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“Hearing Assistive Technology - Hearing Loss Association of America.” Hearing Loss Association of America -, 31 Aug. 2023, www.hearingloss.org/find-help/hearing-assistive-technology/.

John Hopkins Medicine. “Types of Hearing Loss.” John Hopkins Medicine, 2020, www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/hearing-loss/types-of-hearing-loss.

“Mainstream vs. Inclusion.” Inclusive Education: Culturally Deaf, 30 Oct. 2012, deafculture3500.wordpress.com/mainstream-vs-inclusion/.

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Miner, Barbra. “Teachers, Culture, and Power.” Rethinking Schools, 18 June 2021, rethinkingschools.org/articles/teachers-must-confront-issues-of-culture-power/.

Schellenberg, Katie. “Teaching Advocacy in Your Classroom.” Edutopia, George Lucas Educational Foundation, 12 June 2015, www.edutopia.org/discussion/teaching-advocacy-your-classroom.

Will, Madeline, and Ileana Najarro. “What Is Culturally Responsive Teaching?” Education Week, Education Week, 9 June 2025, www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/culturally-responsive-teaching-culturally-responsive-pedagogy/2022/04.

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In Other People’s Children: Cultural Conflict in the Classroom, Lisa Delpit explores the cultural disconnect that predominantly white, mainstream educators face when working with students from marginalized communities and diverse backgrounds. She challenges the idea that progressive, process based educational approaches are not as universally beneficial as we hoped. She explains that even the most well-intentioned teaching methods can overlook the cultural norms and communication styles valued in the diverse student population. Instead, she introduces the idea of inclusive pedagogy to undermine systemic inequities. Delpit advocates for educators to become more aware of the "codes of power" that control academic success in order to reshape the experiences of marginalized students. She believes creating an environment where students' home cultures are respected and integrated into learning, will empower all students to succeed. Overall, she is encouraging educators to critically reflect on their own practices and biases to promote an inclusive classroom.

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In Teaching Multilingual Children, Virginia Collier emphasizes the importance of valuing students’ native languages and cultures in the classroom. Collier argues that an educational environment where English replaces a child’s first language harms academic growth and cultural identity. She presents research showing that a student’s first language can actually enhance second language acquisition and overall cognitive growth. By recognizing and supporting the linguistic diversity multilingual students bring to the classroom, mainstream educators can create inclusive classrooms where multilingualism is celebrated, not suppressed. Collier encourages strategies like incorporating students’ native languages into lessons, using culturally relevant content, and fostering a sense of belonging through family engagement. With this approach, students do not have to abandon their native languages; which can lead to poor academic performance and self-esteem. Instead, both languages are honored and nurtured, creating a sense of belonging and identity. Overall, teaching a bilingual classroom is an important factor in creating an inclusive and equitable education system.

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Both Collier and Delpit address the need for inclusive classrooms that respect and build upon students’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds, a concept crucial when considering DHH students in mainstream education. Delpit emphasizes the importance of recognizing and respecting the cultural and communication differences that marginalized students bring to the classroom. Similarly, Collier advocates for valuing multilingualism as a strength, emphasizing that language development in any form supports cognitive and academic growth.

For DHH students, an inclusive approach mirrors these ideas. Educators must recognize sign language, deaf culture and the diverse communication needs of these students, while also providing access to spoken or written language. Both Delpit and Collier stress that when educators embrace students' linguistic backgrounds, whether through sign language or bilingualism, they create an inclusive learning environment. These students will feel empowered, respected, and ultimately given equitable opportunities to succeed. This inclusive mindset is essential in breaking down barriers and ensuring that all students, including those who are DHH, are fully supported in their educational journey.

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Supporting Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students in the Classroom

This past summer, I was lucky enough to intern with an organization that highlights learner variability and supports educators in determining the most effective strategies to support their learners. After hosting two webinars about the variability within deaf students and intersectionality (check them out in Resources below), it became clear that educators were searching for information and resources on how to best serve their deaf and hard-of-hearing (HOH) students.

