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Spanish Civil War, (1936–1939), Is a military revolt against the Republican government of Spain, supported by conservative elements within the country. When an initial military coup failed to win control of the entire country, a bloody civil war ensued, fought with great ferocity on both sides. The Nationalists, as the rebels were called, received aid from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Republicans received aid from the Soviet Union as well as from the International Brigades, composed of volunteers from Europe and the United States.

The war was an outcome of a polarization of Spanish life and politics that had developed over previous decades. On one side, the Nationalist, were most Roman Catholics, important elements of the military, most landowners, and many businessmen. On the other side, the Republican, were urban workers, most agricultural labourers, and many of the educated middle class. Politically, their differences often found extreme and vehement expression in parties such as the Fascist-oriented Falange and the militant anarchists. Between these extremes were other groups covering the political spectrum from monarchism and conservatism through liberalism to socialism, including a small communist movement divided among followers of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and his archrival, Leon Trotsky. In 1934 there was widespread labour conflict and a bloody uprising by miners in Asturias that was suppressed by troops led by General Francisco Franco. A succession of governmental crises culminated in the elections of February 16, 1936, which brought to power a Popular Front government supported by most of the parties of the left and opposed by the parties of the right and what remained of the centre.

A well-planned military uprising began on July 17, 1936, in garrison towns throughout Spain. By July 21 the rebels had achieved control in Spanish Morocco, the Canary Islands, and the Balearic Islands (except Minorca) and in the part of Spain north of the Guadarrama mountains and the Ebro River, except for Asturias, Santander, and the Basque provinces along the north coast and the region of Catalonia in the northeast. The Republican forces had put down the uprising in other areas, except for some of the larger Andalusian cities, including Sevilla (Seville), Granada, and Córdoba. The Nationalists and Republicans proceeded to organize their respective territories and to repress opposition or suspected opposition. Republican violence occurred primarily during the early stages of the war before the rule of law was restored, but the Nationalist violence was part of a conscious policy of terror. The matter of how many were killed remains highly contentious; however, it is generally believed that the toll of Nationalist violence was higher. In any event, the proliferation of executions, murders, and assassinations on both sides reflects the great passions that the Civil War unleashed.

The captaincy of the Nationalists was gradually assumed by General Franco, leading forces he had brought from Morocco. On October 1, 1936, he was named head of state and set up a government in Burgos. The Republican government, beginning in September 1936, was headed by the socialist leader Francisco Largo Caballero. He was followed in May 1937 by Juan Negrín, also a socialist, who remained premier throughout the remainder of the war and served as premier in exile until 1945. The president of the Spanish Republic until nearly the end of the war was Manuel Azaña, an anticlerical liberal. Internecine conflict compromised the Republican effort from the outset. On one side were the anarchists and militant socialists, who viewed the war as a revolutionary struggle and spearheaded widespread collectivization of agriculture, industry, and services; on the other were the more moderate socialists and republicans, whose objective was the preservation of the Republic. Seeking allies against the threat of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union had embraced a Popular Front strategy, and, as a result, the Comintern directed Spanish communists to support the Republicans.

Both the Nationalist and Republican sides, seeing themselves as too weak to win a quick victory, turned abroad for help. Germany and Italy sent troops, tanks, and planes to aid the Nationalists. The Soviet Union contributed equipment and supplies to the Republicans, who also received help from the Mexican government. During the first weeks of the war, the Popular Front government of France also supported the Republicans, but internal opposition forced a change of policy. In August 1936, France joined Britain, the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy in signing a nonintervention agreement that would be ignored by the Germans, Italians, and Soviets. About 40,000 foreigners fought on the Republican side in the International Brigades largely under the command of the Comintern, and 20,000 others served in medical or auxiliary units.

By November 1936 the Nationalists had advanced to the outskirts of Madrid. They laid siege to it but were unable to get beyond the University City area. They captured the Basque northern provinces in the summer of 1937 and then Asturias, so that by October they held the whole northern coast. A war of attrition began. The Nationalists drove a salient eastward through Teruel, reaching the Mediterranean and splitting the republic in two in April 1938. In December 1938 they moved upon Catalonia in the northeast, forcing the Republican armies there northward toward France. By February 1939, 250,000 Republican soldiers, together with an equal number of civilians, had fled across the border into France. On March 5 the Republican government flew to exile in France. On March 7 a civil war broke out in Madrid between communist and anticommunist factions. By March 28 all of the Republican armies had begun to disband and surrender, and Nationalist forces entered Madrid on that day.

The number of persons killed in the Spanish Civil War can be only roughly estimated. Nationalist forces put the figure at 1,000,000, including not only those killed in battle but also the victims of bombardment, execution, and assassination. More recent estimates have been closer to 500,000 or less. This does not include all those who died from malnutrition, starvation, and war-engendered disease.

The political and emotional reverberations of the war far transcended those of a national conflict, for many in other countries saw the Spanish Civil War as part of an international conflict between—depending on their point of view—tyranny and democracy, or fascism and freedom, or communism and civilization. For Germany and Italy, Spain was a testing ground for new methods of tank and air warfare. For Britain and France, the conflict represented a new threat to the international equilibrium that they were struggling to preserve, which in 1939 collapsed into World War II.

Summary :

Spanish Civil War, (1936–1939) Is a military revolt against the government of Spain. After the failed military coup, a military uprising began in garrison towns throughout Spain, led by the rebel Nationalists and supported by conservative elements in the clergy, military, business and landowners as well as the fascist Falange.

The ruling Republican government, led by the socialist premiers Francisco Largo Caballero and Juan Negrín and the liberal president Manuel Azaña y Díaz, was supported by workers and many in the educated middle class as well as militant anarchists and communists.

Government forces put down the uprising in most regions except parts of northwestern and southwestern Spain, where the Nationalists held control and named Francisco Franco head of state. Both sides repressed opposition. They executed or assassinated suspected enemies to their respective causes.

Seeking aid from abroad, the
Nationalists received troops, tanks, and planes from Nazi Germany and Italy, which used Spain as a testing ground for new methods of tank and air warfare. The Republicans were sent aid mainly by the Soviet Union, and the volunteer International Brigades also joined the Republicans.

The two sides fought fierce and bloody skirmishes in a war of attrition. The Nationalist side gradually gained territory and by April 1938 succeeded in splitting Spain from east to west, causing 250,000 Republican forces to flee into France. In March 1939 the remaining Republican forces surrendered, and Madrid, beset by civil strife between communists and anticommunists, fell to the Nationalists on March 28. About 500,000 people died in the war, and all Spaniards were deeply scarred by the trauma.

VIVA ESPANA!

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The Aztec Empire was located in central Mexico. It ruled much of the region from the 1400s until the Spanish arrived in 1519. Much of the Aztec society centered around their religion and gods. They built large pyramids as temples to their gods and went to war to capture people they could sacrifice to their gods. The capital city of the Aztec Empire was Tenochtitlan. This city was founded in 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco. At the height of its power, the city likely had a population of 200,000 people. At the center of the city was a large temple complex with pyramids and a palace for the king. The rest of the city was planned out in a grid-like fashion and divided up into districts. It had causeways built to get to the mainland and aqueducts to bring fresh water into the city. The Aztec called their ruler the Tlatoani. The Empire reached its height under the rule of Tlatoani Montezuma I. Around 1517 the priests of the Aztecs began to see omens of doom. They felt that something bad was going to happen. They were right. In 1519 Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrived in Mexico. By 1521 the Spanish had conquered the Aztecs. They tore down much of the city of Tenochtitlan and built their own city on the site called Mexico City.

Summary :
The Aztec Empire was located in central Mexico. It ruled much of the region from the 1400s until the Spanish arrived in 1519. Much of the Aztec society centered around their religion and gods. At the height of its power, the city likely had a population of 200,000 people. At the center of the city was a large temple complex with pyramids and a palace for the king. They felt that something bad was going to happen. They were right. In 1519 Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrived in Mexico.

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The Asian financial crisis was a period of financial crisis that gripped much of East Asia and Southeast Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown due to financial contagion. However, the recovery in 1998–1999 was rapid and worries of a meltdown subsided.The crisis started in Thailand (known in Thailand as the Tom Yam Kung crisis; Thai: วิกฤตต้มยำกุ้ง) on 2 July, with the financial collapse of the Thai baht after the Thai government was forced to float the baht due to lack of foreign currency to support its currency peg to the U.S. dollar. Capital flight ensued almost immediately, beginning an international chain reaction. At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of foreign debt.[1] As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and later South Korea and Japan saw slumping currencies,[2] devalued stock markets and other asset prices, and a precipitous rise in private debt.[3]

Indonesia, South Korea, and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump. Brunei, mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Japan was also affected, though less significantly.

Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios rose from 100% to 167% in the four large Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies in 1993–96, then shot up beyond 180% during the worst of the crisis. In South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern newly industrialized countries fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise.[4]

Although most of the governments of Asia had seemingly sound fiscal policies, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stepped in to initiate a $40 billion program to stabilize the currencies of South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia, economies particularly hard hit by the crisis. The efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, Indonesian President Suharto was forced to step down on 21 May 1998 in the wake of widespread rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the rupiah. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998. In 1998, growth in the Philippines dropped to virtually zero. Only Singapore and Taiwan proved relatively insulated from the shock, but both suffered serious hits in passing, the former due to its size and geographical location between Malaysia and Indonesia. By 1999, however, analysts saw signs that the economies of Asia were beginning to recover.[5] After the crisis, economies in the region worked toward financial stability and better financial supervision.[6]

Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the total capital inflow into developing countries. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to foreign investors looking for a high rate of return. As a result, the region's economies received a large inflow of money and experienced a dramatic run-up in asset prices. At the same time, the regional economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and South Korea experienced high growth rates, of 8–12% GDP, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, and was known as part of the "Asian economic miracle".

Summary:

The Asian financial crisis was a period of financial crisis that gripped much of East Asia and Southeast Asia beginning in July 1997.
This crisis began in Thailand with the financial collapse of the Thai baht. At that time, Thailand was burdened with foreign debt. The crisis spread to most of Southeast Asia and East Asia. Indonesia, Korea and Thailand are the countries most affected by this crisis. Because of the crisis the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stepped in to initiate a $40 billion program to stabilize the currencies of South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia. However, these efforts did not help the economy in Indonesia much. One of these effects was the forced removal of President Suharto from office in the midst of the unrest. This crisis lasted until 1998 and in 1999 the economy in Asia began to recover. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, and was known as part of the "Asian economic miracle".

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Annisa Fitri Utami (03)

Series of airline hijackings and suicide bombings against U.S. targets perpetrated by 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda. The attacks were planned well in advance. The militants most of whom were from Saudi Arabia traveled to the U.S. beforehand, where a number received commercial flight training. Working in small groups, the hijackers boarded 4 domestic airliners in groups of 5 on September 11 2001, and took control of the planes soon after takeoff. At 8:46 AM at local time , the terrorists piloted the first plane into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. A second plane struck the south tower some 15 minutes later. Both structures erupted in flames and, badly damaged, soon collapsed. A third plane struck the southwest side of the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., at 9:40, and within the next hour the fourth crashed in Pennsylvania after its passengers aware of events via cellular telephone attempted to overpower their assailants. Some 2,750 people were killed in New York, 184 at the Pentagon, and 40 in Pennsylvania. All 19 terrorists died.

Summary:

This incident occurred on the morning of September 11, 2001. A total of 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial planes. They crashed two planes into the top floor of the North Tower, South of the WTC complex, and a third plane into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The top of the Twin Towers collapsed from the collision. The fourth plane, Flight 93, crashed into an empty field in western Pennsylvania about 20 minutes by air from Washington, DC As a result of this attack, there were 2,977 people from 93 countries, namely 2,753 people died in New York, 184 people died at the Pentagon, and 40 people died on Flight 93.

