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Overview

Type: RNA virus (Picornaviridae family)

Transmission: Fecal-oral route (contaminated food/water, poor sanitation)

Incubation: ~28 days (range 15–50 days)

Infection type: Acute only, no chronic infection

Hepatitis A is an inflammation of the liver that can cause mild to severe illness.

The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated food and water or through direct contact with an infectious person.

Almost everyone recovers fully from hepatitis A with a lifelong immunity. However, a very small proportion of people infected with hepatitis A could die from fulminant hepatitis.

The risk of hepatitis A infection is associated with a lack of safe water and poor sanitation and hygiene (such as contaminated and dirty hands).

A safe and effective vaccine is available to prevent hepatitis A.

Risk factors include:

poor sanitation;

lack of safe water;

living in a household with an infected person;

being a sexual partner of someone with acute hepatitis A infection;

use of recreational drugs;

sex between men; and

travelling to areas of high endemicity without being immunized.

Characteristics

Non-enveloped, heat- and acid-stable

Causes self-limiting acute hepatitis

More severe in adults than children

Symptoms of Hepatitis A (HAV)

Common Symptoms (range: mild to severe)

Fever

Malaise (fatigue)

Loss of appetite

Nausea

Diarrhoea

Abdominal discomfort

Dark-coloured urine

Jaundice (yellowing of eyes and skin)

⚠️ Not all infected individuals show all symptoms.

Age-related Symptom Patterns

Adults: Symptoms more common and more severe

Children <6 years:

Often asymptomatic

Only ~10% develop jaundice

Older adults: Higher risk of severe disease and fatality

Relapse

Hepatitis A may relapse (second acute episode after recovery)

Usually followed by complete recovery

Diagnosis

Anti-HAV IgM: Indicates acute infection

Anti-HAV IgG: Past infection or vaccination

Therapy

No antiviral treatment needed

Supportive care (hydration, rest)

Full recovery expected in most cases

Prevention

Hepatitis A vaccine

Improved sanitation & hygiene

Boil water and cook food properly

Immune globulin for post-exposure (if not vaccinated)

Other

No chronic carrier state

Not associated with liver cancer

Outbreaks common in areas with poor sanitation

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Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) is the causative agent of Hepatitis E, an infection that primarily affects the liver.

What is Hepatitis E?

Hepatitis E is a liver disease caused by infection with the Hepatitis E virus. It typically results in acute inflammation of the liver, though it can become chronic in certain vulnerable populations.

Cause and Etiology

Hepatitis E is caused by the Hepatitis E virus (HEV), which is a single-stranded RNA virus. There are several genotypes of HEV, with genotypes 1 and 2 primarily found in developing countries and responsible for large outbreaks, while genotypes 3 and 4 are more common in developed countries and are often associated with sporadic cases and zoonotic transmission.

Signs and Symptoms

The symptoms of Hepatitis E can vary widely, from asymptomatic to severe, and they are generally more pronounced in adults than in children. Many infections, particularly in younger individuals, are subclinical.

When symptoms do occur, they typically appear 3 to 8 weeks after exposure (incubation period) and can include:

Jaundice: Yellowing of the skin or eyes (a key sign of liver inflammation).

Fatigue: Feeling unusually tired or weak.

Loss of Appetite: Reduced desire to eat.

Nausea and Vomiting: Stomach upset and throwing up.

Abdominal Pain: Discomfort in the upper right side of the abdomen, where the liver is located.

Dark Urine: Urine appearing darker than usual.

Pale Stools: Feces appearing lighter in color.

Fever: Low-grade fever.

Arthralgia: Joint pain (less common).

Hepatomegaly: Enlarged liver, which may be tender on palpation.

In severe cases, acute liver failure (fulminant hepatitis) can develop, characterized by rapid deterioration of liver function, coagulopathy (bleeding problems), and encephalopathy (brain dysfunction).

Transmission

As previously mentioned, HEV is primarily transmitted via the fecal-oral route. This means the virus spreads through water or food contaminated with the feces of an infected person or animal.

Key transmission routes include:

Contaminated Drinking Water: This is the most common mode of transmission, particularly in areas with poor sanitation, leading to large-scale outbreaks.

