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A Hindu priest performs worship services (generally referred to as puja) which include ceremonies and rituals.

Typical Hindu rituals and ceremonies may include daily deity worship (ie. archana, homa or aarti), special deity celebrations (ie. Durga Puja, Shiva Abhishekham or Govardhan Puja), special ceremonies (ie. vahana puja or navagraha puja) and life sacrament ceremonies (samskara or weddings, pre-birth, sacred thread and last rites, to name a few).

Many worship services are performed onsite at a Hindu temple or organization site.  Others may be performed offsite.

The services may also vary in duration and intricacy. Many practicing Hindus perform puja at least once or twice a day, while at temples, puja may be performed multiple times during any given day.

To officiate the various rituals and ceremonies of Hinduism, priests must be able to effectively and knowledgeably serve a Hindu temple and community’s worship service needs.

Most priests are traditionally trained, but some may have gained their knowledge and skills through independent study. A qualified priest is one who has a detailed, working knowledge of the various steps involved in some of the most common worship services; can chant special prayers that may be in Sanskrit or vernacular Indian languages (ie. mantra or stotram) and is familiar with the necessary items for different ceremonies and rituals (such as flowers, rice, coconut, clarified butter, specially prepared food offerings, incense, vermilion and camphor to name only a few).

While the majority of Hindu priests are male, an increasing number of women are entering this line of work in India, where the majority of Hindus reside, and throughout the Hindu diaspora. A pandit or priest may be called upon in smaller temples, to prepare food offerings (prasadam) for Hindu worship services, which are then distributed to temple devotees.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of the priest is not necessarily certified by any central authority. The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the various roles of the priest are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the priest traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his work. If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the US is affiliated with a particular tradition lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for a priest, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the tradition lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

Paricharakaras specialize in the preparation of food offerings (prasadam) for Hindu worship services which are then distributed to temple devotees.

Every day in a typical Hindu temple begins with puja, which includes an offering of prasadam prepared by priests in the temple kitchen. During high holidays or days on which special worship serives or life sacrament ceremonies are being conducted, the offering of prasadam may be even more elaborate. While preparing any sanctified food offering, the priest must meet certain minimal requirements of purity and austerity and abide by strict guidelines, such as the proscription of the use of meat in any food prepared or served in the temple or limitations on the use of onion and garlic. Often times, only certain kinds of grain can be offered or other permutations and/or limitations.

A few times a year, many temples commemorate certain Hindu deities with a symbolic enactment of marriage of particular manifestations of God and Goddesses are celebrated (kalyanams) or a particular deity’s birth (Krishnajanmashtami). During these very elaborate celebrations, a variety of prescribed foods are cooked in the temple kitchen, offered during the ceremonies and later distributed to temple devotees as blessings. Another example is that of Annaprashna. Annaprashna is a life sacrament ceremony is one which celebrates the first solid food a Hindu child partakes in. In this age-old tradition, uncooked rice is offered during the ceremony and is later cooked in the temple kitchen and offered to not only the child, but all guests of the ceremony and temple devotees. Lastly, yagna and homam  (fire ceremonies), are special rituals which involve the preparation of certain foods. These foods, in accordance with religious prescriptions in the temple kitchen, are offered as oblations in a fire ceremony and the remaining are served to guests and temple devotees. Any and all food served in a Hindu temple is considered sacred and thus must abide by strict guidelines as mentioned earlier.

Most Paricharakarai are traditionally trained, but some may have gained their skills through independent study. Some paricharkaras can also be trained in Hindu worship services, so may play a variety of roles, as ritual food preparers in a temple kitchen as well as the liturgical officiants in religious ceremonies and rituals.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of the paricharakaras is not necessarily certified by a central authority.  The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the various roles of the priest are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the priest traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his work. If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the US is affiliated with a particular traditional lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for a priest, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the traditional lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

Sthapatis are traditionally trained Hindu architects and builders.

Most Hindu architecture, especially temples, are designed and built according to Vaastu Shastra. Vaastu Shastra provides sacred directives for essentially all kinds of edifices. Based on the sthapati‘s knowledge of this collection of scripture and practical expertise, he or she provides guidance in designing, building or renovating a temple, from the selection, geographic position and composition of the property to the direction, physical placement, dimensions, design, materials and embellishment of the actual structure and surrounding grounds.