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The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was an intermittent conflict between England and France lasting 116 years. It began because King Edward III and Philip VI escalated a dispute over feudal rights in Gascony to a battle for the French Crown. The Hundred Years' War is traditionally divided into three phases for the purposes of study and to reflect the important periods of peace between the two countries:

1.    The Edwardian War (1337-1360)

The French king confiscated Gascony to the French Crown in 1337 and raided the south coast of England. In June 1340 French invasion fleet was sunk by an English fleet at Sluys in the Scheldt estuary. This was followed up in 1345 with the capture of Gascony and invasion of Normandy where the strategy of chevauchées was employed. The strategy worked and the French army unable to find a response to the combination of English archers and knights fighting on foot, suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Crécy in August 1346. Philip cleverly called on his Scottish allies to invade northern England. David II of Scotland invaded England in October 1346 but was defeated by an English army at the Battle of Neville's Cross (17 October 1346). King David was captured and only released in 1357 as part of the Treaty of Berwick. In 1347 Calais was captured but the arrival of the Black Death plague in Europe interrupted the hostilities. The next major victory was at the Battle of Poitiers in September 1356 was led by Edward's able son (1330-1376). The defeated King John II of France was captured at Poitiers and was detained for four years. The 1360 Treaty of Brétigny was then signed between England and France which recognised Edward's claim to 25% of France in return for Edward renouncing his claim to the French crown.

2.    The Caroline War (1369-1389)

The Peace of Brétigny ended in 1369 when Charles V aka Charles the Wise (r. 1364-1380), began to grab back in earnest what his predecessors had lost. Charles also had a superior navy to the English and so was able to make frequent raids on the south coast of England. Most of Aquitaine was grabbed in 1372, an English fleet was defeated off La Rochelle in the same year and by 1375, the only lands left in France belonging to the English Crown were Calais and a slice of Gascony. In 1389 a truce was declared once again and relations further improved when, on 12 March 1396, Richard II of England married Isabella of France, the daughter of Charles VI of France. Under the next king, Henry IV of England (r. 1399-1413), the Crown was rather too preoccupied with rebellions in England and Wales to do very much in France.

3.    The Lancastrian War (1415-1453)

Henry invaded Normandy, captured the important port of Harfleur in 1415 and followed this up with a stunning victory at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October. In 1419 Henry had managed to conquer all of Normandy, including the capital Rouen. These victories had made Henry V a national hero and in May 1420 he obliged the French to sign a peace treaty, The Treaty of Troyes. To cement the new alliance, Henry married Charles' daughter, Catherine of Valois. In March 1421, the English lost at the Battle of Baugé and Henry's own brother, Thomas, Duke of Clarence was killed. Henry headed to France to resume the war personally and on 11 May 1422, he captured Meaux after an eight-month siege. Henry never got the chance to become the king of France as he died unexpectedly, probably of dysentery on 31 August 1422 at Bois de Vincennes in France.

SUMMARY

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was an intermittent conflict between England and France lasting 116 years. It began principally because King Edward III (r. 1327-1377) and Philip VI (r. 1328-1350) escalated a dispute over feudal rights in Gascony to a battle for the French Crown. At first, the English won great victories at the battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356) but then Charles V of France (r. 1364-1380) steadily regained much of the lands lost since the start of the war.

After a period of peace when Richard II of England (r. 1377-1399) married the daughter of Charles VI of France (r. 1380-1422), the war exploded into action again with the Battle of Agincourt (1415), won by Henry V of England (r. 1413-1422). Henry was nominated the heir to the French throne but his early death and the ineffectual rule of Henry VI of England (r. 1422-61 & 1470-71) resulted in Charles VII of France (r. 1422-1461) retaking the initiative. With help from such figures as Joan of Arc (1412-1431), the French won crucial battles at Formigny (1450) and Castillon (1453) to bring final victory.

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The Early Islamic World was a period of rapid expansion for both the Islamic Empire and the religion of Islam. While Europe was languishing in the dark ages, the Middle East was experiencing a time of economic prosperity and scientific advancement.
Islamic Empire from the start of Islam (610 CE) to the fall of the Ottoman Empire (1924). Islam The religion of Islam was founded in 610 CE by the Prophet Muhammad in the city of Mecca (modern day Saudi Arabia). The religion soon spread throughout the region and had a major impact on the culture of the Middle East and North Africa throughout the Middle Ages. Caliphate After Muhammad died, the Islamic government was called the "Caliphate" and was ruled by a "Caliph." The first four Caliphs were all taught Islam by Muhammad and were called the "Rightly Guided" Caliphs. They were followed by the first Islamic dynasty called the Umayyad Caliphate. In 750 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate took control and ruled for 500 years. The Islamic Golden Age took place during the Abbasid Caliphate. Expanse of the Empire The Islamic Empire expanded throughout the Middle Ages to become one of the largest empires in the history of the world. It controlled the Middle East, northern Africa, the Iberian peninsula (Spain), and parts of Asia into India. Islamic Golden Age The Islamic Golden Age was a period when science, culture, technology, education, and the arts flourished throughout the Islamic Empire. This period lasted from around 790 CE to 1258 CE. The cultural center during this time was the city of Baghdad which also served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Interesting Facts about the Early Islamic World :
Early Islamic art seldom included figures of humans or animals to avoid creating idols that people would worship. There were several capital cities of the Caliphate throughout history. Some of the major capitals included Medina, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and Istanbul. The Islamic Golden Age came to an end when the Mongols sacked the city of Baghdad in 1258 CE. There are "Five Pillars of Islam" that form the framework of the religion of Islam.
They are Shahadah (declaration of faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (charity), Fasting, Hajj (pilgrimage). At its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate was one of the largest empires in world history. It governed around 28% of the world's population.
Summary :
Islam The religion of Islam was founded in 610 CE by the Prophet Muhammad in the city of Mecca . They were followed by the first Islamic dynasty called the Umayyad Caliphate. In 750 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate took control and ruled for 500 years.

The Islamic Golden Age took place during the Abbasid Caliphate. Expanse of the Empire The Islamic Empire expanded throughout the Middle Ages to become one of the largest empires in the history of the world. At its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate was one of the largest empires in world history.

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The Battle of Badr took place on March 17, 624 AD or 17 Ramadan in the second year of Hijriah. The Battle of Badr involved 314 Muslim armies against more than 1,000 people from the Quraysh. The Battle of Badr was the first war fought by Muslims since the migration of the Prophet Muhammad in 622 AD. Historically, the word "badr" comes from the name of a spring located between Mecca and Medina. Therefore, the big war in the holy month of Ramadan is called the battle of badr. At first, word spread in the city of Medina that there was a large caravan of the Quraysh who left Syria to return to Mecca. The caravan was carrying commercial goods of enormous value in the form of 1,000 camels along with other valuables. The Muslims then blocked Abu Sufyan's trading caravan carrying Quraysh merchandise from Syria. The reason for the obstruction was the desire of the Muslims to take away their rights which had been usurped by the Quraysh. Meanwhile, among the Quraysh grew jealousy due to the development of the city of Medina under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad. However, the war of badr actually occurred because Muslims wanted to maintain the existence of the Islamic religion. In addition, the Prophet Muhammad SAW fought against the Quraysh also not to gain power, wealth, personal or group pleasures. More than that, the Prophet Muhammad wanted to establish the religion of Islam on earth. The Battle of Badr took place on the 17th of Ramadan in the year 2 Hijri in the morning. The Muslim army was led by the Prophet Muhammad, while the troops from the Quraysh were led by Abu Jahal.

In the war, the Muslims took the position closest to the water source. The place was chosen by the Prophet Muhammad SAW as a form of war strategy. Muslims take advantage of the geographical conditions of the Badr Region.

For example, a friend of Saad bin Muadz made a mound of earth around the site of the war. This was intended so that the Prophet Muhammad SAW could oversee the course of the war and predict the right attack pattern to defeat the Quraysh troops.

In the battle of Badr, Prophet Muhammad SAW led the direct attack on the Quraysh. The war involved 313 Muslims, 8 swords, 6 armor, 70 camels, and 2 horses.

Meanwhile, the troops of the Quraysh mobilized an army of 1,000 men, 600 fully armed, 700 camels, and 300 horses. Despite being outnumbered by troops, the Muslims were still eager for jihad in the month of Ramadan. The spirit of war succeeded in killing three war leaders from the Quraysh troops, namely Utbah, Syaibah, and Walid bin Utbah. Among the Quraysh troops who attacked Muslims, there were relatives of the Prophet Muhammad from the Bani Hashim tribe. They were the uncle of the prophet, Abbas bin Abdul Muttalib, Hakim (Khadijah's cousin), and so on. Indeed, the big battle in the battle of Badr was beyond the expectations of the Muslims. Because, from the beginning the Prophet Muhammad SAW had planned the deployment of Muslim troops for ordinary wars, not big wars. Therefore, the Muslim army only numbered 313 people.

When he saw the many soldiers of the Quraysh infidels along with the completeness of weapons, armor, spears, swords, and other combat equipment, Prophet Muhammad SAW had time to cry. He then prayed to Allah SWT. "Dear Allah. If this company that is with me is destined to perish, then there will be no one after me who will worship You. All believers will leave this true religion of Islam.”

After praying, Prophet Muhammad SAW devised a war strategy. He lined up the Muslim troops in a tight formation. He also ordered that the wells be immediately controlled to cut off the water supply to the Quraysh infidels. In addition, the war also begins with long-range combat.

When the infidel Quraysh troops departed to attack, the Muslims did not immediately welcome him with a direct physical fight. They first shot arrows from a distance. Then, only then did they draw their swords and do battle.

By noon, as many as 50 leaders of the Quraysh infidel troops were killed, including Abu Jahal. Meanwhile, many of the rest are running helter-skelter. Meanwhile, the victims of the Muslims were only 14 people. In addition to repelling 1000 soldiers from the Quraysh, the Muslims also managed to take the spoils of 600 complete weapons, 700 camels, 300 horses, as well as trade belonging to Abu Sufyan's caravan.

With the ingenuity of the Prophet Muhammad and the discipline of his troops, the Muslims managed to reverse the situation that made the honor and glory of Islam more upright in the Peninsula, as discussed in the book War of Badr by Abdul Hamid Jaudah al-Sahhar. In the end, the battle of badr was won by the troops of the Muslims. The victory in the battle of badr made the position of Islam in the Medina area stronger. Meanwhile, the Quraysh who lost in the battle of Badr had to swallow deep disappointment.

Summary

The Battle of Badr took place on March 17, 624 AD or 17 Ramadan in the second year of Hijriah. The Battle of Badr involved 314 Muslim armies against more than 1,000 people from the Quraysh. The Battle of Badr was the first war fought by Muslims since the migration of the Prophet Muhammad in 622 AD. Therefore, the big war in the holy month of Ramadan is called the battle of badr.

However, the war of badr actually occurred because Muslims wanted to maintain the existence of the Islamic religion. The Battle of Badr took place on the 17th of Ramadan in the year 2 Hijri in the morning. The place was chosen by the Prophet Muhammad SAW as a form of war strategy. This was intended so that the Prophet Muhammad SAW could oversee the course of the war and predict the right attack pattern to defeat the Quraysh troops.

In the battle of Badr, Prophet Muhammad SAW led the direct attack on the Quraysh. The war involved 313 Muslims, 8 swords, 6 armor, 70 camels, and 2 horses. The spirit of war succeeded in killing three war leaders from the Quraysh troops, namely Utbah, Syaibah, and Walid bin Utbah. Indeed, the big battle in the battle of Badr was beyond the expectations of the Muslims.