Undercooked or Raw Food: Consumption of contaminated food, especially:

Pork and Pork Products: A major source of genotype 3 HEV in many developed countries due to widespread HEV infection in pigs.

Wild Game: Such as wild boar and deer meat.

Shellfish: If harvested from contaminated waters.

Person-to-Person Contact: While possible, direct person-to-person transmission is generally inefficient, unlike Hepatitis A. However, it can occur within households.

Blood Transfusion: Transmission via blood products can occur, particularly from asymptomatic donors in endemic areas, posing a risk to recipients, especially immunocompromised individuals.

Vertical Transmission: A pregnant mother can transmit the virus to her fetus.

Pathology

The pathology of Hepatitis E primarily involves the liver, as HEV is hepatotropic (targets liver cells).

Acute Hepatitis: Upon infection, the virus replicates in hepatocytes (liver cells), leading to an immune response that causes inflammation and damage to the liver. This results in the characteristic symptoms of acute hepatitis, including elevated liver enzymes (ALT, AST), bilirubin, and alkaline phosphatase. Histologically, there is diffuse inflammation of the liver parenchyma.

Chronic Hepatitis (in Immunocompromised): In immunocompromised individuals, the body's immune system may fail to clear the virus, leading to persistent HEV replication. This sustained viral presence causes ongoing liver inflammation and damage, which can progress to fibrosis, cirrhosis (scarring of the liver), and eventually end-stage liver disease.

Extrahepatic Manifestations: Beyond the liver, HEV can affect other organs and systems. The pathology in these cases involves inflammation and damage due to either direct viral replication in those tissues or immune-mediated responses. Examples include neurological disorders (e.g., Guillain-Barré syndrome, neuralgic amyotrophy), kidney disease (e.g., membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis), and hematological disorders.

How it Becomes Acute or Chronic

Acute Infection: In immunocompetent individuals, the body's immune system usually mounts an effective response against HEV. This leads to the clearance of the virus and the resolution of the infection within weeks to months. The illness is typically self-limiting, and most people recover completely without progressing to chronic disease. This is the most common outcome.

Chronic Infection: The development of chronic Hepatitis E is almost exclusively seen in immunocompromised individuals. This includes:

Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: Especially those on long-term immunosuppressive therapy.

Individuals with HIV Infection: Particularly those with lower CD4 counts.

Patients with Hematologic Malignancies: Such as leukemia or lymphoma.

Individuals on Immunosuppressive Therapy: For autoimmune diseases or other conditions. In these individuals, the weakened immune system is unable to effectively clear the virus, allowing HEV to persist and replicate continuously in the liver. This persistent infection leads to ongoing inflammation and liver damage, eventually resulting in chronic hepatitis, fibrosis, and potentially cirrhosis if left untreated. Chronic infection can be asymptomatic for long periods before significant liver damage becomes apparent.

SEVERE CASES

In severe cases of Hepatitis E, especially in vulnerable populations, the infection can lead to:

Acute Liver Failure (Fulminant Hepatitis): This is a rapid and severe deterioration of liver function, which can be life-threatening. It is particularly common in pregnant women, where it carries a high risk of maternal mortality (15-30%).

Death: Due to acute liver failure or severe complications, mortality rates can be significant in high-risk groups.

Progression to Chronic Hepatitis (in Immunocompromised Individuals): While acute HEV is usually self-limiting in healthy people, immunocompromised individuals may fail to clear the virus, leading to a persistent, chronic infection. This chronic inflammation can cause progressive liver damage, including fibrosis and eventually cirrhosis, which is a severe scarring of the liver.

Extrahepatic Manifestations: Severe cases can also involve complications outside the liver, such as neurological disorders (e.g., Guillain-Barré syndrome), kidney problems (e.g., glomerulonephritis), and hematological issues.

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Diagnosis Test

The diagnosis of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) infection typically involves:

1. Detection of Anti-HEV Antibodies (Serology):

IgM Anti-HEV Antibodies: The presence of IgM antibodies specific to HEV indicates a recent or acute infection. This is generally the most reliable marker for diagnosing acute HEV infection.

IgG Anti-HEV Antibodies: The presence of IgG antibodies indicates past infection and often suggests immunity to re-infection, though immunity can wane over time.