While designing or building a temple, the sthapati may be required to meet certain minimal requirements of purity and austerity and abide by other guidelines, such as the proscription of eating meat, daily prayer and participating in other religious regimens.

A qualified sthapati should be trained in the theoretical, scriptural and practical aspects of Vaastu. The science of Vaastu shastra dates back several thousands of years and is formerly studied through either the traditional guilds, apprenticeships and oral tradition; through independent certification coursework or college degree programs.

Sthapati may also be called upon to perform certain worship services during different stages of the designing and building of a temple. As such, a sthapati must have a working knowledge of the various steps involved in certain worship services (generally referred to as puja); can chant special prayers that may be in Sanskrit or vernacular Indian languages and is familiar with the necessary items for the specific ceremonies and rituals (such as flowers, rice, coconut, clarified butter, specially prepared food offerings, incense, vermilion and camphor to name only a few). Vaastu shastra and shilpi shastra, the science or art of sacred sculpture, are collectively referred to as Sthapatya Veda.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of the sthapati is not necessarily certified by any central authority. The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the sthapati are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the sthapati traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his or her work. If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the US is affiliated with a particular tradition lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for the sthapati, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the tradition lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

Shilpis are traditionally trained Hindu sculptors.

Every temple houses deities or murti, which are central to Hindu worship as the physical representation of a particular manifestation of God and may have sculpted architectural ornamentation. Murti and sculpted temple ornamentation, in the same vein as temple design, are carved, adorned and installed according to strict sacred directives.

Temple sculpture, be it stone, metal, wood or clay, is directed by a collection of scripture called shilpi shastra. While sculpting any item for a temple, the shilpi must meet certain minimal requirements of purity and austerity and abide by strict guidelines, such as the proscription of eating meat, daily prayer, rising early in the morning to carve and participating in other strict religious regimens. The science of Shilpi shastra dates back several thousands of years and is formerly studied through either traditional guilds, apprenticeships and oral tradition or through independent certification coursework. A qualified shilpi should be trained in the theoretical, scriptural and practical aspects of Shilpi shastra.

Shilpi may also be called upon to perform certain worship services during different stages of sculpting. As such, a shilpi must have a working knowledge of the various steps involved in certain worship services (generally referred to as puja); can chant special prayers that may be in Sanskrit or vernacular Indian languages and is familiar with the necessary items for the specific ceremonies and rituals (such as flowers, rice, coconut, clarified butter, specially prepared food offerings, incense, vermilion and camphor to name only a few). Shilpi shastra and Vaastu shastra, the science or art of architecture, are collectively referred to as Sthapatya Veda.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of a shilpi is not certified by any central authority. The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the shilpi are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the shilpi traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his or her work. If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the U.S. is affiliated with a particular tradition lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for the shilpi, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the tradition lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

Hindu religious artists are specially trained musicians, singers and dancers who provide devotional services or teach at the temple or organization site or offsite.

In this category, special mention must be made of Odhuvaars. Odhuvaars are well-versed in Tamil Liturgy that dates back between 1200-1500 years. This liturgy has been passed down through an oral tradition of singers who are distinct from pujaris that perform the worship ceremonies in the temple. Odhuvars are an integral part of most worship ceremonies in Tamil temples. Somewhat akin to those who perform the Gregorian chant at churches.

Hindu religious jewelers custom design and make onsite silver, gold and bejeweled ornamentations for temple murti or deities. The art of alankara (decoration of deities) is an age old tradition in Hinduism and is a central facet of worship. In many temples, only certain people are allowed to touch the Deity or to enter the sanctum. Each Deity is different from another, being handmade, and these ornamentations are thus either made on site or fitted on site.

Brahmachari (male) or brahmacharini (female): A brahmachari or brahmacharini is an individual who has made a formal lifetime commitment in his or her earlier stages of training and initiation.