Because, from the beginning the Prophet Muhammad SAW had planned the deployment of Muslim troops for ordinary wars, not big wars. In addition, the war also begins with long-range combat. With the ingenuity of the Prophet Muhammad and the discipline of his troops, the Muslims managed to reverse the situation that made the honor and glory of Islam more upright in the Peninsula, as discussed in the book War of Badr by Abdul Hamid Jaudah al-Sahhar. In the end, the battle of badr was won by the troops of the Muslims.

The victory in the battle of badr made the position of Islam in the Medina area stronger. Meanwhile, the Quraysh who lost in the battle of Badr had to swallow deep disappointment.

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The Umayyad Caliphate, was one of the most powerful and expansive of the Islamic Caliphates. It was also the first of the Islamic dynasties. This meant that the leader of the Caliphate, called the Caliph, was typically the son (or other male relative) of the previous Caliph. When did it rule? The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the Islamic Empire from 661-750 CE. It succeeded the Rashidun Caliphate when Muawiyah I became Caliph after the First Muslim Civil War. Muawiyah I established his capital in the city of Damascus where the Umayyads would rule the Islamic Empire for nearly 100 years. The Umayyad Caliphate was brought to an end in 750 CE when the Abbasids took control. Map of the Islamic Empire What lands did it rule? The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the Islamic Empire into one of the largest empires in the history of the world. At its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate controlled the Middle East, parts of India, much of North Africa, and Spain. Historians estimate the Umayyad Caliphate had a population of around 62 million people, which was nearly 30% of the world's population at the time. Government The Umayyads modeled their government after the Byzantines (Eastern Roman Empire) who had previously ruled much of the land conquered by the Umayyads. They divided the empire into provinces that were each ruled by a governor appointed by the Caliph. They also created government bodies called "diwans" that handled different government agencies. Contributions The Umayyads made several important contributions to the Islamic Empire. Many of their contributions had to do with unifying the large empire and the many cultures that were now part of the empire. These included creating a common coinage, establishing Arabic as the official language throughout the empire, and standardizing weights and measures. They also built some of the most revered buildings of Islamic history including the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Dome of the Rock Source: Wikimedia Commons Fall of the Umayyads As the empire expanded, unrest among the people and opposition to the Umayyads increased. Many Muslims felt that the Umayyads had become too secular and were not following the ways of Islam. Groups of people including the followers of Ali, non-Arab Muslims, and the Kharjites began to rebel causing turmoil in the empire. In 750, the Abbasids, a rival clan to the Umayyads, rose to power and overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. They took control and formed the Abbasid Caliphate which would rule much of the Islamic world for the next several hundred years. Iberian Peninsula One of the Umayyad leaders, Abd al Rahman, escaped to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain) where he established his own kingdom in the city of Cordoba. There the Umayyads continued to rule portions of Spain until well into the 1400s. Interesting Facts about the Umayyad Caliphate Umayyad is sometimes spelled "Omayyad." Non-Muslims had to pay a special tax. This tax offered them protection under the Caliphate. People that converted to Islam no longer had to pay the tax. Some historians consider the Umayyad dynasty as more of a "kingdom" than a Caliphate because their rulers were hereditary rather than elected. The Caliph Yazid (son of Muawiya I) had Hussein (the son of Ali, the famous fourth caliph) killed when Hussein refused to take an oath of loyalty to the Umayyads. The borders of the Umayyad Caliphate spread nearly 6,000 miles from the Indus River in Asia to the Iberian Peninsula (modern day Spain).

Summary:
The Umayyad Caliphate was one of the most powerful and expansive of the Islamic Caliphates. This meant that the leader of the Caliphate, called the Caliph, was typically the son of the previous Caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the Islamic Empire from 661-750 CE. It succeeded the Rashidun Caliphate when Muawiyah I became Caliph after the First Muslim Civil War.

The Umayyad Caliphate was brought to an end in 750 CE when the Abbasids took control. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the Islamic Empire into one of the largest empires in the history of the world. At its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate controlled the Middle East, parts of India, much of North Africa, and Spain. Historians estimate the Umayyad Caliphate had a population of around 62 million people, which was nearly 30% of the world's population at the time.

In 750, the Abbasids, a rival clan to the Umayyads, rose to power and overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. They took control and formed the Abbasid Caliphate which would rule much of the Islamic world for the next several hundred years. Iberian Peninsula One of the Umayyad leaders, Abd al Rahman, escaped to the Iberian Peninsula where he established his own kingdom in the city of Cordoba. Interesting Facts about the Umayyad Caliphate Umayyad is sometimes spelled «Omayyad.» Non-Muslims had to pay a special tax. This tax offered them protection under the Caliphate.

Name    : Kurniawan Dwi Saputra
Class     : X IPS 1
Number: 25

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The south-western city of Gwangju was the centre of an uprising against martial law in South Korea, imposed after a military coup in 1979 led by General Chun Doo-hwan.

Gwangju, in the south-west, became a centre of demonstrations.
As security forces began to respond with brute force, the numbers of protesters swelled to their tens of thousands, with many ordinary citizens joining in.
Thousands of paratroopers were deployed to stem the tide. On the ninth day, troops opened fire on the protesters who had gathered at the Provincial Government Office.
It is alleged these troops carried out indiscriminate beatings, torture, sexual assaults and disembowelments.
On May 27, sanctioned by the United States, who jointly commanded the demilitarised zone between North and South Korea, about 20,000 troops were redeployed from the DMZ to take back Gwangju.

Officials statistics say about 200 people were killed but surviving eyewitness dispute the figures and say the true number is 600 to 2,300 people killed. During Chun Doo-hwan's presidency, the authorities defined the incident, which was classified as the "Gwangju Riot," as a rebellion instigated by communist sympathizers and rioters, possibly acting on support of the North Korean government.

Summary:

The Gwangju Uprising was a popular uprising in the city of Gwangju, South Korea, from May 18 to May 27, 1980, which pitted local, armed citizens against soldiers and police of the Korean Government. A brutal military crackdown left more than 200 people dead or missing, according to official figures.

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The pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egypt civilization.

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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the country Egypt. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer).The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Near East, after which it entered a period of slow decline. During the course of its history Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the Hyksos, the Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians under the command of Alexander the Great. The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

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The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacturing of goods moved from small shops and homes to large factories. This shift brought about changes in culture as people moved from rural areas to big cities in order to work. It also introduced new technologies, new types of transportation, and a different way of life for many.

Where did the Industrial Revolution begin?
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s. Many of the first innovations that enabled the Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Making cloth moved from homes to large factories. Britain also had plenty of coal and iron which was important to power and make machines for the factories.

How long did it last?
The Industrial Revolution lasted for over 100 years. After beginning in Britain in the late 1700s it spread to Europe and the United States. The Industrial Revolution can be divided into two phases: First Industrial Revolution - The first wave of the Industrial Revolution lasted from the late 1700s to the mid-1800s. It industrialized the manufacture of textiles and began the move of production from homes to factories. Steam power and the cotton gin played an important role in this period. Second Industrial Revolution - The next wave took place from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s. During this phase large factories and companies began to use more technologies to mass produce goods. Important innovations during this period include the use of electricity, the production line, and the Bessemer steel process.

When did it start in the United States?
The early part of the Industrial Revolution in the United States took place in the northeast in the New England region. Many historians place the start of the Industrial Revolution with the opening of Slater's Mill in 1793 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Samuel Slater had learned about textile mills growing up in England and brought his knowledge to the United States. By the end of the 1800s, the United States had become the most industrialized nation in the world.

Cultural Changes
The Industrial Revolution brought about many cultural changes. Before the revolution, most people lived in the country and worked on farms. During the revolution, people moved to the cities to work in factories. Cities grew and became overcrowded, unsanitary, and polluted. In many cities, poor workers lived in crowded and unsafe buildings. This was a dramatic shift in the way of life for the average person.

Transportation
Transportation changed dramatically throughout the Industrial Revolution. Where before people traveled by horse, walking, or boat; new ways of travel were introduced including railroads, steam boats, and automobiles. This changed the way people and products were able to travel around the country and the world.

Working Conditions
One drawback of the Industrial Revolution was poor working conditions for people in factories. There were few laws to protect workers at the time and working
conditions were often dangerous. People often had to work long hours
and child labor was a common practice. By the end of the 1900s, labor unions and new laws began to create a safer working environment.

Summary
The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacture of goods moved from small shops and houses to large factories.  This shift brought about a cultural shift as people moved from rural areas to big cities for work.  It also introduces new technologies, new types of transportation, and different ways of life for many people.

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s.  Many of the first innovations that made the Industrial Revolution possible began in the textile industry.  The Industrial Revolution lasted for more than 100 years.  After starting in England in the late 1700s it spread to Europe and the United States.  The Industrial Revolution can be divided into two phases: First Industrial Revolution - The first wave of the Industrial Revolution lasted from the late 1700s to the mid-1800s.  Second Industrial Revolution - The next wave took place from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s.

The early part of the Industrial Revolution in the United States took place in the northeast in the New England region.  Many historians place the start of the Industrial Revolution with the opening of the Slater Factory in 1793 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.  By the late 1800s, the United States had become the most developed country in the world.

The Industrial Revolution brought many cultural changes.  During the revolution, people moved to the cities to work in factories.  Cities grow and become overcrowded, unhealthy, and polluted.  A dramatic change in the way of life for most people.  Transportation changed dramatically during the Industrial Revolution.  One of the drawbacks of the Industrial Revolution was poor working conditions for people in factories.  There were few laws to protect workers at the time and the working conditions were often dangerous.  People often have to work long hours and child labor is a common practice.  In the late 1900s, unions and new laws began to create a safer work environment.

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The Crusades were a series of wars during the Middle Ages where the Christians of Europe tried to retake control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims.

Jerusalem was important to a number of religions during the Middle Ages. It was important to Jewish people as it was the site of the original temple to God built by King Solomon. It was important to the Muslims because it is where they believe Muhammad ascended to heaven. It was important to Christians as it is where they believe Christ was crucified and rose again.

The Crusades were between the armies of Europe, mostly the Holy Roman Empire, and the Arabs that had control of Jerusalem. In the first Crusade Europe battled the Seljuk Turks. There were around 30,000 soldiers from Europe in the first Crusade, they were made up of Knights, peasants, and other commoners. Some saw the army as a way to get rich and try out their fighting skills, while others saw it as a way into heaven.

The initial Crusade began when the Seljuk Turks took control of the Holy Land. Prior to this, the Arabs had been in control of the land. However, the Arabs had allowed Christians to pilgrimage and visit the city of Jerusalem. In 1070, when the Turks took control, they began to refuse Christian pilgrims into the area. Byzantine Emperor Alexius I called for help from the Pope with defending his empire from the Turks and to help push them out of the Holy Land. The Pope helped to gather an army, primarily with the help of the Franks and the Holy Roman Empire.

