art theories by refusing to separate form from function, or aesthetic from spiritual. Under s.c. representation theory, Western views often treat artworks as depicting or symbolizing something; in many Polynesian contexts, however, carvings of gods, ancestors or sacred figures are believed to embody those entities, not merely represent them.

- Formalism, which focuses on visual characteristics (shape, color, line), is insufficient because the meaning of Polynesian art depends vitally on its ritual, spiritual, and contextual dimensions.

- Expressionism - which emphasizes individual emotion or artistic self-expression - stands in contrast with Polynesian art’s focus on collective identity, lineage, and cosmic harmony.

- Institutionalism, which defines art by its position in museums, galleries or western art institutions, is problematic because in Polynesian traditions art was embedded in all aspects of life - daily rituals, social structure, governance, religion - rather than being isolated in institutions.

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Mainly, arts were produced from luxury items, like gold, silver, cornelian, turquoise, jadeite. Also, some items with religion and ritual purpose, like magnificent feathers of tropical birds.

Mainly it was trinkets, jewelry, ornaments, armor (helmets, chestplates, costumes). Showing the beauty, status and importance of the god

http://rubens.anu.edu.au/raid1/student_projects97/aztec/AArtSculpture.html/Art1a.html

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Mainly Aztec art and toltecayotl show that the main aspects are meaning, usage of important and rare materials and perfect work without a right to 2nd chance to complete, showing skills given by gods. So it should have form, show emotions, it is always accepted by others, because it is from priest/master. It shows the imitation of the god guidance, some real world items like part of the armor or costume.

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Без названия

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The central philosophical concept is The Dreaming (Dreamtime), known in many Aboriginal languages as Jukurrpa. It refers to the ancestral time of creation when spiritual beings shaped the land, its features, animals, plants, and laws. The Dreaming is not just in the past, it is timeless and ongoing, existing in the present and guiding the future.

In art, this philosophy means that the land itself is sacred knowledge and that artistic expression is a way to map and maintain the spiritual, moral, and ecological laws handed down by ancestors.

Reference: https://www.aboriginal-art-australia.com/aboriginal-art-library/understanding-aboriginal-dreaming-and-the-dreamtime/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Image: ancestral figure style art, which is symbolic of ancestral beings in The Dreaming.

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In the Aboriginal tradition, art is not primarily about aesthetics but about knowledge transmission. It preserves and communicates Dreaming stories, accounts of ancestral beings, the creation of the land, and spiritual laws. Art functions as a way of knowing that blends storytelling, spirituality, and identity.

Unlike Western traditions where art is often valued for beauty or self-expression, here art is epistemic: it safeguards sacred knowledge and connects people to land.

Reference: https://japingkaaboriginalart.com/aboriginal-dreamtime-stories/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Image: shows symbolic motifs, dots, and traditional design that help to tell Dreaming stories.

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The central spiritual concept that defines Inuit art is the idea of interconnectedness between humans, animals, and the spirit world, often mediated by shamans

Because of the primitive nature of the societies which practiced it, shamanism was based on fear, specifically fear of the unknown such as the weather

The assumption was that everything, both animate and inanimate, was imbued with a spirit. The shaman had the ability to get in touch with these spirits (e.g., the polar bear) and use them to help heal the sick, provide food, etc.

https://inuitartsociety.org/meetings/2009summary/lorne-balshine-shamanism/

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Shamanism in Inuit Art – Inuit Art Society

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Shamanism dates back some 14,000 years. It originated in Siberia and was based on hunting/gathering societies. It was actively practiced until the mid-20th century when it was banned during the 1950’s and 1960’s by missionaries who attempted to convert the Inuit to Christianity.

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Geometry & Symmetry: Repetition of patterns symbolizes infinity and divine unity.

Calligraphy: The written word of God (Qur’an) is the highest art form; Arabic script is stylized into decoration.

Arabesque & Floral Motifs: Flowing, interlacing designs symbolize the eternal unfolding of creation.

Integration with Architecture: Mosques, palaces, and gardens are artworks in themselves, designed as spaces of harmony and spiritual reflection.

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What is the primary function of art in this tradition? Is it for aesthetic beauty, spiritual connection, healing, storytelling, or something else?