Limitations: Serological tests can sometimes yield false-positive results, especially in areas where the virus is not common. They may also not be sufficient for diagnosing chronic HEV infection in immunocompromised patients, where the antibody response might be blunted or absent.

2. Detection of HEV RNA (Molecular Testing - PCR):

HEV RNA by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): This is the most definitive method for diagnosing acute infection and is crucial for confirming chronic infection, especially in immunocompromised individuals.

HEV RNA can be detected in serum (blood) and/or stool samples.

Viral RNA typically appears in the blood and stool early in the infection, often before the onset of symptoms and before antibodies are detectable.

Persistent detection of HEV RNA in the blood for more than 3 months is indicative of chronic HEV infection.

Importance: PCR is particularly important for immunocompromised patients, as their antibody response may be weak or delayed, making serology less reliable for diagnosis.

3. Liver Function Tests (LFTs):

While not specific for HEV, elevated liver enzymes (Alanine Aminotransferase - ALT, Aspartate Aminotransferase - AST), bilirubin, and alkaline phosphatase are common findings in hepatitis and help indicate liver inflammation and damage. These are supportive findings that prompt further investigation for the cause of hepatitis.

In summary:

For acute HEV infection, the primary diagnostic approach is usually the detection of IgM anti-HEV antibodies. PCR for HEV RNA in blood or stool confirms the diagnosis and is essential, especially in severe or atypical presentations.

For chronic HEV infection, which primarily occurs in immunocompromised individuals, the diagnosis relies on the persistent detection of HEV RNA by PCR in serum over several months, as their antibody response may not be reliable.

How it Differs from Other Types of Hepatitis

Hepatitis E shares some similarities with other hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, D) but has distinct differences:

Transmission Route: Like Hepatitis A, HEV is primarily transmitted via the fecal-oral route, unlike Hepatitis B, C, and D, which are primarily spread through blood and body fluids.

Chronicity:

Acute Only (typically): Like Hepatitis A, HEV infection is typically acute and self-limiting in healthy individuals.

Chronic Potential: However, unlike Hepatitis A, HEV can cause chronic infection in immunocompromised individuals (e.g., organ transplant recipients, HIV patients). This is a significant difference and makes it resemble Hepatitis B and C in its ability to cause long-term disease in specific groups.

Severity in Pregnancy: HEV infection is notably severe and carries a high mortality rate (especially due to fulminant liver failure) in pregnant women, a characteristic not seen with other hepatitis viruses to the same extent.

Zoonotic Nature: Genotypes 3 and 4 of HEV are primarily zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans (e.g., pigs, wild boars), which is less common for Hepatitis A, B, C, or D.

Vaccine Availability: A vaccine for Hepatitis E is available in some regions (e.g., China), but it is not universally licensed or widely used globally like the Hepatitis A and B vaccines.

Treatment and Medicine

The treatment approach for Hepatitis E depends on the severity and chronicity of the infection:

Acute Hepatitis E (in Immunocompetent Individuals):

No Specific Antiviral Treatment: Most cases of acute Hepatitis E in healthy individuals do not require specific antiviral medication. The infection is usually self-limiting and resolves on its own.

Supportive Care: Treatment focuses on supportive measures, including rest, ensuring adequate hydration, maintaining a healthy diet, and avoiding alcohol.

Hospitalization: In severe cases, such as those leading to acute liver failure (fulminant hepatitis), or for symptomatic pregnant women, hospitalization is necessary for intensive supportive care.

Ribavirin (in select severe cases): In some severe cases of acute hepatitis E, particularly in immunocompetent patients at high risk of acute liver failure, the antiviral drug Ribavirin may be considered.

Chronic Hepatitis E (in Immunocompromised Individuals):

Reduction of Immunosuppression: The first-line strategy, if medically appropriate and safe, is to reduce the dosage of immunosuppressive medications. This can often enable the patient's immune system to clear the virus. This must be managed by a medical specialist.

Antiviral Therapy: If reducing immunosuppression is not possible or unsuccessful, antiviral therapy is initiated.

Ribavirin: This is the primary antiviral drug used for chronic HEV infection. It is typically given as monotherapy for a duration of 3 to 6 months to achieve viral clearance.

Pegylated Interferon Alpha: This drug has also been used for chronic HEV, particularly in liver transplant recipients, but it has significant side effects and is generally avoided in certain transplant patients due to the risk of organ rejection.