There were a number of Crusades that took place over the course of 200 years starting in 1095.  The First Crusade (1095-1099) was the most successful. Armies from Europe drove out the Turks and took control of Jerusalem. The Second Crusade (1147-1149) In 1146 the city of Edessa was conquered by the Turks. The entire population was killed or sold into slavery. Then a second Crusade was launched, but was unsuccessful. The Third Crusade (1187-1192) In 1187 Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, recaptured the city of Jerusalem from the Christians. A third Crusade was launched led by Emperor Barbarossa of Germany, King Philip Augustus of France, and King Richard the Lionheart of England. Richard the Lionheart fought Saladin for several years. In the end he could not conquer Jerusalem, but he did win the right for pilgrims to visit the holy city once again. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was formed by Pope Innocent III with the hope of taking back the Holy Land. However, the Crusaders got sidetracked and greedy and ended up conquering and plundering Constantinople instead. Children's Crusade (1212) Started by a French child named Stephen of Cloyes and a German kid named Nicholas, tens of thousands of children gathered to march to the Holy Land. This ended in total disaster. None of the children made it to the Holy Land and many were never seen again. They were likely sold into slavery. Crusades Five through Nine (1217 - 1272) over the next several years there would be 5 more Crusades. None of them would be very successful in terms of gaining control of the Holy Land.

Summary:
The Crusades were a series of wars between the Christians of Europe and the Arabs that had control of Jerusalem. The Holy Land was important to Muslims because they believe Muhammad ascended to heaven, and to Christians as it is where they believe Christ was crucified and rose again. Around 30,000 soldiers from Europe fought in the first Crusade. There were a number of Crusades that took place over the course of 200 years starting in 1095. The First Crusade (1095-1099) was the most successful.

In 1187 Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, recaptured the city of Jerusalem from the Christians. Over the next several years there would be 5 more Crusades.

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Titanic, in full Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic, British luxury passenger liner that sank on April 14–15, 1912, during its maiden voyage, en route to New York City from Southampton, England, killing about 1,500 passengers and ship personnel.

The RMS Titanic sank in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean, four days into her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. The largest ocean liner in service at the time, Titanic had an estimated 2,224 people on board when it struck an iceberg at around 23:40 (ship's time) on Sunday, 14 April 1912. This ship sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 (ship's time; 05:18 GMT) on Monday, 15 April, resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 people.

As to safety elements, the Titanic had 16 compartments that included doors which could be closed from the bridge, so that water could be contained in the event the hull was breached. The ship’s builders claimed that four of the compartments could be flooded without endangering the liner’s buoyancy. The system led many to claim that the Titanic was unsinkable.

Titanic received six warnings of sea ice on 14 April but was travelling about 22 knots when her lookouts sighted the iceberg. Unable to turn quickly enough, the ship suffered a glancing blow that buckled her starboard side and opened six of her sixteen compartments to the sea. Titanic had been designed to stay afloat with four of her forward compartments flooded but no more, and the crew soon realised that the ship would sink. They used distress flares and radio (wireless) messages to attract help as the passengers were put into lifeboats.

Titanic sank with over a thousand passengers and crew still on board. Almost all of those who jumped or fell into the water drowned or died within minutes due to the effects of cold shick and incapacitation. RMS Carpathia arrived about an hour and a half after the sinking and rescued all of the survivors by 09:15 on 15 April, some nine and a half hours after the collision.

Sinking of the RMS Titanic is one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. It inspired numerous stories, several films, and a musical and has been the subject of much scholarship and scientific speculation.

Summary:
Titanic, British luxury passenger liner sank on April 15, 1912, en route to New York from Southampton, England, on its maiden voyage. The largest and most luxurious ship afloat, the Titanic had a double-bottomed hull divided into 16 watertight compartments. Because four of these could be flooded without endangering its buoyancy, it was considered unsinkable. Shortly before midnight on April 14, it collided with an iceberg southeast of Cape Race, Newfoundland; five compartments ruptured and the ship sank. Some 1,500 of its 2,200 passengers died, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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The Chinese Civil War, which took place in 1945-1949, involved the Kuomintang Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong's Communists. During the Second Sy-Japan War (1937–1945), China was effectively divided into three regions: Nationalist China under government control, Communist China, and Japanese-occupied territory. Each is essentially hostile to each other, although China's military forces seem to be allied under the banner of the United Front. By the time Japan accepted the terms of the surrender of the Potsdam Declaration on August 14, 1945, China had endured decades of Japanese occupation and eight years of brutal war. Millions of people died in battle, and millions more died from starvation or disease. However, the end of World War II did not mark the end of the conflict in China.

Quoted from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Japan's defeat sparked a rivalry between nationalists and Communists for control of vital resources and population centers in northern China and Manchuria. Nationalist forces, using U.S. military transportation facilities, were able to take over major cities and most of the railways in Eastern and Northern China. Meanwhile, Communist forces occupied most of the interior in the north and in Manchuria. The United Front was always vulnerable, and both nationalists and Communists quietly realized they would only cooperate until Japan lost. Nationalists and Communists would make peace before Japan's surrender was finalized. Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek issued a series of invitations to Communist leader Mao Zedong to meet with him in Chongqing, to discuss the country's reunification and rebuilding.

On August 28, 1945, Mao accompanied by American Ambassador Patrick Hurley arrived in Chongqing. On October 10, 1945, the two sides announced that they had in principle reached an agreement to fight for a united and democratic China. A pair of committees will be set up to deal with military and political issues that have not been resolved by a preliminary framework agreement, but serious fighting between the government and Communist forces broke out before the bodies could meet. The withdrawal of Soviet occupation forces in March–April 1946 also triggered the seizure of territory. Nationalist forces occupied Mukden (Shenyang) on March 12, while the Communists consolidated their grip throughout northern Manchuria. After government forces captured Changchun on May 23, a 15-day ceasefire was declared in Manchuria from June 6 to June 22. However, fighting intensified elsewhere, as government and Communist forces clashed in Jehol (Chengde), northern Kiangsu (Jiangsu), northeastern Hopeh (Hebei), and southeastern Shantung (Shandong).

China's Civil War ended in 1950, claiming 8 million lives from both the military and civilians. The impact of the Chinese Civil War was the establishment of the People's Republic of China which controlled mainland China, and the establishment of the Republic of China on the island of Taiwan.

Summary:

The Chinese Civil War, which took place in 1945-1949, involved the Kuomintang Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong's Communists. Nationalist forces, using U.S. military transportation facilities, were able to take over major cities and most of the railways in Eastern and Northern China. A pair of committees will be set up to deal with military and political issues that have not been resolved by a preliminary framework agreement, but serious fighting between the government and Communist forces broke out before the bodies could meet.

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The U.S dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima & Nagasaki in August 1945, during the final stage of WWII. The 2 bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history.

In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a very costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. The was in Europe  had concluded when Germany signed its instrument of surrender on 8 May 1945. The Japanese, facing the same fate, refused to accept the Allies' demands for unconditional surrender and the Pacific War continued.

On 6 August the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. American President Harry S. Truman called for Japan's surrender 16 hours later, warning them to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth." Three days later, on 9 August, the U.S. dropped another bomb on the city of Nagasaki. Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000 - 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 - 80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the the first day.

On 15 August 1945, Japan announced its surrender to the Allies. On the 2nd of September, it signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending WWII. The bombings' role in Japan's surrender and their ethical justification are still debated.

Summary :
The US dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima & Nagasaki in August 1945, during the final stages of World War II. In the final year of the war, Japan refused to accept Allied demands for unconditional surrender and the Pacific War continued. On August 6 the US dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, the US dropped another bomb on the city of Nagasaki. These bombings killed hundreds of thousands of people. On August 15, 1945, Japan announced its surrender to the Allies. On September 2, they signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II.

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The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the Western World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The west was led by the United States and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two countries became known as superpowers. Although the two superpowers never officially declared war on each other, they fought indirectly in proxy wars, the arms race, and the space race.
The Cold War began not too long after World War II ended in 1945. Although, the Soviet Union was an important member of the Allied Powers, there was great distrust between the Soviet Union and the rest of the Allies. The Allies were concerned with the brutal leadership of Joseph Stalin as well as the spread of communism. The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Proxy Wars The Cold War was often fought between the superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union in something called a proxy war. These were wars fought between other countries, but with each side getting support from a different superpower. Examples of proxy wars include the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Yom Kippur War, and the Soviet Afghanistan War. Arms Race and Space Race The United States and the Soviet Union also tried to fight the Cold War by demonstrating their power and technology. One example of this was the Arms Race where each side tried to have the best weapons and the most nuclear bombs. The idea was that a large stockpile of weapons would deter the other side from ever attacking. Another example was the Space Race, where each side tried to show that it had the better scientists and technology by accomplishing certain space missions first.

Summary :
The Cold War was an ongoing geopolitical rivalry between two countries and their respective allies. On one side were the United States and the Western Bloc. On the other side were the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. This began in the aftermath of the Second World War.
The Cold War never escalated to the point of direct confrontation between the US and the USSR. In fact, aside from the nuclear arms race, the struggle for world dominance was primarily waged through propaganda campaigns, espionage, proxy wars, athletic rivalry at the Olympics, and the Space Race.

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In 1917, there was the Russian Revolution which succeeded in overthrowing the Russian Empire towards the establishment of the Republic of the Soviet Union. This revolution occurred in two phases, namely the first phase or known as the February Revolution, and the second movement known as the October Revolution. The October Revolution or Bolshevik Revolution was a revolution carried out by the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin. This event occurred on November 7, 1917 according to the Gregorian calendar. However, according to the Julian calendar this revolution took place on October 25, 1917. Therefore, this event is called the October Revolution because Russia at that time used the Julian calendar. The revolution that changed the system of government from liberal to communist had a very broad impact.

The February Revolution led by Alexander Kerensky had overthrown Tsar Nicholas II from the Russian Empire and replaced his reign with the Provisional Russian Government. However, this interim government was very weak and was torn apart by internal strife. As a result, there was a national crisis that affected the social, economic, political, and the people began to voice their dissatisfaction with the government. The Bolsheviks, deeply displeased with the government, also began to spread calls for a military uprising. The popularity of the Bolsheviks also increased after they defeated the coup attempt by the Supreme Commander of the Army Lavr Kornilov, otherwise known as the Kornilov Scandal. On October 10, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet, led by Trotsky, voted to support a military uprising. Then on October 24, 1917, the government closed many newspapers and closed the City of Petrograd in an attempt to prevent a second revolution. A large-scale revolt broke out the next day, when the Bolshevik fleet entered the port and tens of thousands of soldiers rose to support it.

Massive fighting between the government and the Bolshevik Red Army began on October 25, 1917. The Bolsheviks led their troops in the revolt in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg, then the capital of Russia). In Kronstadt, the sailors also declared their allegiance to the Bolshevik uprising. The Red Army was systematically able to seize key government facilities and communications buildings with little resistance. They also occupied stations and trains to hinder the work of government officials. The Petrograd garrison and most of the city's military units joined the rebellion against the Provisional Government. Alexander Kerensky and the Provisional Government were almost powerless to put up a fight. When Alexander Kerensky fled Petrograd, Lenin wrote a proclamation to the Russian people. Lenin declared that the Provisional Government had been overthrown by the Military Revolutionary Committee.

Summary :

The October Revolution or the Bolshevik Revolution was a socialist Revolution – and at the same time successful, in the world. Starting with the revolutionary movement in the Russian Empire to overthrow the autocracy under the Tsar in February 1917, Vladimir Lenin continued the revolution to overthrow the provisional government in October 1917. This revolution resulted in the formation of the world's first socialist state, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and the beginning of the Russian Civil War. After the socialist Red Army defeated the monarchical and capitalist White Army, they established the government that would become the U.S.S.R. or the Soviet Union in 1922. The October Revolution caused a domino effect, starting from ending World War I, setting the stage for World War II, being the cause of the rise and fall of Fascism, spreading and overthrowing Communism, starting the Cold War, decolonization, and being the inspiration for later uprisings, such as the communist revolution in Germany. , Hungary, Mongolia, Cuba, Vietnam, China and other countries

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The containment strategy provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC–68 had echoed Truman’s recommendation that the country uses military force to contain communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold increase in defense spending.