Most tradition lineages or sampradaya require a minimum period of novitiate experience under short-term vows prior to the individual’s taking of lifetime as the latter requires years of proper study, spiritual guidance and commitment. Other brahmacharis, while still in a novitiate, may gain this title or status under the tutelage of a non-tradition lineageal guru or spiritual master or through independent study, austerities, contemplative meditation and a stated commitment through such vows. Vows for any student monks may include ones of celibacy, renunciation of wealth and personal property, gradual severing of family ties and obligations, contemplative study of scripture, daily meditation and prayer, certain dietary restrictions and simple living among others.

Brahmacharis fulfill an essential role in Hindu society. To help meet the ministering needs of a Hindu temple or Hindu community, brahmacharis may conduct certain worship services, give lectures on scripture and Hindu philosophy, host adult discussion or scripture study groups, manage balavihars or student study groups and oversee service projects. Brahmacharis may also be called upon to act as a counselors or advisors to Hindu temple or organization members.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of the bramachari or brahmacharini is not necessarily certified by any central authority. The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the brahmachari are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the brahmachari traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his or her work.

If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the US is affiliated with a particular tradition lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for the brahmachari, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the tradition lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

Swami (male) or Swamini (female): A swami or swamini (who may also be called an acharya in some tradition lineages) is an individual who has made a lifetime commitment to monkhood.

This may include a renunciation of all duties and obligations of family life, including wealth, personal property, social status, marriage and family ties.

Most traditional lineages require an extended period of experience for lifetime vow as this commitment requires years of proper study, spiritual guidance and commitment. Other swamis may gain this title or status under the tutelage of a non-tradition lineageal guru or spiritual master or through independent study, austerities, contemplative meditation and a stated commitment through such vows. Lifetime vows for any monk may include ones of celibacy, renunciation of wealth and personal property, renunciation of family ties and obligations, contemplative study of scripture, daily meditation and prayer, certain dietary restrictions and simple living among others.

Swamis fulfill an essential role in Hindu society and serve as the spiritual and religious leader and minister of his or her Hindu temple or organization. To help meet the ministering needs of a Hindu temple or Hindu community, swamis may conduct certain worship services, give lectures on scripture and Hindu philosophy, host adult discussion or scripture study groups, manage balavihars or student study groups and provide guidance to brahmacharis (student monks). Swamis may also be called upon to act as a counselors or advisors to Hindu temple or organization members.

Since the Hindu tradition is highly decentralized, the occupation of the swami or swamini is not necessarily certified by any central authority.  The religious occupation and the capabilities required for the swami are verified and affirmed in the context of the community where the swami traditionally receives training, engages in the occupation and is recognized as competent based on the quality of his or her work. If, however, a Hindu temple or organization based in the US is affiliated with a particular tradition lineage (sampradaya), it may have additional requirements for the swami, such as having to be well versed in the specific lineage, scripture and worship services of the tradition lineage and certified by an authority recognized by the sampradaya.

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To best serve the needs of the community as well as provide the USCIS some standardized terminology which will increase familiarity with Hindu practice and temple needs, the Hindu American Foundation has created a descriptive list of possible religious worker positions that a Hindu temple in the US…

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The earliest systematic and most complete collection of early Buddhist sacred literature is the Pali Tipitaka ("Three Baskets"; Sanskrit: Tripitaka). Its arrangement reflects the importance that the early followers attached to the monastic life (Pali and Sanskrit: ), to the discourses of the Buddha (Pali: ), and subsequently to the interest in scholasticism (Pali: Abhidhamma).

The Pali Vinaya Pitaka ("Basket of Discipline") is still in theory the rule in Theravada monasteries, even though some sections have fallen into disuse. It is divided into five major parts grouped into three divisions-Sutta-vibhanga ("Division of Rules"), Khandhakas ("Sections"), and ("Accessory").

The largest of the three "baskets" is the Sutta Pitaka ("Basket of Discourse"), which consists of five collections (Pali and Sanskrit: ) of the Buddha's discourses. From a literary viewpoint, many of the discourses can appear to be drawn out and repetitive; however, they are characterized by sublimity of thought and employ rich, beautiful illustrative similes.