Other Antivirals: Other antiviral drugs, like Sofosbuvir, have been investigated, but their efficacy as monotherapy for HEV has been limited

Diff Hep E and Hep A

Hepatitis A (HAV) and Hepatitis E (HEV) are both acute viral infections that primarily affect the liver and are transmitted through the fecal-oral route, typically via contaminated food or water. However, they differ significantly in their potential for chronicity, severity in specific populations, and zoonotic characteristics. Unlike Hepatitis A, which is always an acute, self-limiting illness and never becomes chronic, Hepatitis E can persist and become a chronic infection in immunocompromised individuals. Furthermore, HEV infection is particularly dangerous for pregnant women, leading to a high risk of severe acute liver failure and mortality, a severity not typically seen with HAV in pregnancy. Lastly, while HAV is generally not zoonotic, genotypes 3 and 4 of HEV are commonly transmitted from animals (such as pigs) to humans, highlighting a key difference in their epidemiological profiles. Both viruses have vaccines available, but the HAV vaccine is widely accessible globally, whereas the HEV vaccine is only available in some regions.

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Diagnosis of Hepatitis E | anti-HEV IgM and anti-HEV IgG

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Definition

Hepatitis C is a viral infection caused by the Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) that primarily affects the liver, leading to inflammation, and potentially progressing to chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, or hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer).

Epidemiology

Globally, an estimated 58 million people are chronically infected with HCV (WHO, 2024).

About 1.5 million new infections occur each year.

Highest prevalence in:

Middle East, Central & East Asia, Africa

Intravenous drug users (IDUs)

HCV is a leading cause of liver transplants worldwide.

Clinical Manifestations

Acute Infection

(within 6 months of exposure):

Often asymptomatic

If symptomatic:

Fatigue

Nausea

Right upper abdominal pain

Jaundice (yellowing of eyes and skin)

Dark urine, pale stools

Chronic Infection

(after 6 months):

Most patients progress silently

Long-term complications:

Chronic hepatitis

Cirrhosis (20–30% over 20 years)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)

Liver failure

Microbiology

HCV is an enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus

Belongs to the Flaviviridae family

High genetic variability with 7 major genotypes (1–7):

Genotype 1 is most common worldwide

Genotypes affect treatment response

Hepatitis C Transmission

Hepatitis C is primarily transmitted through blood-to-blood contact. Here’s a breakdown of how it spreads:

Main Modes of Transmission

1. Sharing Needles or Syringes

Most common route, especially among people who inject drugs.

Even tiny amounts of infected blood can transmit HCV.

2. Unsafe Medical Practices

Reuse of contaminated medical equipment (e.g., needles, syringes, or surgical tools).

Poor sterilization in some healthcare settings or traditional medicine.

3. Blood Transfusions and Organ Transplants (before 1990s)

In the past, unscreened blood products were a major source.

Now rare in developed countries due to routine screening of blood donors.

4. Tattoos or Piercings

If performed with non-sterile equipment or in unregulated settings.

5. Occupational Exposure

Healthcare workers may be exposed through needlestick injuries.

6. Mother-to-Child (Vertical Transmission)

Can occur during childbirth if the mother has HCV.

Risk is about 5–6%, higher if the mother is also HIV-positive.

Less Common Transmission Routes

7. Sexual Contact

Less efficient than other bloodborne viruses like HIV or hepatitis B.

Risk is higher in:

People with multiple sexual partners

Men who have sex with men (MSM), especially with HIV co-infection

Rough sex or presence of STDs

8. Sharing Personal Items

Items that may have traces of blood (e.g., razors, toothbrushes).

Risk is very low, but possible.

Hepatitis C is NOT spread by:

Hugging or kissing

Coughing or sneezing

Sharing food or drinks

Breastfeeding (unless nipples are cracked/bleeding)

Diagnosis

1. Serologic testing:

Anti-HCV antibodies (indicates exposure)

2. Molecular testing:

HCV RNA PCR (confirms active infection)

Used to detect viral load

3. HCV genotype testing:

Guides treatment plan

4. Liver assessment:

Liver function tests (ALT/AST)

Fibroscan, ultrasound, or liver biopsy to assess fibrosis or cirrhosis

Therapy

Antiviral Therapy

Direct-Acting Antivirals (DAAs): Highly effective, cure rate >95%

Common regimens:

Sofosbuvir + Velpatasvir

Glecaprevir + Pibrentasvir

Duration: 8–12 weeks, depending on genotype and liver status

Treatment goals

Achieve SVR (Sustained Virologic Response) = cure

Prevent progression to cirrhosis, HCC, and liver failure

No vaccine is currently available.