In particular, American officials encouraged the development of atomic weapons like the ones that had ended World War II. Thus began a deadly "arms race." In 1949, the Soviets tested an atom bomb of their own. In response, President Truman announced that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or "superbomb." Stalin followed suit.

As a result, the stakes of the Cold War were perilously high. The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome the nuclear age could be. It created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a huge hole in the ocean floor, and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Subsequent American and Soviet tests spewed radioactive waste into the atmosphere.

The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and other public places. The 1950s and 1960s saw an epidemic of popular films that horrified moviegoers with depictions of nuclear devastation and mutant creatures. In these and other ways, the Cold War was a constant presence in Americans’ everyday lives.

Summary:
The containment strategy provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC–68 had echoed Truman’s recommendation that the country uses military force to contain communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold increase in defense spending.
In response, President Truman announced that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or "superbomb". Stalin followed suit.
As a result, the stakes of the Cold War were perilously high. The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome the nuclear age could be. The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and other public places.

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People lived in the United States long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the Europeans. These people and cultures are called Native Americans. This page is an overview of Native Americans who lived in the United States. More details can be found in the links at the bottom of the page.

The first people to live in a land are called indigenous peoples. This means they were the original settlers. The Native Americans are the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States.

Sometimes these peoples are referred to as Indians or American Indians. This is because when Columbus had first landed in America, he thought he had sailed all the way to the country of India. He called the locals Indians and the name stuck for some time.

Native Americans lived throughout North and South America. In the United States there were Native Americans in Alaska, Hawaii, and the mainland of the United States. Different tribes and cultures lived in different areas. In the middle of the country lived the Plains Indians, including tribes such as the Comanche and Arapaho. In the Southeast area of the country lived tribes such as the Cherokee and the Seminole.

The Native Americans were grouped into tribes or nations usually based on the area they lived in and their culture such as their religion, customs, and language. Sometimes smaller tribes were part of a bigger tribe or nation. As best as historians can tell, these tribes were fairly peaceful prior to the arrival of Columbus and the Europeans. There were hundreds of tribes throughout the United States when Columbus first arrived. Many of them are well known such as the Cherokee, Apache, and the Navajo. To learn more about these tribes, check out the links at the bottom of this page.

The Native Americans did not write down or record their history, so we have to find out about their history in other ways. Today archeologists are able to learn a lot about past cultures by digging up artifacts such as tools and weapons. Much of what we know comes from the recordings of the first Europeans to arrive. We can also learn from traditions and stories that have been passed down within the tribes from generation to generation.

Today, some of the descendants of the original American Indians live on reservations. These are areas of land set aside specifically for Native Americans. This helps to protect their heritage and culture. However, only around 30% live on reservations. The rest live outside the reservations just like anyone else.

Summary :

The Native Americans are the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States. The Native Americans were grouped into tribes or nations usually based on the area they lived in and their culture such as their religion, customs, and language.  The Native Americans did not write down or record their history, so we have to find out about their history in other ways.

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The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacturing of goods moved from small shops and homes to large factories. This shift brought about changes in culture as people moved from rural areas to big cities in order to work. It also introduced new technologies, new types of transportation, and a different way of life for many. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s.

Many of the first innovations that enabled the Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Making cloth moved from homes to large factories. Britain also had plenty of coal and iron which was important to power and make machines for the factories. The Industrial Revolution lasted for over 100 years.

It industrialized the manufacture of textiles and began the move of production from homes to factories. Second Industrial Revolution - The next wave took place from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s. During this phase large factories and companies began to use more technologies to mass produce goods. The early part of the Industrial Revolution in the United States took place in the northeast in the New England region.

Many historians place the start of the Industrial Revolution with the opening of Slater's Mill in 1793 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Samuel Slater had learned about textile mills growing up in England and brought his knowledge to the United States. Cultural Changes The Industrial Revolution brought about many cultural changes. Before the revolution, most people lived in the country and worked on farms.

During the revolution, people moved to the cities to work in factories. Cities grew and became overcrowded, unsanitary, and polluted. In many cities, poor workers lived in crowded and unsafe buildings. Interesting Facts About the Industrial Revolution Many early factories were powered by water so they had to be by a river that could turn the waterwheel.

A group of weavers in Britian who lost their jobs to large factories began to fight back by rioting and destroying machinery. Some of the most important American inventions during the Industrial Revolution included the telegraph, the sewing machine, telephone, cotton gin, the practical light bulb, and vulcanized rubber. Manchester, England was the center of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution.

Summary:
The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacturing of goods moved from small shops and homes to large factories. Many of the first innovations that enabled the Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. The Industrial Revolution lasted for over 100 years. Second Industrial Revolution - The next wave took place from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s.

The early part of the Industrial Revolution in the United States took place in the northeast in the New England region. Many historians place the start of the Industrial Revolution with the opening of Slater's Mill in 1793 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Cultural Changes The Industrial Revolution brought about many cultural changes. Before the revolution, most people lived in the country and worked on farms.

During the revolution, people moved to the cities to work in factories. Interesting Facts About the Industrial Revolution Many early factories were powered by water so they had to be by a river that could turn the waterwheel. Some of the most important American inventions during the Industrial Revolution included the telegraph, the sewing machine, telephone, cotton gin, the practical light bulb, and vulcanized rubber. Manchester, England was the center of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution.

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‘Peaky Blinders’ as they were known, has become an infamous name although the exact origins of it remain a mystery. Some believe it to have originated from the barbaric practice of stitching razor blades into the peak of their caps, although this might be a more fantastical theory as others suggest the luxury item of a disposable razor blade would not have been commonplace at the time. Another theory is that Peaky Blinders derives from the use of the cap to disguise their faces from the victims so they could not be identified.

The infamy of the group and its distinctive name may simply have come from local slang at the time using ‘blinder’ as a description for someone looking particularly striking in appearance. Wherever the name came from, it stuck and would become a namesake for gangs long after the Peaky Blinders demise.

The origins of this gang and others similar to it, came from the poor living conditions and economic hardships which dominated industrial England during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Poverty was a principal cause for the formation of gangs which began with young boys who took up pickpocketing as a way of earning money.

Peaky Blinders emerged from the area of Small Heath in Birmingham, with the first reported activities detailed in a newspaper in March 1890 which described the brutal assault on a man by a gang known as “Peaky Blinders”. The group were already gaining infamy for their violence and brutality in the criminal world and were keen to have their activities recorded in the national newspapers.

Violence and bribery allowed Peaky Blinders enormous levels of control in the area. Economically, politically and socially, the Peaky Blinders called the shots and dictated the decisions. Culturally, they were dominating the scene.

The gang were able to control Birmingham and exercise their will for almost twenty years, in one of the largest criminal enterprises of the nineteenth century. As part of their expansion, they extended their criminal portfolio to include smuggling, robbery, bribery, forming protection rackets, fraud and also hijacking. Whilst partaking in a range of activities, their specialty remained in street based local crime such as robbery and assaults.

The notoriety and style of the gang earned them great levels of attention; their ability to exercise control, flout the law and exhibit their winnings remains a cultural and historical phenomenon still garnering attention today. Whilst the power of the Peaky Blinders faded with time, their namesake lived on in popular culture.

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People lived in the United States long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the Europeans. These people and cultures are called Native Americans. This page is an overview of Native Americans who lived in the United States. More details can be found in the links at the bottom of the page.

The first people to live in a land are called indigenous peoples. This means they were the original settlers. The Native Americans are the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States.

Sometimes these peoples are referred to as Indians or American Indians. This is because when Columbus had first landed in America, he thought he had sailed all the way to the country of India. He called the locals Indians and the name stuck for some time.

Native Americans lived throughout North and South America. In the United States there were Native Americans in Alaska, Hawaii, and the mainland of the United States. Different tribes and cultures lived in different areas. In the middle of the country lived the Plains Indians, including tribes such as the Comanche and Arapaho. In the Southeast area of the country lived tribes such as the Cherokee and the Seminole.

The Native Americans were grouped into tribes or nations usually based on the area they lived in and their culture such as their religion, customs, and language. Sometimes smaller tribes were part of a bigger tribe or nation. As best as historians can tell, these tribes were fairly peaceful prior to the arrival of Columbus and the Europeans. There were hundreds of tribes throughout the United States when Columbus first arrived. Many of them are well known such as the Cherokee, Apache, and the Navajo. To learn more about these tribes, check out the links at the bottom of this page.

The Native Americans did not write down or record their history, so we have to find out about their history in other ways. Today archeologists are able to learn a lot about past cultures by digging up artifacts such as tools and weapons. Much of what we know comes from the recordings of the first Europeans to arrive. We can also learn from traditions and stories that have been passed down within the tribes from generation to generation.

Today, some of the descendants of the original American Indians live on reservations. These are areas of land set aside specifically for Native Americans. This helps to protect their heritage and culture. However, only around 30% live on reservations. The rest live outside the reservations just like anyone else.

Summary :
The Native Americans are the indigenous peoples and cultures of the United States.  The Native Americans were grouped into tribes or nations usually based on the area they lived in and their culture such as their religion, customs, and language.  The Native Americans did not write down or record their history, so we have to find out about their history in other ways.

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The Third Macedonian War started in 171 BC, after a number of acts on the part of King Perseus of Macedon incited Rome to declare war. At first, the Romans won a number of small victories, largely due to Perseus' refusal to consolidate his armies. By the end of the year, the tide changed dramatically and Perseus had gained a success at the Battle of Callinicus and regained most of his losses, including the important religious city of Dion. Perseus then established himself in an unassailable position on the river Elpeus, in northeastern Greece.

The next year, command of the Roman expeditionary force passed to Lucius Aemilius Paullus, an experienced soldier who was one of the consuls for the year. To force Perseus from his position, Paullus sent a small force (8,200 foot and 120 horse) under the command of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum to the coast, a feint to convince Perseus that he was attempting a riverborne flanking maneuver. Instead, that night Scipio took his force south and over the mountains to the west of the Roman and Macedonian armies. They moved as far as Pythion, then swung northeast to attack the Macedonians from the rear.

A Roman deserter, however, made his way to the Macedonian camp and Perseus sent a force of 12,000 under the command of Milo to block the approach road. The encounter that followed sent Milo and his men back in disarray towards the main Macedonian army. After this, Perseus moved his army northwards and took up a position near Katerini, a village south of Pydna. It was a fairly level plain and was very well suited to the phalanx.

Paullus then had Scipio rejoin the main force, while Perseus deployed his forces for what appeared to be an attack from the south by Scipio. The Roman armies were actually to the west, and when they advanced, they found Perseus fully deployed. Instead of joining battle with troops tired from the march, they encamped to the west in the foothills of Mount Olocrus. The night before the battle there was a lunar eclipse, which was perceived by the Macedonians as an ill omen; according to Plutarch, they interpreted it as a sign of their king's demise. Meanwhile, Paullus is said to have understood that eclipses occurred at regular intervals but still believed it was necessary to perform sacrifices and wait for "favourable omens."

The fighting began the afternoon of the next day, June 22. The exact cause of the start of the battle differs; one story is that Paullus waited until late enough in the day for the sun not to be in the eyes of his troops, and then sent an unbridled horse forward to bring about alarm. More likely it was the result of some Roman foragers getting a little too close and being attacked by some Thracians in Perseus' army.