Over the last year, distance learning forced educators to completely reinvent lesson plans, contend with rushed technology roll-outs, and wrangle students' attention in each virtual class session. This often meant that accessibility was not at the forefront, impacting many students with disabilities, particularly deaf and HOH students who rely heavily on American Sign Language (ASL), listening devices, lip-reading, interpreters, or speech-to-text services in their mainstream programs. For these students, the loss of a daily schedule, interactions with their classmates, and activities-on top of having unique communication needs-had a measurable impact.

To help educators better support deaf and HOH students, especially in distance learning settings, I interviewed two teachers to understand their experiences, challenges, and successes and share their feedback:

Meredith Lipman, a hearing preschool teacher at the Atlanta Area School for the Deaf who received her B.S. in ASL-English Interpreting and her M.A. in Early Childhood/Deaf Education.

Jesse Thomas, a deaf teacher at the Model Secondary School for the Deaf in Washington, D.C., who holds a B.A. in History and an M.A. in Deaf Education. He teaches Current Events and World Geography to grades 9-12.

What does it take for educators to better support deaf and HOH students?

First, it's important to better understand deaf and HOH students themselves. Like all students, deaf and HOH students come from diverse backgrounds with different races, socioeconomic statuses, family dynamics, and personal experiences, and they all have unique learning needs. However, deaf and HOH students also present another unique aspect to their background: their language and communication needs. It is important to recognize that deaf and HOH students can demonstrate:

1 - Different types and ranges of hearing abilities

2 - Variable age of language acquisition

3 - Use of a range of assistive devices

4 - Individual communication preferences

5 - Varied preferences for language use

Knowing who students are and the accommodations they need will help educators develop more targeted supports that not only benefit deaf and HOH students, but all students in the classroom.

It is also important for educators to recognize their own biases to ensure all learners in the classroom receive equal access to educational content and classroom engagement. deaf students are more likely to be stereotyped and suffer discrimination in the classroom by peers and teachers alike, and this phenomenon is compounded when they are deaf students of color. This type of discrimination can contribute to the lower academic and life outcomes seen in the deaf population.

Being a more conscious teacher involves:
1 - Recognizing privileges and power in your role.

2 - Valuing deaf and/or Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) coworkers and paraprofessionals.

3 - Consciously incorporating cultural and language aspects in lessons.

4 - Providing opportunities for students to learn from each other and work together.

5 - Extending compassion and empathy when handling issues with students, and work with students to develop constructive solutions.

Another key aspect of virtual teaching is family communication. Understanding students' learning environments and finding ways to build relationships with parents/caregivers can be instrumental, especially when they may have had negative educational experiences or feel hesitant to get involved in students' learning. Lipman, for instance, extended her work phone number to her students' families, which helped build rapport with them and made check-ins easier. Meanwhile, Thomas' school has sent out newsletters in ASL, Spanish, and English to accommodate the language needs of their students' families, and they offer meetings with provided accessibility for caregivers to voice their concerns and discuss issues with teachers.

For many students, a quiet and private learning space free from distractions may be difficult to find outside of school, and some may only have limited or shared access to technology for participating in class. With this in mind, Thomas worked with his students to troubleshoot technology issues and figure out creative work-arounds and alternative methods for them to complete assignments. Educators can also record classes and make all materials fully accessible on their online learning platform to make it easier for students to complete work on their own time.

Homework has also taken on a new meaning in distance learning. Rather than give busy work or lengthy assignments, teachers are assigning more meaningful and engaging homework with flexible due dates. Thomas emphasized that empathy and flexibility are key in his lesson plans and assignments. Making time for independent work, one-on-one support, and informal chats helps his students feel more comfortable seeking support in a virtual setting.

