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First Test used to look at Brain and its Function: Mental Chronometry

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First Test used to look at Brain and its Function: Mental Chronometry

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In 1868, Wilhelm Wundt introduced the method of measuring the speed of mental processes. This was called Mental Chronometry.

This was first used in Germany, mainly used by astronomers. The stars were clocked in using a special tick clock (shown above) as they passed by the telescope. When it was evident that multiple astronomers were clocking at different times, neuroscientists knew it had something to do with the individual's speed of mental processing.

By testing this, future neuroscientists were able to further test and determine mental processing functions when it came to everyday life.

Sources(2):
http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/history-of-psychology/nineteenth-century/methods/
http://web.uvic.ca/~dbub/Cognition_Action/Reading_Assignments_files/Chronometry.pdf

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In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen invented the first use of X-ray imaging. It was not until about two decades later, after many trials that an X-ray image of the brain was able to be used as a diagnostic tool for the internal brain.

The first usage of brain X-ray was used to determine where a bullet went when a person was shot in the head (shown above). Normally these images were taken of someone who was already deceased. Thus, only providing information about how they died, and not any information on how to prevent someone from dying.

It wasn't until the 1970s that X-ray imaging was used to determine tumors in the brain.

Sources(1):
https://www.medmuseum.siemens-healthineers.com/en/stories-from-the-museum/our-brain#:~:text=Wilhelm%20Conrad%20R%C3%B6ntgen%20discovered%20X,a%20gunshot%20wound%2C%20for%20example.

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In the early 1900s, after the discovery of X-rays, pneumoencephalography was created.

This was the process of draining small amounts cerebral spinal fluid and replacing it with air, water, or gas at a time. Upon this, and X-ray was taken of the brain to help determine a presence of tumors which would not have been able to be seen with full amount of CSF.

This was a very painful procedure done, considering it was performed by a needle being inserted into the ventricles of the brain. As shown in the picture, patients were flipped upside down to allow the air, water, or gas to fill into the brain.

Sources(2):
https://www.medmuseum.siemens-healthineers.com/en/stories-from-the-museum/our-brain#:~:text=Wilhelm%20Conrad%20R%C3%B6ntgen%20discovered%20X,a%20gunshot%20wound%2C%20for%20example.
https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pneumoencephalography?lang=us

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In 1971, Godfrey Hounsfield of London, invented the first computed tomography image machine.

The image produced by a CT scan was able to view the cortex, the spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and even the white matter of the brain. This allowed for a very more invasive view of the brain and easier to make diagnoses of issues within the brain.

This type of scan basically divided the brain into sections using X-ray images. This made it easier to see deeper into the brain and determine where most of the issues originated at. This allowed for further advancements in imaging of the brain and treatments for diseases found in the brain.

Sources(3):
https://www.medmuseum.siemens-healthineers.com/en/stories-from-the-museum/history-of-ct
https://www.medmuseum.siemens-healthineers.com/en/stories-from-the-museum/our-brain#:~:text=Wilhelm%20Conrad%20R%C3%B6ntgen%20discovered%20X,a%20gunshot%20wound%2C%20for%20example
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/fifty-years-ago-the-first-ct-scan-let-doctors-see-inside-a-living-skull-180978792/

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In 1975, the first positron-emission tomography machine was invented to create immersive images of the brain.

Radiation sensors were used to build an image, in thick slices of the brain. PET systems use the paths of the two detected gamma rays to determine the originating collision point, a process called electronic collimation. The scanners use a circular series of gamma ray detectors to envelop the patient or test animal to detect both gammas so the instrument can use electronic collimation to predict where the energy signal originated. This signal is then converted into a three-dimensional image slice.

The PET scan was a big machine that started off as using only the head (as shown above) which eventually progressed to the whole body.

The use of PET scans has greatly increased the discovery of images of neuroscience and further help determine illness and treatments of the brain.

Sources(2):
https://home.cern/news/news/knowledge-sharing/forty-years-first-pet-image-cern
https://www.cerebromente.org.br/n01/pet/pet_hist.htm

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Paul Lauterbur was one day sitting at a Big Boy restaurant in Pittsburgh when he got the idea of the MRI. He sketched his idea on a napkin (shown above). His ideas came from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) which was used for studying the chemical structure of substances.

The discovery of the MRI was by two men, Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield. Paul was credited for the idea of introducing gradients into the magnetic field which allowed the determination of the origin of the radio waves emitted from the nuclei of the object.

Some of the first things that Lauterbur imaged with this MRI were a clam, green peppers, and two test tubes of heavy water within a beaker of ordinary water. This was the first time that an image was able to distinguish between two types of water. Since the body mostly consists of water, this gave high hopes for this being able to be used on humans.

Lauterbur tried to get his paper published in a journal called Nature but was denied. He requested them to review it again and they approved him, which brought the attention to Peter Mansfield.