Summary
The Third Macedonian War started in 171 BC, after a number of acts on the part of King Perseus of Macedon incited Rome to declare war. At first, the Romans won a number of small victories, largely due to Perseus' refusal to consolidate his armies. They moved as far as Pythion, then swung northeast to attack the Macedonians from the rear.
A Roman deserter, however, made his way to the Macedonian camp and Perseus sent a force of 12,000 under the command of Milo to block the approach road. Instead of joining battle with troops tired from the march, they encamped to the west in the foothills of Mount Olocrus. The night before the battle there was a lunar eclipse, which was perceived by the Macedonians as an ill omen; according to Plutarch, they interpreted it as a sign of their king's demise.

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The Holocaust is one of the most terrible events in human history. It occurred during World War II when Hitler was leader of Germany. Six million Jewish people were murdered by the Nazis. This included as many as 1 million Jewish children. Millions of other people that Hitler didn't like were killed as well. This included Polish people, Catholics, Serbs, and handicapped people. It is thought that the Nazis murdered as many as 17 million innocent people.

Hitler hated Jewish people and blamed them for Germany losing World War I. He considered Jewish people to be less than human. Hitler also believed in the superiority of the Aryan race. He wanted to use Darwinism and breeding to create a race of perfect people. Hitler wrote in his book Mein Kampf that when he became ruler he would rid Germany of all the Jews. Not many people believed he would really do this, but as soon as he became Chancellor he started his work against the Jews. He made laws that said Jews had no rights. Then he organized attacks on Jewish businesses and homes. On November 9, 1938 many Jewish homes and businesses were burnt down or vandalized. This night was called the Kristallnacht or "Night of Broken Glass".

During World War II when the Nazis would take over a city in Europe they would force all of the Jewish people into one area of town. This area was called a ghetto and was fenced in with barbed wire and guarded. There was little food, water, or medicine available. It was also very crowded with multiple families sometimes sharing a single room to live in.

All Jewish people were eventually to be brought to concentration camps. They were told they were relocating to a new and better place, but this was not the case. Concentration camps were like prison camps. People were forced to do hard labor. The weak were quickly killed or died of starvation. Some camps even had gas chambers. People would be led into the chambers in large groups only to be killed with poison gas. The concentration camps were horrible places.

Many Jewish people hid from the Nazis during World War II. They would hide with non-Jewish families. Sometimes they would pretend to be a part of the family and sometimes they would hide in hidden rooms or in a basement or attic. Some were able to eventually escape across the border into a free country, but many hid for years sometimes in the same room.
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Summary:
The Holocaust is one of the most terrible events in human history. It occurred during World War II when Hitler was leader of Germany. Six million Jewish people were murdered by the Nazis. Millions of other people that Hitler didn't like were killed as well. This included Polish people, Catholics, Serbs, and handicapped people. Hitler hated Jewish people and blamed them for Germany losing World War I. He considered Jewish people to be less than human. Hitler also believed in the superiority of the Aryan race. He wanted to use Darwinism and breeding to create a race of perfect people. Hitler wrote in his book Mein Kampf that when he became ruler he would rid Germany of all the Jews. All Jewish people were eventually to be brought to concentration camps. People were forced to do hard labor. Some camps even had gas chambers. People would be led into the chambers in large groups only to be killed with poison gas. The concentration camps were horrible places.

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Intan Zahra Nuraini X IPS 1/20

World War I was a major conflict fought between 1914 and 1918. Other names for World War I include the First World War, WWI, the War to End All Wars, and the Great War. Who fought in World War I? World War I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. The main members of the Allied Powers were France, Russia, and Britain. The United States also fought on the side of the Allies after 1917. The main members of the Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. Where was most of the fighting? The majority of the fighting took place in Europe along two fronts: the western front and the eastern front. The western front was a long line of trenches that ran from the coast of Belgium to Switzerland. A lot of the fighting along this front took place in France and Belgium. The eastern front was between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria on one side and Russia and Romania on the other. How did it start? Although there were a number of causes for the war, the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the main catalyst for starting the war. After the assassination, Austria declared war on Serbia. Then Russia prepared to defend its ally Serbia. Next, Germany declared war on Russia to protect Austria. This caused France to declare war on Germany to protect its ally Russia. Germany invaded Belgium to get to France which caused Britain to declare war on Germany. This all happened in just a few days. Major Battles A lot of the war was fought using trench warfare along the western front. The armies hardly moved at all. They just bombed and shot at each other from across the trenches. Some of the major battles during the war included the First Battle of the Marne, Battle of the Somme, Battle of Tannenberg, Battle of Gallipoli, and the Battle of Verdun. How did it end? The fighting ended on November 11, 1918 when a general armistice was agreed to by both sides. The war officially ended between Germany and the Allies with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Interesting Facts about World War I More than 65 million men fought in the war. Dogs were used in the trenches to carry messages. A well-trained messenger dog was considered a very fast and reliable way to carry messages. It was the first major war where airplanes and tanks were used. Ninety percent of the 7.8 million soldiers from Austria-Hungary who fought in the war were either injured or killed. When the British first invented tanks they called them "landships." The terrorist group responsible for assassinating Archduke Ferdinand was called the Black Hand. Famed scientist Marie Curie helped to equip vans with x-ray machines that enabled French doctors to see bullets in wounded men. These vans were called "petites Curies", meaning "little Curies."

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The Soviet Afghanistan war was fought between Afghan insurgents called the Mujahideen and the Soviet-backed Afghan government. The United States supports the Afghan insurgents to overthrow the government to try and prevent the spread of communism.

24 December 1979 - 15 February 1989 Afghanistan's leaders during the war included Secretary General Babrak Karmal and President Mohammad Najibullah. Soviet Union leaders included Leonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev. Leaders of the Mujahideen included Ahmad Shah Massoud (nicknamed Lion of Panjshir) and Abdul Haq. The US presidents have been Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan.

Prior to the War as one of the bordering neighbours, the Soviet Union had a long history of supporting and providing aid to Afghanistan. On April 27, 1978 the Soviet-backed communist government took control of the country. The new government is called the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). Many Afghans did not like the new communist government, mainly because many laws were against their Islamic religion. They started to revolt against the current government. The rebels called themselves Mujahideen. In September 1979, events in Afghanistan became more volatile when Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin assassinated the current president and took over the communist government.

The leaders of the Soviet Union became concerned that President Amin was in discussions with the United States. On December 24, 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. They ordered President Amin to be executed and appointed their own leader, President Babrak Karmal.

Over the next few years the Soviet Army will be at war with the Mujahideen. It was a very difficult battle. Many Soviet soldiers were untested in combat and their equipment was not designed for Afghanistan's harsh environment. Also, the Mujahideen soldiers are fighting for their homeland and religion. They were fierce warriors and had many good places to hide in the mountains. As the war continued with little success, it became a source of embarrassment for the Soviet Union. Their army no longer seemed invincible to the rest of the world. The Soviets were also under increasing international pressure. The war was condemned by the UN, the US withdrew from SALT treaty talks, and the US boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow.

Over the next few years the Soviet Army will be at war with the Mujahideen. It was a very difficult battle. Many Soviet soldiers were untested in combat and their equipment was not designed for Afghanistan's harsh environment. Also, the Mujahideen soldiers are fighting for their homeland and religion. They were fierce warriors and had many good places to hide in the mountains. As the war continued with little success, it became a source of embarrassment for the Soviet Union. Their army no longer seemed invincible to the rest of the world. The Soviets were also under increasing international pressure. The war was condemned by the UN, the US withdrew from SALT treaty talks, and the US boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow.

Synopsis

24 December 1979 - 15 February 1989 Afghanistan's leaders during the war included Secretary General Babrak Karmal and President Mohammad Najibullah. Soviet Union leaders included Leonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev. On April 27, 1978 the Soviet-backed communist government took control of the country. The new government is called the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan .
In September 1979, events in Afghanistan became more volatile when Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin assassinated the current president and took over the communist government. The leaders of the Soviet Union became concerned that President Amin was in discussions with the United States. On December 24, 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

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The Korean War was a war fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following clashes along the border and rebellions in South Korea. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United Nations, principally the United States. The fighting ended with an armistice on 27 July 1953.

In 1910, Imperial Japan annexed Korea, where it ruled for 35 years until its surrender at the end of World War II on 15 August 1945. The United States and the Soviet Union divided Korea along the 38th parallel into two zones of occupation. The Soviets administered the northern zone and the Americans administered the southern zone. In 1948, as a result of Cold War tensions, the occupation zones became two sovereign states. A socialist state, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, was established in the north under the totalitarian communist leadership of Kim Il-sung while a capitalist state, the Republic of Korea, was established in the south under the authoritarian autocratic leadership of Syngman Rhee. Both governments of the two new Korean states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent.

North Korean military (Korean People's Army (KPA)) forces crossed the border and drove into South Korea on 25 June 1950. The United Nations Security Council denounced the North Korean move as an invasion and authorized the formation of the United Nations Command and the dispatch of forces to Korea to repel it. The Soviet Union was boycotting the UN for recognizing Taiwan (Republic of China) as China, and China (People's Republic of China) on the mainland was not recognized by the UN, so neither could support their ally North Korea at the Security Council meeting. Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.

After the first two months of war, South Korean Army (ROKA) and American forces hastily dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat, retreating to a small area behind a defensive line known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, a risky amphibious UN counteroffensive was launched at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines in South Korea. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces invaded North Korea in October 1950 and moved rapidly towards the Yalu River—the border with China—but on 19 October 1950, Chinese forces of the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war. The UN retreated from North Korea after the First Phase Offensive and the Second Phase Offensive. Chinese forces were in South Korea by late December.

In these and subsequent battles, Seoul was captured four times, and communist forces were pushed back to positions around the 38th parallel, close to where the war had started. After this, the front stabilized, and the last two years were a war of attrition. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive US bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air-to-air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.

The fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict. In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the DMZ and agreed to work toward a treaty to formally end the Korean War.

The Korean War was among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with approximately 3 million war fatalities and a larger proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War. It incurred the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, thousands of massacres by both sides, including the mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government, and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans. North Korea became among the most heavily bombed countries in history. Additionally, several million North Koreans are estimated to have fled North Korea over the course of the war.

Summary :

The Korean War was a war fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following clashes along the border and rebellions in South Korea. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United Nations, principally the United States. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict.

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The Black Death, was a severe pandemic that first hit Europe in the mid to late 14th century (1347 – 1351) and killed one-third to two-thirds of Europe's population. At about the same time, there were epidemics across much of Asia and the Middle East, indicating that events in Europe were actually part of a multiregional pandemic. If you include the Middle East, India and China, the Black Death has claimed at least 75 million lives. The same disease is thought to have hit Europe again in each generation with different intensity and fatality rates until the 1700s.

This epidemic resulted in hunting and killing of minorities such as Jews, immigrants, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of survival creates an unhealthy tendency in society to live only for the present, as described by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353).

There are several theories regarding the origin of this epidemic. One of the oldest theories is that the black death originated in the steppes of central Asia. From this area, it spread to Europe via the Silk Road brought by Mongol armies and traders. This epidemic spread in Asia and spread in Hubei Province, China.

This disease outbreak appears through three variants of transmission. The most common is the Plague Variant, which originates from swollen lymph nodes (Bubo) that appear in the victim's neck, armpit or groin. This disease grows in various sizes, ranging from the size of an egg to the size of an apple. Although some people survived the ordeal, outbreaks of this disease usually gave survivors only a week's life expectancy. The spread of the bubonic plague begins with insects (usually fleas) that are infected through direct contact with rodents, including infected rats and guinea pigs. After the mouse dies, the tick bites the mouse and spreads it to humans.

The second variant is a Pneumonia plague that attacks the respiratory system and is spread only by inhaling the air exhaled through the victim. This plague was far more deadly than the bubonic plague, life expectancy could only be measured in a day or two. The third variant is the transmission of Septicemia plague, this plague attacks the blood system. Unlike the other two outbreaks, this variant can be spread through the bite of an infected insect or rodent, or through contact with other infected humans.