The third "basket," the Abhidhamma Pitaka ("Basket of Special [Further] Doctrine"), comprises seven works. Although based on the contents of the Buddha's discourses, they deal with topics that were central to Theravada scholastic thought. The Pali version is a strictly Theravada collection and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools.

Early noncanonical texts in Pali

The noncanonical literature of Theravada Buddhism consists, to a large extent, of commentaries on the Tipitaka texts but also includes other works. Prominent among the exponents of Buddhism who attempted to harmonize its apparently conflicting teachings and grasp the inner meaning of its doctrine were Nagasena, Buddhaghosha, Buddhadatta, and Dhammapala.

The Milinda-panha ("Questions of King Menander"), traditionally attributed to Nagasena, is one of the great achievements of Indian prose and was probably written at the time of Menander (160-35 bce) or shortly after. The author begins with an account of his own past lives and those of King Menander because events in those lives will cause the two to meet again in this life. Menander, a well-informed scholar and keen debater, is disheartened when no one is able to resolve problems he raises regarding Buddhist teachings. Impressed by the serenity of the monk Nagasena, the king visits him in his monastery. Their conversation at the monastery and later at the king's palace is the subject matter of the Milinda-panha, which presents a profound and comprehensive exposition of Buddhist doctrine, ethics, and psychology. This work, like several other noncanonical texts, contains a chariot analogy: although the parts of a chariot put together in a specific way constitute the chariot, there is no chariot as such over and above its parts; similarly, the various components of an individual human being make up the individual, but there is no entity that actually holds the components together.

Buddhaghosha (flourished early 5th century ce) is undoubtedly the most prolific and important writer in the Pali language. There is little agreement about his birthplace, but it is known that he stayed at Bodh Gaya, in eastern India, for a long time. There he most likely met Sinhalese monks, because the (Pali and Sanskrit: monastery) at Bodh Gaya had been built with the permission of Emperor Samudra Gupta (c. 330-380 ce) for Sinhalese pilgrims. Relocating to Sri Lanka, Buddhaghosha stayed at the Mahavihara ("Great Monastery") in Anuradhapura, which possessed a rich collection of commentarial literature, most likely in Old Sinhalese. Buddhaghosha's first work probably was the Visuddhimagga (Pali: "The Path of Purification"), a greatly revered compendium of Theravada teaching. He also wrote commentaries on the Vinaya (Pali), the first four (Pali and Sanskrit), and the seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, though the exact chronology of their composition cannot be determined.

Although a number of other works traditionally have been attributed to Buddhaghosha-including the Suttanipata (Pali: "Group of Suttas"), the Khuddaka-patha (Pali: "Collection on Little Readings"), the Dhammapada (Pali: "Verses on the Dhamma"), and the (Pali and Sanskrit: "Births")-modern scholarship indicates that he was not their author. The introduction to commentary on the includes the most famous "biography" of the Buddha in Pali; it begins with the hero's vow, made in a previous life, to become a buddha and concludes with his purported stay at the Jetavana monastery, where he told the 547 stories that follow. These stories, ranging from very brief narratives to full-scale romances, recount events in the Buddha's previous lives (for example, the story of the Buddha's last life before his birth as Siddhartha, during which he perfected the virtue of sacrificial giving). In countries where the Theravada school is prominent, these narratives and romances have exerted a tremendous influence on everything from the fine arts to law.

Buddhadatta, a contemporary of Buddhaghosha, was a native of Uragapura, near modern Tiruchchirappalli, in southern India. Like Buddhaghosha, he went to Sri Lanka to study at the Mahavihara in Anuradhapura, and upon his return he wrote his works in a monastery on the banks of the Kaveri River. His Abhidhammavatara (Pali: "The Coming of the Abhidhamma"), though a summary of the older works on the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is one of the most important commentaries on the "basket." While Buddhadatta's ideas were similar to those of Buddhaghosha, he did not follow Buddhaghosha blindly. Instead, he reduced Buddhaghosha's five metaphysical ultimates (form, feeling, sensations, motivations, and perception) to four (mind, mental events, forms, and nirvana). This creative classification, similar to that of the Sarvastivadins (a Buddhist sectarian group that emerged in the mid-3rd century bce and that affirmed ontological realism), makes Buddhadatta a philosopher in his own right rather than a commentator who merely restates matters in new terms.