Sources(2):
https://www.latimes.com/science/la-me-lauterbur28mar28-story.html
https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Paul_Lauterbur.html

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Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur first official prototype

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Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur first official prototype

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In 1978, Paul and Peter developed the first official prototype of the MRI. The first scan was completed at this time, by Peter Mansfield himself. The picture shown above is of Peter about to go into the machine surrounded by his colleagues. The first scan done was of his abdomen, but this quickly changed to being able to view every part of the body.

The first image Peter scanned was a lupin stem from his garden and an okra seed pod. He took what Paul Luauterbur discovered and enhanced it by developing a mathematical process to speed up image reading. This made the scan shorter, which made patients more comfortable during the process.

Sources(2):
https://www.nottinghampost.com/news/health/story-how-sir-peter-mansfield-2635109
https://newcastleclinic.co.uk/honouring-inventor-mri-scanner/

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In 1977, the first Magnetic Resonance Imaging machine was used. Created by Peter Mansfield. A Nobel prize was awarded to both him and Paul Lauterbur.

The first images taken using MRI were of the whole body, but then quickly localized to be used for the brain.

An MRI uses a magnetic gradient rotating in a circle which showed crude NMR images of liquids. Such as the liquids that surround tissues in the body. This creates a clear image of where the fluids flow within the brain, as shown above.

The use of MRI has led to many discoveries of not only the body but the brain. Many new advancements in testing and treatments for neuroscience.

Sources(2):
https://www.nature.com/articles/543180a
https://www.iec.ch/blog/invention-magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri#:~:text=The%20Nobel%20Prize%20was%20awarded,the%20technology%20is%20used%20today.

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BOLD MRI: imaging used to see oxygen in Brain

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BOLD MRI: imaging used to see oxygen in Brain

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In 1990, Seiji Ogawa was the first to describe BOLD: Blood oxygenation level dependent. This was obtained by using fMRI scans (functional magnetic resonance images).

This type of test looked at the cerebral blood flow of the brain which helped determine to amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the brain.

This helps determine regional activity within the brain. If this activity is not seen as normal then there may be something wrong. Typically this means not enough oxygen is getting to the brain, due to a hemorrhage or blockage. This has allowed many new discoveries and treatments for brain injuries and illnesses.

Sources (2):
https://www.jneurosci.org/content/23/10/3963
https://radiopaedia.org/articles/bold-imaging?lang=us

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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance machine used as basis for MRI

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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance machine used as basis for MRI

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In 1945, Felxi Bloch and Edward Purcell were the first to use nuclear magnetic resonance. This machine, as shown above, was commonly used by organic chemists as an analytic tool. This machine was used to observe electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted by the atomic nuclei, allowing researchers to map the chemical, structural and biological properties of a sample at the molecular level.

Bloch and Purcell took this to the next level and analyzed liquid and solid matter. For which they received the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Paul Lauterbur used the logic behind NMR to help him in his discovery of the MRI.

Sources (2):
https://www.labmate-online.com/news/mass-spectrometry-and-spectroscopy/41/breaking-news/when-was-nmr-first-used/56579
https://byjus.com/chemistry/nmr-spectroscopy/

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In 2016, multi-contrast MRI software was invented. This allowed for the MRI scan to be delivered in 8 different contrasts during a single scan. This software is called MAGiC. This allows providers to take one scan and manipulate the MR images using different contrasts. This allows for a significant amount of time saved, fewer scans, and therefore more cost-efficient.

This can help neuroscientists by providing a faster scan for patients who may need a quick diagnosis. This type of MRI is becoming more popular everywhere now that providers see how effective it is.

This is relevant to neuroscience because it shows the advancement of the original MRI that Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield invented. This imaging is used to get quicker images using different contrasts when it comes to MRI scans.

Sources(1):
https://www.itnonline.com/article/recent-advances-mri-technology

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Paul Lauterbur: Nobel Prize winner of Medicine

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Paul Lauterbur: Nobel Prize winner of Medicine

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Paul Lauterbur was born and raised in Sidney, Ohio. He did his undergraduate work at Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland.

As a teenageer, Lauterbur had built his own laboratory in the basement of his parents house. He performed many chemical experiments in that basement and also in the back of his Chemistry class. He got his Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Pittsburgh in 1962. He also was a professor at the University of New York, later on teaching at University of Illinois in the Biomedical Magnetic Resonance Laboratory.

Lauterbur was drafted into the Army, where he was allowed to use work on using nuclear magnetic resonance which lead to his invention of the MRI. In 2003, Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield were awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine for their development of the MRI.

Lauterbur died in 2007 of Kidney disease.

Sources(3):
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Lauterbur
https://nationalmaglab.org/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/paul-lauterbur/
https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Paul_Lauterbur.html