The primary function of Inuit art in the shamanic tradition is spiritual connection and survival. Carvings, masks, and drawings were used in rituals to communicate with spirits, seek healing, and ensure hunting success

Depictions of the human-animal connection and of ritualistic transformations became sought-after subject matter in Inuit carvings, prints, and textiles.

https://www.wildlifeart.org/exhibits/transformations-wildlife-in-inuit-art-and-culture#:~:text=Creating%20art%20was%20a%20way,animals%20played%20a%20pivotal%20role.

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Transformations: Wildlife in Inuit Art and Culture - National Museum of Wildlife Art

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Through cultural stories, Transformations seeks to explore Inuit history, values, and beliefs. The exhibit is comprised of works from the permanent collection and items on loan from private collections. The hope, as it is with all exhibits, is that visitors take away a deeper appreciation of the artwork and perhaps are introduced to something that they did not know before. Most importantly, we want to bring attention to the fact that today Inuit artists are producing powerful artworks that reference histories and that, at the same time, confront contemporary issues such as conservation and environmental concerns.

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In Inuit shamanism, the artist is not seen as an isolated genius, but as a community mediator. Artists often worked within oral traditions, preserving myths and spiritual practices. Many were shamans themselves, using art as a tool for healing or invoking spirits

Kenojuak Ashevak became one of the first Inuit women in Cape Dorset to begin drawing. She is celebrated as a leading figure of modern Inuit Art and one of Canada's preeminent artists and cultural icons.

Kenojuak mainly painted animals in fantastical, brightly-colored aspects, but also painted landscapes and scenes of everyday life, in a desire to make them beautiful by her own standards, and convey a spirit of happiness and positivity.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenojuak_Ashevak

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Kenojuak Ashevak, CC ONu RCA (Inuktitut: ᕿᓐᓄᐊᔪᐊᖅ ᐋᓯᕙᒃ, Qinnuajuaq Aasivak) was a Canadian Inuk artist. She was born on October 3, 1927 at Camp Kerrasak on southern Baffin Island, and died on January 8, 2013 in Cape Dorset, Nunavut. Known primarily for her drawings as a graphic artist, she had a diverse artistic experience, making sculpture and engraving and working with textiles and also on stained glass. She is celebrated[3] as a leading figure of modern Inuit art and one of Canada’s preeminent artists and cultural icons.[4]

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The artist is not just an “individual genius” (a common Western perspective) but a custodian of cultural knowledge. They are accountable to their community and ancestors, with strict rules about who has the right to paint which Dreaming stories.

Reference: https://creativenative.com.au/blogs/blog/understanding-the-cultural-significance-of-aboriginal-art?srsltid=AfmBOoqmsFtGqrz08m7hpsxSm-uC1yM2Vq6_1uGR6BL_B4fJXcMDrrss&utm_source=chatgpt.com

Image: shows a known Dreaming narrative (‘Seven Sisters’), painted by Aboriginal artists, indicating both community responsibility and artist’s link to country and story.

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The main characteristics of Inuit art include such characteristics:

Materials: Inuit artists traditionally used local resources such as bone, ivory, stone, and antler to make carvings and other works.

Sculpture: Carving is one of the most recognized forms, often depicting animals like seals, bears, and birds, as well as figures connected to spiritual life.

Printmaking: In the 20th century, Inuit art became known internationally through stonecut and stencil prints produced in communities like Cape Dorset.

Themes: Many works focus on Arctic wildlife, everyday life, and mythology, showing the close connection between the people, their environment, and their beliefs.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_art

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Navajo art is different from Western ideas in the way that it focuses primarily on symbols and meaning instead of realistic pictures. Western Art is usually portrayed in museums, art galleries and etc., where Navajo art is often part of daily life. It shows how art can be about tradition and spirit, not just personal feelings or looks.

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The artist is primarily seen as a skilled vessel for tradition and spiritual expression.

Their primary role is to preserve and interpret a sacred tradition. The forms, techniques, and emotional codes (the theory of Rasa) are already established by ancient wisdom, such as the Nāṭya Śāstra. The artist must follow these rules.

However, they are not just copying. Artist use their devotion to bring those traditions to life. They act as a conduit to create universal emotions (Rasa) and guide the audience to a spiritual experience.

https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/icp04/chapter/the-rasa-theory-of-bharata/

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)

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Symbols as epistemic tools: circles, tracks, and U shapes carry meaning beyond their form.