Dhammapala, who probably came from southern India, is credited with the writing of numerous commentaries, including the Paramattha dipani (Pali: "Elucidation of the True Meaning"), a commentary on several books of the Khuddaka nikaya. In the Paramattha manjusa (Pali: "Jewel Box of the True Meaning"), a commentary on Buddhaghosha's Visuddhimagga, Dhammapala quotes a verse from the Hindu scripture Bhagavadgita and frequently mentions the views of other schools and teachers. As a result, this work provides valuable information about intellectual activity in traditional circles.

At the close of the 4th century ce, an even older work existed in Sri Lanka. This chronicle of the history of the island from its legendary beginning onward probably was part of the Maha-atthakatha, the commentarial literature that formed the basis of the works by Buddhaghosha and others. The accounts it contains are reflected in the (Pali: "History of the Island"), which appears to be a poor redaction in Pali of an earlier Old Sinhalese version. The (Pali: "Great Chronicle"), compiled by Mahanama in the 5th or 6th century, and its continuation in the Chulavamsa ("Little Chronicle"), compiled from the 13th to the 18th century, show much greater skill in the use of the Pali language and make liberal use of other material. These artistic compositions contain rich mythic, legendary, and historical material. The tradition continued in Sri Lanka (where it remains alive) and other countries where the Theravada school was prominent.

Later Theravada literature

During and after the "revival" and spread of the Theravada in the early centuries of the 2nd millennium ce, a new corpus of Theravada literature came into being. This corpus includes commentaries and other works written in Pali in Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia, as well as many important texts written in Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, Laotian, and Khmer. One of the important Pali texts is the Mangala dipani, a highly respected commentary on the Mangala-sutta that was written in northern Thailand in the 16th century. Important vernacular texts include the 14th-century Traibhumikatha ("Three Worlds According to King Ruang"), which is the oldest-known full-length text written in Thai, and the Buddhadhamma, a 20th-century work by the Thai monk Prayudh Payutto.

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The earliest systematic and most complete collection of early Buddhist sacred literature is the Pali Tipitaka ("Three Baskets"; Sanskrit: Tripitaka). Its arrangement reflects the importance that the early followers attached to the monastic life (Pali and Sanskrit: Vinaya), to the discourses of the Buddha (Pali: Sutta), and subsequently to the interest in scholasticism (Pali: Abhidhamma).

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The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization and the most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, containing spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of life. The philosophical maxims of Vedic literature have stood the test of time, and the Vedas form the highest religious authority for all aspects of Hinduism and are a respected source of wisdom for mankind in general.

The word Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it serves to manifest the language of the gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas have regulated the social, legal, domestic and religious customs of Hindus up to the present day. All the obligatory duties of Hindus at birth, marriage, death etc. are guided by Vedic rituals.

Origin of the Vedas

It is difficult to say when the earliest portions of the Vedas came into existence, but it seems clear they are among the very earliest written wisdom documents produced humans. As the ancient Hindus seldom kept any historical record of their religious, literary and political realization, it is difficult to determine the period of the Vedas with precision. Historians provide us many guesses but none are guaranteed to be precise. It is thought, though, that the earliest Vegas may date back to roughly 1700 BCE-the late Bronze Age.

Who Wrote the Vedas?

Tradition has it that humans did not compose the revered compositions of the Vedas, but that God taught the Vedic hymns to the sages, who then handed them down through generations by word of mouth. Another tradition suggests that the hymns were "revealed," to the sages, who were known as the seers or "mantradrasta" of the hymns. The formal documentation of Vedas was done mainly by Vyasa Krishna Dwaipayana around the time of Lord Krishna (c. 1500 BC)

Classification of the Vedas

The Vedas are classified into four volumes: the Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, with the Rig Veda serving as the principal text. The four Vedas are collectively known as "Chathurveda, " of which the first three Vedas--Rig Veda, Sama Veda, and Yajur Veda--agree with one another in form, language and content.

Structure of the Vedas

Each Veda consists of four parts--the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies). The collection of mantras or hymns is called the Samhita.

The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts that include precepts and religious duties. Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.