A few additional considerations for educators when assigning work:

1 - Don't assume students will have materials to spare for activities. Survey your students to determine what learning materials they can use for class activities and tailor activities to the materials available to all students. You can also work with students to figure out alternative materials they can use for class.

2 - Determine if your school has alternate tutoring times where students can seek support if they are unable to attend during class time or have difficulty with assignments.

Another issue in virtual learning is "Zoom fatigue," a feeling of exhaustion after participating in video calls and working on a computer for an extended period of time. Thomas recognizes this in his own classroom: "Zoom fatigue is the biggest [challenge]. For my students with language delays, the reduction of interaction time really hurts."

These kinds of barriers to learning can contribute to a lack of motivation and lowered productivity in students. While no one perfect solution exists, the following suggestions from Thomas, Lipman and the National Deaf Center (NDC) can help:

1 - Make lesson plans as accessible as possible and modify approaches and activities through trial and error.

2 - Incorporate movement, creativity/imagination, and teamwork into your lessons. Use breakout rooms to divide students into small groups.

3 - Minimize visual demands and clutter. Multitasking demands are higher on deaf students, as they must attend to interpreters or assistive devices in addition to the same visual information hearing students are presented with.

4 - Brain breaks or movement breaks help to refocus students and transition between content areas.

5 - Poor internet connections can disrupt students' learning and comprehension of materials. All video representations of the audio stream should be recorded and available at any time on education platforms.

The distance learning transition was and is tough for all teachers, no matter the grade level or content area. Fully remote teaching comes with new challenges each day, and many teachers struggle to balance their already-heavy workload with a shift in their teaching approach. As Lipman noted, "Sometimes it feels like throwing spaghetti at a wall, trying to figure out what will stick with them. Some days one approach works, some days it doesn't."

For teachers of deaf and HOH students who are additionally struggling to replace hands-on, tactile activities and ensure that all activities are accessible for their students, this challenge can be draining. Thomas and Lipman recommend these coping strategies:

1- Discuss issues with a fellow teacher.

2 - Attend webinars aimed at creative solutions to virtual learning.

3 - Find a group of teachers with similar challenges to contribute ideas, offer support, and troubleshoot issues.

4 - Set aside personal time to read, meditate, exercise, or cook a meal.

5 - Take micro-breaks, especially to alleviate eye strain.

6 - Set boundaries to maintain a work-life balance.

Ultimately, patience, compassion, and flexibility are key. Educators should collaborate with deaf and HOH students to find creative solutions for better distance learning, keeping in mind that accessibility should be the default, not the compromise.

Note from the author: While mentioning those in the deaf community throughout this document, it has stated with a lowercase 'd' as deaf, as a capital D typically refers to students who are culturally deaf and feel a strong connection with the culture, whereas little d deaf typically refers to the more general population of deaf individuals. This document decided to include the many deaf individuals who do/do not identify with deaf culture as deeply as some others do.

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Supporting Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students in the Classroom - EALA

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This past summer, I was lucky enough to intern with an organization that highlights learner variability and supports educators in determining the most effective strategies to support their learners. After hosting two webinars about the variability within deaf students and intersectionality (check them out in Resources below), it became clear that educators were searching for [...]

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During the summer of 2025 I took a graduate course that dissected the social and cultural constructs in the realm of education. We explored the historical, legal, political and global perspectives of modern-day teaching and education. Some of the topics we covered included: white privilege, color blindness, culture of power, ethnic studies, gender non-conformity and specific rules and regulations in the state of Rhode Island and the U.S.A. Throughout my learning, I saw a commonality between each reading and classroom discussion: inclusivity.

Privileged individuals, those who benefit from societal advantages based on race, gender, sexuality or class, often navigate systems with greater ease. On the other hand, oppressed groups face systemic barriers that limit access and opportunity. Recognizing this disparity is essential in fostering inclusive environments, particularly in educational settings with mainstream students. Inclusion means more than physical presence; it involves valuing diverse identities and creating equitable opportunities for all. When mainstream educators understand and empathize with the experiences of marginalized peers, it builds awareness, reduces prejudice and promotes social engagement. By bridging the gap between privilege and oppression, marginalized students feel seen, supported and respected. True inclusion equips all learners with the tools to thrive in a diverse world.