Abstraction vs realism: art represents spiritual landscapes rather than naturalistic ones.

Restricted knowledge: some meanings are only accessible to initiated members, art encodes layers of public and secret knowledge.

Materials: ochre, bark, rock, sand, and in contemporary times acrylics, linking knowledge to land.

Reference: https://www.kateowengallery.com/page/10-Facts-About-Aboriginal-Art?srsltid=AfmBOooHdjy_j942rG5WYfUS616WbpqVw4CijEsijYKJNV-5SQ4PAbdX&utm_source=chatgpt.com

Image: emphasises symbolwic lines, circles, traditional iconography, showing how meaning is embedded in form.

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The aesthetics of wabi-sabi challenge Western notions of art. For example, representation theory often values precision and perfection of form, whereas wabi-sabi seeks beauty in imperfection and asymmetry. Unlike formalism, where the focus is on line, color, and composition, the Japanese tradition emphasizes context the traces of time, aging, and the naturalness of materials. Compared to expressionism, where the expression of strong emotions is important, wabi-sabi offers a quiet, meditative aesthetic. Finally, unlike institutionalism, which defines art through museums and galleries, the Japanese tradition shows that beauty can be found in everyday things a simple ceramic bowl or a rock garden.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-aesthetics/

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Aboriginal art challenges Western art theories (representation, formalism, expressionism, institutionalism):

Representation: Art does not imitate appearances but maps spiritual knowledge.

Formalism: Form cannot be separated from meaning, symbols only work within cultural knowledge systems.

Expressionism: Focus is not on emotion or self, but on law, tradition, and collective identity.

Institutionalism: Art existed long before galleries it is “lived knowledge” embedded in ceremony and land.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreaming_%28Australian_Aboriginal_art%29?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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Representation: Western representation theory often values art that imitates reality. Inuit art, however, does not always aim for realistic likeness. A carving of a seal or a transformation mask does not replicate exact anatomy but instead represents spiritual essence and mythological significance.

Formalism: Formalist theory prioritizes line, shape, and form as the measure of artistic value. In Inuit traditions, form is secondary to purpose. A piece may appear abstract or simplified, but what matters is its spiritual efficacy. Whether it works as an amulet, mask, or ritual object.

Expressionism: In the Western sense, expressionism emphasizes the artist's personal emotions. Inuit art differs in that it expresses the community's collective relationship with animals, spirits, and survival. The artist functions less as an individual "genius" and more as a mediator of cultural and spiritual knowledge.

Institutionalism: Western institutional theory holds that something becomes art when validated by galleries or museums. Inuit art existed as art long before it entered galleries, valued instead for its ritual and spiritual power. Its meaning comes from the community, not from outside recognition.

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Expression of Dao: Landscape paintings are frequently viewed as portals into the infinite, embodying Taoist and Confucian concepts that emphasize humanity's interdependence with the natural world.

Harmony with nature: The art form promotes the merger of humanity and environment, allowing individuals to integrate into the landscape and get a better understanding of it.

Spiritual Pursuit: The paintings try to represent the desire of peace and spiritual exaltation, offering a method to discover an emotional and spiritual home in the landscape.

Emotional Evocation: Beyond surface appeal, the art aims to elicit specific emotions and impressions, creating a space for reflection, contemplation, and meditation.

Cultivated landscapes: The landscapes represented are not just reproductions of the exterior world, but nurtured landscapes embodying the artist's intellect and spirit.

Cultural and Philosophical Crystallisation: The art acts as a crystallization of communal wisdom, maintaining the spiritual essence of the universe through the transmission and innovation of traditional practices.

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Against Representation: Western art history often emphasized mimesis (representation of reality). Islamic art instead values abstraction and symbolism.

Beyond Formalism: While form is central (geometry, pattern), it is not valued for its own sake but as a gateway to spiritual truth.

Not Expressionism: The artist’s personal feelings are secondary to expressing divine order.

Beyond Institutionalism: Art is not confined to galleries or museums but integrated into everyday life—mosques, textiles, ceramics—blurring boundaries between “fine art” and “craft.”