Hepatitis C can be both acute and chronic, depending on the course of the infection:

Acute Hepatitis C

Definition: The initial phase of HCV infection, occurring within the first 6 months after exposure.

Symptoms: Often asymptomatic (about 70–80% of cases); some may have mild flu-like symptoms, jaundice, fatigue, or nausea.

Outcome:

About 15–30% of people spontaneously clear the virus without treatment.

The remaining 70–85% will develop chronic infection.

Chronic Hepatitis C

Definition: HCV infection that persists longer than 6 months.

Symptoms: Often silent for years, but may slowly damage the liver.

Risks:

Chronic liver inflammation

Cirrhosis (scarring)

Liver failure

Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma)

Hepatitis C progresses from acute to chronic — not the other way around.

Correct Progression:

1. Acute Hepatitis C

The initial phase after infection (within the first 6 months).

Many people have no symptoms or only mild ones.

The body may clear the virus spontaneously in about 15–30% of cases.

2. Chronic Hepatitis C

If the virus is not cleared, it becomes chronic (lasting >6 months).

This occurs in 70–85% of infected individuals.

Chronic infection can last for decades and cause:

Cirrhosis

Liver failure

Liver cancer

🚫 It does not go from chronic back to acute

Once it becomes chronic, the virus persists long-term unless treated with antiviral medications.

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🦠 Understanding Hepatitis B: Acute vs. Chronic

🔹 What is Hepatitis B?

Hepatitis B is a liver infection caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Spread through contact with infected bodily fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluids)

Two main types:

Acute Hepatitis B: short-term, sudden onset

Chronic Hepatitis B: long-term infection (≥6 months)

⚠️ Causes & Risk Factors

Contact with infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids

Unprotected sex

Sharing needles or syringes

Birth from an infected mother

Higher risk of chronic infection in infants and people with weak immune systems

🧬 Symptoms

Acute Hepatitis B

May be mild or no symptoms

Possible symptoms:

Jaundice (yellow skin/eyes)

Fatigue

Nausea and vomiting

Abdominal pain (right side)

Fever

Dark urine, pale stools

Chronic Hepatitis B

Often no symptoms until complications occur

When present:

Fatigue

Right side abdominal pain

Jaundice

Dark urine, pale stools

💊 Treatment

Acute Hepatitis B

No specific medicine

Supportive care: rest, fluids, nutrition

Hospitalization only if severe

Chronic Hepatitis B

No complete cure, but manageable

Antiviral medications: tenofovir, entecavir

Regular monitoring to prevent complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer

🛡️ Prevention of Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B vaccine: most effective prevention

3 doses over 6 months

For newborns: birth dose + 3 follow-up doses

Who should be vaccinated?

Healthcare workers

Drug users

People with multiple sex partners

Infants born to infected mothers

People with chronic liver disease

Other prevention tips:

Use condoms during sex

Don’t share needles, razors, toothbrushes

Screen pregnant women for HBV

Ensure safe blood transfusions and organ transplants

Follow universal precautions (e.g., PPE in healthcare)

❓ Frequently Asked Questions

Q1: Can I get hepatitis B from my husband?
✅ Yes. Through sexual contact or shared personal items (e.g., razors).
💉 Solution: Get vaccinated and use protection.

Q2: Does acute hepatitis B need treatment?
🛌 Usually no. Most people recover naturally.
🩺 Supportive care like rest, hydration, and proper nutrition is enough.

Q3: Can chronic hepatitis B go away?
❌ No complete cure, but it can be controlled.
💊 Antivirals can suppress the virus and prevent liver damage.
🧪 Regular monitoring is important.

📌 Summary

Acute = short-term, often resolves

Chronic = long-term, higher risk of liver disease

Vaccination is the best prevention

Early diagnosis and management are key