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I was inclined to take a deeper dive into inclusive education and create a resource for mainstream Rhode Island educators that teach deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students. My desire to focus on disability inclusion stems from my personal experience with the deaf community. My grandparents are deaf, I have single sided deafness and am hard of hearing (HOH) in my other ear, and my 18 month old daughter was born profoundly deaf. My grandparents attended the RI School for the Deaf while I received mainstream education. My daughter, Cora, received cochlear implants at 9 months old and our journey to bilingualism with American Sign Language and spoken English has proven to be worth the effort. Her educational story is still unwritten but with technological access and continued support for auditory oral therapy; it is very likely that she can be in a mainstream school. My hope as her mother is to create the stepping stones to making her assimilation into mainstream schools easier. If there is anything I learned from this summer course, it is that silence is costly. We collectively as a society need to address the hard conversations in order to make change. To me, this means talking about hearing impaired students who are not part of the dominant culture.

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This project will utilize two articles that were introduced in my summer course and their concepts in relation to hearing impaired students in mainstream schools. The first article was written by Lisa Delpit. Her concept of the “culture of power” emphasizes that mainstream schools are often structured around the norms, communication styles, and expectations of dominant groups. In this case, the dominant group is hearing, middle-class, and able-bodied individuals. DHH students are not part of this dominant culture and may struggle to access the “rules and codes” that guide success in these settings. It is crucial for educators to explicitly teach these codes in ways that are accessible and culturally responsive to DHH students. The second article is by Virginia Collier. Her concept of bilingualism supports the idea that sign language and spoken language are both valid and essential for learning. Mainstream educators must recognize and incorporate both forms of communication to support DHH students academically and socially. By bridging the culture of power with bilingual education practices, teachers can create inclusive classrooms where DHH students feel valued, understood, and empowered to succeed.

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Hearing loss can classified into three types: conductive, sensorineural and mixed. Conductive hearing loss occurs when sound is blocked from reaching the inner ear due to issues in the outer or middle ear. These issues can be caused by infections, fluid or obstructions. Sensorineural hearing loss, often permanent, results from damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve and can be caused by genetics, aging or prolonged noise exposure. Mixed hearing loss combines both types.

Understanding these differences is essential in inclusive education because each type affects students differently in terms of communication and learning. Mainstream educators must recognize that hearing loss is not "one size fits all"; students may need varied supports like hearing aids or cochlear implants, FM systems, sign language, or captioning. Tailoring accommodations based on the type and degree of hearing loss ensures equitable access to instruction, enhances participation and helps create a more inclusive and supportive learning environment for all students.

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Hearing aids and cochlear implants are assistive devices that help improve access to sound for individuals with hearing loss, but they do not cure it. Hearing aids amplify sound and are most effective for those with mild to moderate hearing loss. They make sounds louder but may not fully clarify speech, especially in noisy settings. Cochlear implants are surgically implanted devices that bypass damaged parts of the inner ear and directly stimulate the auditory nerve. They are used for severe to profound hearing loss. An example that I use when explaining how cochlear implants work in regards to Cora is: people with full hearing have around 16,00 hearing receptors, but Cora only has 21. Her brain is able to make sense of conversations and sounds in her own way but it is naturally more exhausting and difficult for her. While both assistive devices can significantly enhance hearing, they do not restore normal hearing or fully replace natural sound processing.

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Did you know that assistive technology doesn't fix hearing loss, that it is only a tool and not a cure?