The Black Death is a terrible plague that has cost thousands of lives.

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Martin Luther and the protestan reformation

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The Reformation of the Church was pioneered by Martin Luther (1483-1548) who was a pastor and professor at the University of Wittenberg, Germany.

This incident was triggered by the deviation of Christian teachings, especially because of the practice of selling pardons, corruption by bishops and Christian religious leaders.

Martin Luther in 1517 issued 95 theses containing protests against the concept of forgiveness of sins implemented by the Pope.

The thesis was distributed by Martin Luther at the various doors of the church in Wittenberg.  This event was the beginning of the Church Reformation movement in Europe.

The protest movement of Martin Luther got a strong reaction from the church.  In 1521, the church excommunicated Martin Luther.  The ostracism did not make the Church Reformation movement recede.  His movement which received support from German leaders was able to undermine the Pope's power in German territory.

To replace the old church, Martin Luther founded the Lutheran Church which became the state church of Germany.

This incident resulted in the splitting of Christianity into several sects.  In addition, the emergence of a renewal of social, economic, political and cultural order as well as the collapse of the influence of the Pope's power in the major European countries.  And the emergence of a missionary movement to spread Christianity to all corners of the world.

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Thailand's origins are traditionally associated with the Sukhothai kingdom which was founded in 1238. The Sukhothai kingdom is the oldest kingdom in Thailand centered around the city of Sukhothai, standing from 1238 to 1438. Its peak of glory was achieved under the leadership of the third king, Ramkhamhaeng. When king Ramkhamhaeng stepped down from his position, Sukhothai's power weakened and was replaced by the Ayutthaya Kingdom which was founded in the mid-14th century and was larger than Sukhothai. In 1438, the kingdom of Sukhothai turned into the province of Ayutthaya.

The Ayutthaya Kingdom was founded in 1350 by King Ramathibodi. During its development, Ayuthaya was very active in trading with various foreign countries such as China, India, Japan, Persia and several European countries. Ayutthaya entered its golden age in the second quarter of the 18th century. During this period, art, literature and learning flourished. The Ayyuthaya began fighting against the Nguyen dynasty in 1715 for control of Cambodia. In 1765 Thai territory was attacked by two large Burmese armies, who then united in Ayutthaya. Ayutthaya finally surrendered and was scorched in 1767 after a protracted siege.

After the Burmese invasion of the capital Ayutthaya, General Taksin founded a new kingdom in 1769 with the capital city at Thonburi (Bangkok). Taksin was later deemed insane and executed in 1782, then succeeded by General Chakri who became the first king of the Chakri dynasty. In the same year he founded the new capital city in Bangkok, across the Chao Phraya river. In the 1790s the Burmese were expelled from Siam.

General Chakri's successors had to face the threat of European colonialism after the British victory in Burma in 1826. In the same year Siam signed a treaty with Great Britain, and in 1833 Siam established diplomatic relations with the United States.

The 1932 coup transformed Siam into modern Thailand, a constitutional monarchy. The name change from Siam to Thailand was announced by Prime Minister Plaek Pibulsonggram in 1939. Prime Minister Phibun's government was marked by the rise of Thai nationalism.

In January 1941, Thailand invaded French Indochina, and started the Thai-French war. Thailand succeeded in capturing Laos, while the French won the naval battle of Koh-Chang. The war ended through Japanese mediation. France was forced by Japan to relinquish the disputed territory to Thailand.

In World War II Thailand gave Japan the right to move its troops in Thai territory to Malaya, which at that time was controlled by the British. In December 1941 Thailand and Japan agreed to a military alliance containing Japan's agreement to assist Thailand in reclaiming territory taken by Britain and France. In return, Thailand would help Japan confront the Allies.

After Japan's defeat, Thailand was treated as a defeated country by Britain and France. However, the United States' support for Thailand limited Thailand's losses. Thailand must return the territory it acquired from the two European countries. Thailand then became an ally of the United States facing the threat of communism from its neighboring countries. In 1967, together with Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, Thailand established ASEAN and is active as a member in it.

(Alvina/01)

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Thailand is a Royal Country in Southeast Asia which has a population of about 65 million people. Thailand was only known in 1939 which hundreds of years earlier was known as the State of Siam. Thailand has a history of violence and rebellion, this began when Thailand (Siam at that time) annexed the Sultanate of Patani (note: "Patani" is the Sultanate of Southern Thailand, while "Pattani" is a province in Southern Thailand) in 1902 which then gave birth to separatist movements. Separatism was carried out because at the time of the annexation, there was an assimilation policy from a linguistic and cultural perspective. This assimilation is a failure of the State because it creates discrimination against the Patani population, who are predominantly Muslim Malays, who are faced with Thai culture, namely Thai Buddhist. The prohibition of using the Malay language, the prohibition of teaching Islamic teachings in schools and the repressive actions of the State apparatus against protests by the Malay Muslim community such as violations of their human rights, extrajudicial killings and enforced disappearances. Some of the things mentioned are forms of discrimination carried out by the State of Thailand.

Around 1960, the separatist movement peaked as discrimination against the Malay Muslim community did not end. The conflict began to subside when entering 1980, the leaders of the separatist movement began to surrender. As a result, 1990 was a time when Thailand was in a stable condition in terms of conflict, although there were still 233 deaths that occurred due to the political conflict that spread in Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat, from 1979 – 2003. However, the stable situation did not last long.

On April 28, 2004, more than 100 opposition groups from the Thai Government carried out attacks on 10 police posts spread across the provinces of Pattani, Yala and Songkhla. The attack was carried out because of the religion-based conflict between the Thai government and opposition groups, who are predominantly ethnic Malays and Muslims, which have been going on for a long time in southern Thailand.

One of the conflict locations at that time was in Ban Krue Se, which was seven kilometers from the city of Pattani. Armed conflict between the Thai government and opposition groups at that time caused 32 opposition groups to take refuge in the Krue Se Mosque, a 425-year-old mosque which is considered the most historic mosque in Pattani. The exchange of guns lasted for approximately nine hours until the Thai military troops commanded by General Panlop Pinmanee secured the Krue Se Mosque by killing 32 opposition groups who were inside it with heavy weapons and grenades. There are two children aged 17 and 18 years among the 32 people.

General Panlop Pinmanee's actions were considered an exaggeration, considering that the Thai Defense Minister, Chavalit Yongchaiyudh had instructed General Panlop to seek all peaceful means so that the opposition groups surrendered without bloodshed no matter how long it took. General Panlop failed to fulfill this. He was also deemed disproportionate in his order to secure the Krue Se Mosque due to the use of heavy firearms against opposition groups who were reportedly armed with only machetes and one firearm.

Since 2004 until now, violence has killed more than 6500 people and injured 11,500 people.

Towards the 12th anniversary of the Takbai incident, repressive and illegal actions from the Thai Police and Military were again carried out against the Muslim Malay community both in Patani and outside Patani. From 10 to 12 October 2016, 44 people (8 women and 36 men) were arrested in Bangkok, Thailand. The arrests were made arbitrarily by the Thai Police with the excuse of preventing an increase in acts of terrorism considering that there will be a commemoration of the Tak Bai Incident on October 25, 2016. The Police action is also a discriminatory act against the Patani community, that the Police have stigmatized the warning of the Tak Bai Incident without any basis. obvious reasons. As of October 15, 2016, a total of 48 Muslim students were arbitrarily arrested by the Bangkok Police based on information about the alleged bomb plot that emerged in early October. Of the 48 youths arrested, 25 were released without charge and the rest are being held in prisons or in military facilities.

Synopsis :

The attack was carried out because of the religion-based conflict between the Thai government and opposition groups, who are predominantly ethnic Malays and Muslims, which have been going on for a long time in southern Thailand. Armed conflict between the Thai government and opposition groups at that time caused 32 opposition groups to take refuge in the Krue Se Mosque, a 425-year-old mosque which is considered the most historic mosque in Pattani. The exchange of guns lasted for approximately nine hours until the Thai military troops commanded by General Panlop Pinmanee secured the Krue Se Mosque by killing 32 opposition groups who were inside it with heavy weapons and grenade.

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On December 7, 1941 or exactly 81 years ago, at 7:55 am Hawaii time, a Japanese bomber with a red Japanese Rising Sun symbol on his wings emerged from the clouds over the island of Oahu, the Hawaiian Islands.
A group of Japanese warplanes began to appear later, descending on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor. The surprise attack dealt a severe blow to the US Pacific fleet and drew the United States into World War II.
With previous diplomatic negotiations with Japan failed, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his advisers knew that an imminent Japanese attack was possible, but no anticipation was made to increase security at the important naval base at Pearl Harbor.

It was Sunday morning, many US military personnel were granted permission to attend an offsite service. At 07.02 a.m., two radar operators spotted a large group of planes en route to the island from the north, but, with B-17 flights expected to be from the United States at the time, they were told not to sound the alarm. Thus, the Japanese air raid became a shock that destroyed the naval base.
Much of the US Pacific fleet was rendered useless: Five of the eight warships, three destroyers, and seven other ships were sunk and badly damaged, and more than 200 aircraft were destroyed. A total of 2,400 Americans were killed and 1,200 injured, many of whom valiantly tried to fend off the attacks.
Japanese losses were about 30 aircraft, five small combat submarines, and less than 100 dead. Fortunately for the United States, all three Pacific carriers were conducting training maneuvers. This gigantic carrier would seek revenge against the Japanese six months later in the Battle of Midway, turning the tide against the previously undefeated Japanese navy in a spectacular victory.
The day after Pearl Harbor was bombed, President Roosevelt appeared before a joint session of Congress and stated, “Yesterday, December 7, 1941, the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by the naval and air power of the Empire of Japan. After a short, decisive speech, he asked Congress to pass a resolution recognizing the state of war between the United States and Japan. The Senate voted for war against Japan by a vote of 82 to 0, and the House of Representatives approved the US proposed resolution by a vote of 388 to 1.

The only one who objected to the US resolution was Representative from Montana, Jeannette Rankin, a devout pacifist who also voted against the US entry into World War I.

Three days later, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, and the US government responded in kind.

America's contribution to the successful Allied war effort lasted four long years and cost more than 400,000 American lives.

Summary :

On December 7, 1941, exactly 81 years ago, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the United States military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian Territory. A group of Japanese warplanes began to appear later, descending on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor. The Japanese air raid was a surprise that destroyed the naval base. Much of the US Pacific fleet was rendered useless: Five of the eight warships, three destroyers, and seven other ships were sunk and badly damaged, and more than 200 aircraft were destroyed. A total of 2,400 Americans died and 1,200 were injured. Japanese losses were about 30 aircraft, five small combat submarines, and less than 100 dead. The Americans avenged the Japanese six months later with three Pacific carriers in the Battle of Midway, turning the tide against the previously undefeated Japanese navy in a spectacular victory.