The Aranyakas (forest texts) intend to serve as objects of meditation for ascetics who live in forests and deal with mysticism and symbolism.

The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and is therefore called the "Vedanta" or the end of the Veda. The Upanishads contain the essence of Vedic teachings.

The Mother of All Scriptures

Although the Vedas are seldom read or understood today, even by the devout, they no doubt form the bedrock of the universal religion or "Sanatana Dharma" that all Hindus follow. The Upanishads, however, are read by serious students of religious tradition and spirituality in all cultures and are regarded as principle texts within the body of mankind's wisdom traditions.

The Vedas have guided our religious direction for ages and will continue to do so for generations to come. And they will forever remain the most comprehensive and universal of all ancient Hindu scriptures.

"The One Truth the sages call by many names." ~ Rig Veda

The Rig Veda: The Book of Mantra

The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or hymns and is a main source of information on the Rig Vedic civilization. It is the oldest book in any Indo-European language and contains the earliest form of all Sanskrit mantras, dating back to 1500 BCE- 1000 BCE. Some scholars date the Rig Veda as early as 12000 BCE - 4000 BCE.

The Rig-Vedic 'samhita' or collection of mantras consists of 1,017 hymns or 'suktas', covering about 10,600 stanzas, divided into eight 'astakas,' each having eight 'adhayayas' or chapters, which are sub-divided into various groups. The hymns are the work of many authors, or seers, called 'rishis.' There are seven primary seers identified: Atri, Kanwa, Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bharadwaja. The rig Veda accounts in detail the social, religious, political and economic background of the Rig-Vedic civilization. Even though monotheism characterizes some of the hymns of Rig Veda, naturalistic polytheism and monism can be discerned in the religion of the hymns of the Rig Veda.

The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda and are ascribed to the Vedic period.

The Sama Veda: The Book of Song

The Sama Veda is purely a liturgical collection of melodies ('saman'). The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. As Vedic Scholar David Frawley puts it, if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning; if Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization; if Rig Veda is the wife, the Sama Veda is her husband.

The Yajur Veda: The Book of Ritual

The Yajur Veda is also a liturgical collection and was made to meet the demands of a ceremonial religion. The Yajur Veda served as a practical guidebook for the priests who execute sacrificial acts while muttering simultaneously the prose prayers and the sacrificial formulae ('yajus'). It is similar to ancient Egypt's "Book of the Dead."

There are no less than six complete recessions of Yajur Veda--Madyandina, Kanva, Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani and Kapishthala.

The Atharva Veda: The Book of Spell

The last of the Vedas, this is completely different from the other three Vedas and is next in importance to the Rig Veda with regard to history and sociology. A different spirit pervades this Veda. Its hymns are of a more diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language. In fact, many scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time and portrays a clearer picture of the Vedic society.

Manoj Sadasivan also contributed to this article.

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What You Need to Know About the Vedas--India's Most Sacred Texts

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The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization and the most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, containing spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of life.

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The writer is a Congress member and former Union minister

I am in search, in this surcharged environment, of the 'asli' (true) Hindu.

There is a wide chasm between Hindutva and Hinduism. Hindutva is a political ideology with intent to capture power. It is in no way related to Hinduism, which is a way of life. Hindutva today is nothing but Hindu fundamentalism. It has no relationship with core Hindu philosophical tenets.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi is a follower of Swami Vivekananda. The latter's enunciation of the core values of Hinduism might help in resisting the denigration of Hindu values through the ideology of Hindutva. In 1893 - at the World Parliament of Religions - Swami Vivekananda, when commenting on various religions, stated "each must assimilate the spirit of the other, and yet preserve his individuality and grow according to his own law of growth."

Hindutva is an ideology practised by RSS pracharaks who hold the reins of power and the self-proclaimed vigilantes who seek to represent its moral force. Both are attempting to destroy the individuality and the spirit behind those who embrace other religions.

For Swami Vivekananda, "Help and not fight", "Assimilation and not Destruction", "Harmony and Peace and not Dissension" should be the banner of every religion. Events of the recent past suggest that Hindutva's essential characteristics are fuelling disharmony and discord.