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Tri Hita Karana — “three causes of well-being”: harmony with the divine, with other people, and with nature. It is derived from the Balinese Hinduism and beliefs, which promotes harmony among fellow human beings through communal cooperation and promoting compassion; harmony towards God, shown through numerous rituals and offerings to appease the Hindu deities; and harmony with their environment, which strive to conserve the nature and promote balance of the environment. It guides the way Balinese people approach the art as a whole-carvings of gods, demons, and sacred symbols, collective art-making, use of materials from nature, and the motifs of the art are all used to express at least on of said principles.

The seen and the unseen: Balinese art often features invisible spiritual forces. Art is used as a bridge between material and spiritual worlds. Dances and rituals are used together with wood carvings such as statues and masks, which is believed to imbue them with the spirits giving them a temporary body in the material world.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_Hita_Karana

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1. Symbolic, Not Realistic: Uses gestures (mudras), poses, and icons to express deeper meanings.

2. Designed to Evoke Emotion (Rasa): Every element aims to make the audience feel a specific spiritual mood.

3. Sacred Themes: Draws primarily from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain stories and gods.

4. Dynamic Forms: Figures are often in rhythmic, moving poses full of energy.

5. Intricate Detail: Heavy ornamentation reflects the belief that the divine is in everything.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)

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Classical Indian art (Rasa) challenges Western ideas by focusing on shared spiritual feeling instead of individual expression or realism.

· It uses symbols to show universal emotions, not to copy the real world.

· The artist's personal emotions don't matter. The goal is to make the audience feel a specific spiritual mood (Rasa).

· Beauty and form are important, but only as tools to create a spiritual experience, not for their own sake.

· Its value comes from ancient sacred texts and tradition, not from modern museums or critics.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)

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Mastery of Established Styles:

Many Chinese landscape artists, particularly the scholar-painters, dedicated their lives to reinterpreting and building upon the styles of past masters, demonstrating their command over established traditions.

Orthodox School:

The "Orthodox school" of artists, for example, specifically focused on imitating and incorporating earlier models, thus ensuring the continuity of stylistic traditions within Chinese art.

Cultural Transmission:

The act of painting itself, with its long and complex history, served as a way to transmit cultural memory and national sentiment.

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Chinese landscape painting focuses on capturing the spirit and emotions evoked by nature rather than realistic depictions of specific locations, employing ink and subtle watercolor on paper or silk, with an emphasis on balanced composition, symbolic elements such as mountains and flora, and the philosophical ideal of harmony between humans and nature. Key features include a bird's-eye viewpoint from several planes, the use of negative space to suggest a vast atmosphere, and integrated calligraphic brushstrokes that allow the observer to sense the artist's aliveness and intensity.

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Chinese landscape culture contests Western art ideas by reconceptualizing art as a spiritual-philosophical endeavor rather than mere depiction, form, expression, or institutional prestige. Landscapes show the true nature of things instead of copying them; brushwork shows moral and cosmic harmony instead of just form; and expression shows how well you align with the Dao instead of just your own feelings. Chinese art, unlike institutionalism, used painting, poetry, and calligraphy as a way to improve oneself, breaking down the lines between aesthetics, ethics, and philosophy in the West.

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Artworks are usually made from materials found in the environment: wood, stone, bamboo, palm leaves, coconut, rice, natural dyes, and flowers.

Much of Balinese art is performed rather than just displayed as music, dances, and puppetry.

Art is not made just for decoration. Masks, temple sculptures, dance costumes, and offerings all serve a spiritual function.

Most Balinese art is based on stories — from Hindu epics, local legends, or village myths. Paintings, carvings, dances, and puppetry are all used to retell these stories

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Artists are seen more as guardians of tradition and servants of the community and the divine. Their main task is not to show their personal feelings but to create works that fulfill ritual, social, and spiritual needs.Many Balinese artists come from families or villages with special skills, such as painting, woodcarving, dancing, or playing gamelan music. These skills are often passed down from generation to generation. Their role is to serve the gods, support the community, and keep traditions alive.

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Balinese art challenges Western ideas about what art is. In the West, art is often judged by how real it looks, by its formal beauty, by the personal feelings of the artist, or by museums that decide what counts as art. In Bali, the artist is not usually expected to express themselves as an individual. Instead, they work to serve the community, honor tradition, and create harmony with gods and spirits. Creativity is present, but it is guided by cultural and spiritual rules rather than personal feelings.