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Background noise can significantly affect a person’s ability to understand speech even when they are using hearing aids or cochlear implants. These devices amplify all sounds, both speech and environmental noise, which can make it difficult to focus on specific voices in noisy settings. For example, I purchased U-shaped air conditioners for my home to help Cora adapt to the world of sound easier because this unique design makes for a substantially quieter environment. In a mainstream classroom, a student sharpening a pencil or a maintenance crew doing yard work while the windows are open, can create significant listening barriers for a DHH child.

Additionally, individuals have different abilities to hear various pitches. Some may hear low-frequency sounds better while others may struggle with high-pitched speech sounds. This variability means that hearing support must be personalized. If a soft spoken student is reading aloud on the other side of the room with the book in front of their face, it could be extremely difficult for a DHH child to understand what they are saying. Constant effort to interpret unclear or distorted sounds can lead to listening fatigue, a mental and physical exhaustion from prolonged listening. For DHH individuals, this fatigue can impact concentration, learning, and social interaction. Regular breaks from listening, quiet environments and visual supports like captions or written instructions are essential to reduce strain and support full participation in educational settings.

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Lisa Delpit’s codes of power shows how schools reflect dominant norms, like spoken language, that often exclude DHH students. DHH must constantly work to interpret speech which means they face higher risks of listening fatigue resulting in reduced focus and participation. To promote equity, educators should clearly teach classroom expectations, use visual supports, and create quieter, more inclusive environments. Recognizing and addressing this power imbalance helps reduce cognitive strain and allows DHH students to engage more fully in both academic and social aspects of school.

Here are some ways to explicitly teach the codes of power in your mainstream classroom:

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Empower DHH students to advocate for themselves within a system not built for them. Example: practice "I need", "please repeat".

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Teach DHH students how to navigate both ASL and English (especially in writing) to give them access to those in power. Example: discuss how tone and grammar carry power in mainstream spaces.

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Create safe spaces to talk about how being DHH intersects with race, gender, language, and other identities. 

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Incorporate deaf leaders (Nyle DiMarco) and historical events (Deaf President Now) into standard curriculum to make DHH feel included and seen.

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Use teaching methods that are visual, interactive and accessible for DHH students. Example: incorporate deaf culture norms into classroom (eye contact, adequate lighting, turn taking) and closed captioning.

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Virginia Collier’s concept of bilingualism highlights the importance of supporting both languages a student uses. For DHH students, this means valuing both sign and spoken language. When schools treat sign language as equal to speech and use visual supports like captions and written instructions, they reduce listening fatigue and make learning more accessible. Applying bilingual principles helps DHH students participate fully and comfortably without straining to keep up in spoken-only environments.

Here are some additional ways to incorporate bilingualism into your mainstream classroom:

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Provide everything in writing for the DHH students.

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The most effective way to understanding DHH students is to immerse yourself in their culture. Educate yourself and invite them to speak in your classroom.

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Include ASL descriptions for common spaces and objects. Example: bathroom, lunch, recess, etc. This can be done with a photo or QR code. Provide ABC's in ASL on wall with English ABC's. 

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Allow DHH students to submit assignments by video or oral/written even if they utilize ASL structure (which is slightly different than English). Consider grading based on understanding of concepts and not grammar. 

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I wasn’t diagnosed with hearing loss until I was already in the school system. Despite the degree of my hearing loss, I met all developmental milestones, spoke at an age-appropriate level and managed well enough in conversations that my impairment went unnoticed for years. Since I was Growing up in a mainstream school with deafness and hearing loss was far from easy. Unfortunately, my school system (RI based) did not accommodate my unique needs or support my learning differences. For example, my mother advocated for me to learn ASL and requested that I receive services from a speech-language pathologist (SLP). These requests, among others, were often overlooked or denied because I appeared to be functioning “normally. This experience highlights how invisible hearing loss can be and how important it is for educators to look beyond surface level performance to truly understand and support all students’ needs.