Swami Vivekananda's dream was to harmonise Vedanta, the Bible and Quran, because he believed that all religions are but expressions of Oneness and that each individual has the right to embrace his religion and choose the path that suits him best. Those who espouse the cause of Hindutva have not understood this meaning of Hinduism. If we continue along this path, the 'asli' Hindu might develop traits that have no resemblance to the tenets of his religion.

Swamiji's prophetic words about food and eating habits have a definite bearing on protagonists of Hindutva entering into the kitchens of our households. Swamiji said "There is a danger of our religion getting into the kitchen.... Our God is the cooking-pot, and our religion is, 'Don't touch me, I am Holy' ... If this goes on for another century, every one of us will be in a lunatic asylum."

These thoughts enunciated at the end of the 19th century should have guided mankind when embracing the 21st century. What we are witnessing today is ideologues of the 21st century harking back to 18th century mindsets. Our governments are now going to decide on our food habits.

Over the years, the Indian mind symbolised the spirit of tolerance. Many religions and cultures have flourished here. Christianity and Islam have found ample space to walk the path they wish to take. Diverse ideas and thoughts have been freely exchanged. Hindu intellectuals flourished within the courtyard of emperor Akbar. Sufi mystics have influenced lives of people over centuries. Yet, Hindutva seeks to efface the past and to build a divisive future.

The eclectic nature of Hinduism is lost on muscular Hindutva preachers. Even its diverse cultural dimensions are not fully appreciated by those who carry the badge of a pan-Indian cultural identity. Hindutva has a fascist, nationalistic and hegemonic dimension. Its diktats are patriarchal and casteist. The idea of a monolithic Hindu religion is unsuited to the inherent diversity of the people of India.

Hindutva as a movement "bristles with rage" at the "slightest criticism". The 'asli' Hindu is merely a community without a sacred scripture or a founder. What needs protection are the values inherent in the diversity within Hinduism; not the values that Hindutva seeks to impose. Hindutva must not encourage the wanton loss of human lives in an attempt to protect the 'holy cow'.

Hinduism, a loosely knit faith in which all can flourish is antithetical to the concept of a narrow set of beliefs, doctrines and practices. Both pantheism and agnosticism are part of the Hindu religion. Millions of Gods and Goddesses are part of the Hindu faith. The Hindutva narrative has no appetite for multiple strands of faith, schools of philosophy and diversity of tradition.

Violence and untruth have no place in the practice of Hinduism. Mahatma Gandhi's fundamental beliefs rested on two pillars: 'non-violence' and 'Truth'. RSS and the Hindutva they espouse believe in rumour mongering.

The spate of violence recently unleashed has made us insecure. Our prime minister's silence on statements offering ransom to behead a chief minister is disturbing. Those unwilling to embrace Hindutva are asked to leave the country. The violence at Una, Dadri and the most recent incident at Alwar are all examples of levels of intolerance not witnessed in this country for years.

Dissent is treated as sedition. Those responsible for law and order silently watch Hindutva brigades create disorder. Events in JNU and University of Hyderabad vitiate the environment of learning by stirring passions. Networks in the social media have become platforms of abuse hurled by those paid to do so. Security forces are sent to academic campuses and protagonists of Hindutva are given a free run for attacking protesting students.

Yoga symbolises discipline. Hindutva elements espouse the cause of yoga and have demonstrated levels of indiscipline not seen before in recent times. Cultural superiority through Hindutva is confused with what represents true culture.

The 'asli' Hindu is silent. It is time for him to stand up and make his presence felt.

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A war of opposites: Rubbishing Hinduism's eclectic nature, Hindutva treats any expression of dissent as sedition

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The writer is a Congress member and former Union minister I am in search, in this surcharged environment, of the 'asli' (true) Hindu. There is a wide chasm between Hindutva and Hinduism. Hindutva is a political ideology with intent to capture power. It is in no way related to Hinduism, which is a way of life.

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Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion. Some traditions of Hinduism date back more than 3,000 years. Over the centuries, however, its followers-called Hindus-have...

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Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India. Buddhists believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana.

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Meditation
praying
wishing
begging for forgiveness

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Meditation
praying
wishing
begging for forgiveness

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-cure sicknesses
-scares away demons or any spirits
-tames funerals
-they are found at places in the temple next to the statues

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-cure sicknesses
-scares away demons or any spirits
-tames funerals
-they are found at places in the temple next to the statues

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pray at temple

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pray at temple

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Hinduism is a religion (its a way of life)

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"Buddhism is an organized religion, but rather, a “way of life” or a “spiritual tradition"

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"liberating sentient beings from suffering"-Quote

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"this belief holds that living creatures have a soul, and they're all part of the supreme soul"-Quote

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The Tipitaka
-called Harivarman

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Nepal

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between the late 6th century and the early 4th century BCE
-Siddhartha Gautama

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Kathina

Kathina is a holiday that occurs after Dharma Day at the time of year when Buddhists give large amounts of money to the poor or needy, called giving alms. It is celebrated in October and November at the end of the Vassa time, when there are typically monsoons in many Buddhist countries. At this time of year, Buddhist monks have been in seclusion for three months, and Kathina allows them to come out into public. When they come out, the monks are offered cloth by citizens. The offerings and celebrations can last an entire month.

The story behind the festival is that 30 monks were traveling to Buddha to be with him for the beginning of the three-month seclusion, called Vassa, but they did not reach him in time. Buddha found out about this story and sent them cloth to sew a robe. They decided to sew many new robes using a Kathina, a tool to spread the fabric over, like a frame. The word means "hard" and suggests stability and durability, traits of the monastic life.

Today, Buddhist citizens continue the tradition of giving cloth to the monks ― their teachers. The cloth is for the whole community, and then it is given to two monks who make the robe. These two monks then decide which member of the community receives the robe.

Reviewed by: Nancy Brown, Ph.D.

Last Reviewed: June 2019

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Kathina is a holiday that occurs after Dharma Day at the time of year when Buddhists give large amounts of money to the poor or needy, called giving alms. It is celebrated in October and November at the end of the Vassa time, when there are typically monsoons in many Buddhist countries.

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The Vedas
- Rishis (sages)

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There are three main yearly festivals. All major festival celebrations include visiting a temple, eating special foods and exchanging gifts.

Diwali is the festival of lights. Light represents knowledge. It is celebrated in late October or early November. This is the Hindu New Year.

Holi is the festival which marks the coming of spring. It is held in March or April. There are processions and people light bonfires and cover each other with colored water and powders.

Dussehra is the festival which marks Rama's triumph over the evil Ravana. It is held in September. There are dances and plays with events in the life of the god Rama depicted.

Every twelve years in January or February:

Kumbha Mela: This celebration is a huge bathing affair. Millions of Hindu pilgrims go to the River Ganges at Allahbad for this festival.

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There are three main yearly festivals. All major festival celebrations include visiting a temple, eating special foods and exchanging gifts. Diwali is the festival of lights. Light represents knowledge. It is celebrated in late October or early November. This is the Hindu New Year. Holi is the festival which marks the coming of spring.

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3rd–2nd millennium bce
- Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various beliefs

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Ensō

In Zen Buddhism, ensō is a sacred symbol often referred to as "The Circle of Enlightenment." It is a circle that is hand-drawn in one or two brushstrokes to express a moment when the mind is free to let the body create. Some artists draw ensō as an open circle, while others complete the circle.

At first, ensō may appear as a roughly drawn circle, but it symbolizes many things: strength, elegance, the universe, our true and innermost self, beauty in imperfection, and the oneness of all things in life. It also symbolizes the perfect meditative state or enlightenment.

Ensō is a visual expression of the Form is emptiness and emptiness is form-a circle in which everything is contained within, or, equally excluded by its boundaries.

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Buddhist Symbols | Guide to the Symbols of Buddhism

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In Zen Buddhism, ensō is a sacred symbol often referred to as "The Circle of Enlightenment." It is a circle that is hand-drawn in one or two brushstrokes to express a moment when the mind is free to let the body create. Some artists draw ensō as an open circle, while others complete the circle.

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Here’s What The Om Symbol Really Means & How To Use It

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A whole lot of meaning packed into one simple sound.

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India