Eventually I was granted a 504 plan but it was leniently followed. I truly struggled a lot in school, not because I wasn't understanding concepts but because I did not have the academic support that I deserved. Without the support family, I likely would have not graduated high school or gone on to earn my Bachelors in Science of Nursing. I did have some wonderful teachers that made a profound impact on my life but most of them disregarded me. Reflecting now, after taking this course, I can clearly see what went wrong. I will admit that I had some challenging behaviors in school but putting the dots together now, it probably all stemmed from not having an inclusive education, supportive educational environment. My experience highlights the critical importance of equitable access and understanding for all students, especially those with disabilities who may otherwise go unheard.

Here are some other tips I wish I had when I was growing up:

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I often missed bells and would be late to class which would get me in trouble. Even as an adult, the code alarm on my trauma floor was too low for my hearing. The hospital updated the sound, but the school system did not.

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Work with teachers of the Deaf and auditory oral therapists.

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If applicable, utilize rugs and other forms of sound absorption (cushions on chair legs to prevent scraping, curtains, etc. to enhance acoustics in the classroom. 

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For example, avoid talking while writing on the board with your back turned. Always face the class when speaking so DHH students can follow facial cues and your speech isn't distorted.

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Hallways are noisy causing not only a distraction but barrier to lessons.

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If a student or other educator says something to the class, repeat it back so that the DHH student can feel confident in what they heard.

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For example, if a student requires an FM system, teachers can occasionally let other students try it out during non-critical times. This helps normalize the device and ensures the DHH student doesn’t feel different from their peers.

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DHH people rely on visual cues, dimming the lights can make this difficult.

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My 504 always stated front and center of the room but as I got older, I realized sitting to the left of the room was a better strategy. I continue to sit where my right ear (dominant side) is able to face the majority of the room or table. 

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When these concepts and strategies are applied within the classroom, DHH students will naturally assimilate and build friendships. Making communication norms explicit and accessible helps DHH students navigate social dynamics and feel a sense of belonging. Additionally, encouraging the use of sign language among peers not only supports DHH students but also promotes mutual understanding and connection. Overall, by normalizing multiple communication modes and addressing power imbalances, educators foster an environment where DHH students can form genuine friendships. They are no longer labeled as the "minority", rather they are treated as equals.

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Do you, or have you, had a DHH student in your classroom?

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Are you interested in connecting to learn more about how you can help DHH students from a parent and member of the deaf community?

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This summer course gave me valuable insight into the social and cultural aspects of education, with a heavy focus on inclusivity and the systemic barriers marginalized groups face. We discussed many different topics that I highlighted in the beginning of this padlet, but the repeating theme for me was how important it is to create inclusive environments for those facing oppression. While we didn’t cover disabilities, it is very reasonable to make the connection that disabled persons are the minority. I decided to create this resource for RI mainstream educators to support DHH students socially and academically because of my personal experience as a member of the deaf community.

I grew up in a mainstream setting despite my own hearing impairment, and now my daughter Cora is on her journey to bilingualism in ASL and spoken English. By utilizing the concepts from this course, my hope is that my advocacy will lead to a better understanding of the diverse communication needs for DHH students. I focused on the concepts “culture of power” by Lisa Delpit and “bilingualism” by Virigina Collier. Delpit’s idea emphasizes that mainstream schools are structured around those in power: hearing, middle-class, white individuals. Collier’s idea advocates for recognizing the home language of students, in this case ASL, because it is incredibly important for academic and social success. By combining these two concepts, educators can create more inclusive educational environments where not only mainstream DHH students feel valued, understood and empowered, but all students can.

Additionally, reflecting on my own personal struggles, I added the importance of accommodating different types of hearing loss and providing personalized accommodations not only listed in 504 plans. The goal is to reduce listening fatigue and make the learning environment more equitable. It is critical for educators to look beyond surface level performance, particularly for those with disabilities. In my case, this was not done and although I succeeded, I would not consider myself the norm. An inclusive educational approach benefits everyone and will be beneficial for generations.