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The Opium Wars were two minor wars fought between China and Great Britain (primarily) over the opium trade in China. They took place during the middle of the 1800s near the end of the Qing Dynasty. Some historians consider the Opium Wars to be the start of the modern era in China.During the end of the Qing Dynasty, China exported many goods to European countries including tea, silk, and porcelain. At the same time, China didn't import many goods. China mostly kept to itself and only allowed foreign traders to trade through certain ports. In order to create a new market in China, British traders with the British East India Company started to import opium into China. Opium is a very addictive drug and was illegal in China. However, as more and more Chinese became addicted to opium, British traders began to make a lot of money selling opium to China. The Chinese government didn't want opium in China. Too many people were becoming addicted to the drug. In 1839, they decided to put an end to the illegal opium trade. They first sent a letter to the British government asking them to stop the traders. When the traders continued to sell the drug, the Chinese seized over 20,000 chests of opium from British traders. Soon, fighting broke out between the two sides and the First Opium War began.The First Opium War lasted over three years from March 18, 1839 to August 29, 1842. The British Navy moved in and easily defeated the outdated Chinese Naval forces. They took control of the trade port Canton and reopened the opium trade. They then moved to occupy several cities along the coast of China and blockaded the Grand Canal. By 1842, the Chinese saw that they were losing the war and were ready to negotiate.After winning the war, the British forced the Chinese to sign the Treaty of Nanking. The treaty reestablished trade between the countries and opened up five trade ports to Britain. It also forced China to pay $21 million in reparations and gave Britain control of the city of Hong Kong.The Second Opium War lasted from 1856 to 1860. The French joined the British in this war against China. The war began when the British placed additional demands on the Chinese including legalizing the opium trade and opening all of China for trade with British companies. When the Chinese government refused, tensions increased between the two countries. Fighting began when the Chinese seized a British pirate ship called Arrow. The British said the Chinese had no right to seize the ship and used the incident for an excuse to attack Canton. The French soon joined in the fighting when a French missionary was executed by Chinese authorities. The British once again took control of Canton. Fighting continued on and off for the next four years. In 1860, British and French forces approached Beijing and defeated the Qing army.At the Convention of Peking in 1860, the Chinese agreed to sign a treaty with Britain and France. The treaty legalized the opium trade, established freedom of religion in China, forced China to pay France and Britain reparations, and opened a new trade port.

Summary:

The Opium Wars were two minor wars fought between China and Great Britain over the opium trade in China. During the end of the Qing Dynasty, China exported many goods to European countries including tea, silk, and porcelain. At the same time, China didn't import many goods. China mostly kept to itself and only allowed foreign traders to trade through certain ports.In order to create a new market in China, British traders with the British East India Company started to import opium into China. Opium is a very addictive drug and was illegal in China. However, as more and more Chinese became addicted to opium, British traders began to make a lot of money selling opium to China. The Chinese government didn't want opium in China.In 1839, they decided to put an end to the illegal opium trade. When the traders continued to sell the drug, the Chinese seized over 20,000 chests of opium from British traders. Soon, fighting broke out between the two sides and the First Opium War began. The First Opium War lasted over three years from March 18, 1839 to August 29, 1842.They took control of the trade port Canton and reopened the opium trade. They then moved to occupy several cities along the coast of China and blockaded the Grand Canal. The Second Opium War lasted from 1856 to 1860. The French joined the British in this war against China.The war began when the British placed additional demands on the Chinese including legalizing the opium trade and opening all of China for trade with British companies.

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The French Revolution lasted 10 years from 1789 to 1799. It began on July 14, 1789 when revolutionaries stormed a prison called the Bastille. The revolution came to an end 1799 when a general named Napoleon overthrew the revolutionary government and established the French Consulate (with Napoleon as leader). The French Estates Before the French Revolution, the people of France were divided into social groups called "Estates." The First Estate included the clergy (church leaders), the Second Estate included the nobles, and the Third Estate included the commoners. Most of the people were members of the Third Estate. The Third Estate paid most of the taxes, while the nobility lived lives of luxury and got all the high-ranking jobs. Revolutionary Government The French Government was in constant turmoil throughout the revolution. At the start of the revolution, representatives from the Third Estate established the National Assembly where they demanded that King Louis XVI give them certain rights. This group soon took control of the country. They changed names over time to the Legislative Assembly and, later, to the National Convention. After the Reign of Terror, a new government was formed called the Directory. The Directory ruled until Napoleon took control. Reign of Terror The darkest period of the French Revolution is called the Reign of Terror which lasted from 1793 to 1794. During this time, a man named Robespierre led the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. He wanted to stamp out any opposition to the revolution, so he called for a rule of "Terror." Laws were passed that said anyone suspected of treason could be arrested and executed by guillotine. Thousands of people were executed including Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals. Political Clubs Many of the new political ideas and alliances of the French Revolution were formed in political clubs. These clubs included the powerful Jacobin Club (led by Robespierre), the Cordeliers, the Feuillants Club, and the Pantheon Club. Although the revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon, the ideas and reforms did not die. These new ideas continued to influence Europe and helped to shape many of Europe's modern-day governments.

summary :
The French Revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France. It put an end to the French monarchy, feudalism, and took political power from the Catholic church. It brought new ideas to Europe including liberty and freedom for the commoner as well as the abolishment of slavery and the rights of women.

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On December 7, 1941 or exactly 81 years ago, at 7:55 am Hawaii time, a Japanese bomber with a red Japanese Rising Sun symbol on his wings emerged from the clouds over the island of Oahu, the Hawaiian Islands.
A group of Japanese warplanes began to appear later, descending on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor. The surprise attack dealt a severe blow to the US Pacific fleet and drew the United States into World War II.
With previous diplomatic negotiations with Japan failed, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his advisers knew that an imminent Japanese attack was possible, but no anticipation was made to increase security at the important naval base at Pearl Harbor.
It was Sunday morning, many US military personnel were granted permission to attend an offsite service. At 07.02 a.m., two radar operators spotted a large group of planes en route to the island from the north, but, with B-17 flights expected to be from the United States at the time, they were told not to sound the alarm. Thus, the Japanese air raid became a shock that destroyed the naval base.
Much of the US Pacific fleet was rendered useless: Five of the eight warships, three destroyers, and seven other ships were sunk and badly damaged, and more than 200 aircraft were destroyed. A total of 2,400 Americans were killed and 1,200 injured, many of whom valiantly tried to fend off the attacks.
Japanese losses were about 30 aircraft, five small combat submarines, and less than 100 dead. Fortunately for the United States, all three Pacific carriers were conducting training maneuvers. This gigantic carrier would seek revenge against the Japanese six months later in the Battle of Midway, turning the tide against the previously undefeated Japanese navy in a spectacular victory.
The day after Pearl Harbor was bombed, President Roosevelt appeared before a joint session of Congress and stated, “Yesterday, December 7, 1941, the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by the naval and air power of the Empire of Japan. After a short, decisive speech, he asked Congress to pass a resolution recognizing the state of war between the United States and Japan. The Senate voted for war against Japan by a vote of 82 to 0, and the House of Representatives approved the US proposed resolution by a vote of 388 to 1.
The only one who objected to the US resolution was Representative from Montana, Jeannette Rankin, a devout pacifist who also voted against the US entry into World War I.
Three days later, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, and the US government responded in kind.
America's contribution to the successful Allied war effort lasted four long years and cost more than 400,000 American lives.

Summary :

On December 7, 1941, exactly 81 years ago, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the United States military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian Territory. A group of Japanese warplanes began to appear later, descending on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor. The Japanese air raid was a surprise that destroyed the naval base. Much of the US Pacific fleet was rendered useless: Five of the eight warships, three destroyers, and seven other ships were sunk and badly damaged, and more than 200 aircraft were destroyed. A total of 2,400 Americans died and 1,200 were injured. Japanese losses were about 30 aircraft, five small combat submarines, and less than 100 dead. The Americans avenged the Japanese six months later with three Pacific carriers in the Battle of Midway, turning the tide against the previously undefeated Japanese navy in a spectacular victory.

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The Beginning of the Roman Empire, Pax Romana and the Jewish Massacre

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The Beginning of the Roman Empire, Pax Romana and the Jewish Massacre

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The Roman Empire was one of the greatest empires in history. His power stretched from Europe, Africa to Asia for more than 5 centuries. While many mention the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, it didn't actually collapse until 1453 AD.
During its success, the Roman Empire with its warriors and trading power has made it the strongest empire in history. So, how was the beginning and expansion of the Roman Empire?
The Roman Empire began in 27 BC, when Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, was given the title "Augustus," meaning "honored one," by the Roman senate. This new title signified Octavian's elevation to the position of emperor in everything but name, ending the Roman Republic, according to many modern historians.
Octavian was given this title after emerging victorious in a series of civil wars sparked by the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. During this war Mark Antony, Caesar's former general, fought for control of the Roman world against some of Caesar's assassins, and then he allied with Cleopatra to fight Octavian.
While some republican institutions, such as the senate, continued to function after 27 BC, their powers were much reduced. Power instead became focused on Augustus and his successors.
Modern-day historians sometimes use the phrase "Pax Romana" (Roman Peace) to describe the period between 27 BC, when Octavian was given the title Augustus, and AD 180, when Emperor Marcus Aurelius died. This phrase is sometimes used because it was a relatively stable period in Roman history, compared to the period before and after those years.

Augustus tries, in some ways, to describe his reign (which lasted until his death in AD 14) as a time of relative peace. "Among the many images of him (Augustus), relatively few, especially statues, sculptures and reliefs, depict him as a general," writes historian Adrian Goldsworthy in his book "Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World." " as quoted by Live Science.
While Augustus would like to describe his reign as peaceful, the reality is quite different. During Augustus' reign, Roman armies fought in Iberia, conquering areas not yet under Roman control.
The army also advanced deep into what is now Germany in hopes of incorporating it into the Roman Empire. This met with disaster when three legions, including their commander, Quintilius Varus, were completely annihilated at the Battle of the Teutoburg forest in 9 AD.
The Roman historian Suetonius, who lived from 70 to 122 AD claims that this loss had a profound impact on Augustus. "They said he was so affected that for several months straight he cut neither his beard nor hair, and sometimes he would (bang) his head against the door, crying: 'Quintilius Varus, give me back my legion!' And he observes the day of disaster every year as a day of sorrow and sorrow," Suetonius wrote.

The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 55 to 120 AD) claims that Augustus, in his last will, advised his successor Tiberius (adopted son of Augustus) not to expand the empire but to keep it within its present limits. While Tiberius, who ruled from 14 to 37 AD, largely kept the empire within its limits, future emperors did not, with some future military adventures also ending in disaster.
There's also no shortage of strife and civil war during "Pax Romana." Emperor Caligula, who reigned from 37 to 41 AD, was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard, the unit tasked with protecting the emperor. Meanwhile, Nero's reign (54 to 68 AD) ended in civil war. Emperor Domitian (reigned 81 to 96 AD) was also assassinated during the so-called Pax Romana.
The most lasting military conquests made after Augustus' death occurred during the reign of Emperor Claudius, who reigned from 41 to 54 C.E. He and his successor, Nero, succeeded in attacking and occupying England. The attempt almost failed, and the Romans were almost expelled against the Iceni queen Boudicca in AD 60 to 61. Eventually the Roman Empire won and held England until AD 410.

However, Roman attempts to invade Scotland were unsuccessful. One of the most important efforts occurred during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned from 138 to 161 AD). He captured parts of Scotland and built a series of fortifications there which are sometimes referred to by modern historians as the "Antonine Walls". His successors were unable to defend even part of Scotland and the Romans eventually retreated to Hadrian's Wall, located in northern England around AD 160.
Other Roman rulers sought to expand the empire during their reign. Emperor Trajan (reigned 98 to 117) launched an ambitious effort to expand the Roman Empire, conquering Dacia, a region that lay around modern-day Romania. The Romans held Dacia until the 270s AD.

Trajan also attempted to invade and occupy what is now Iraq. While Trajan managed to advance into the Persian Gulf, his forces were unable to defend the region, and his successor Hadrian (117 to 138 AD) withdrew from Iraq and focused on strengthening and consolidating the empire's existing borders.
There were also many rebellions throughout the empire during the Pax Romana. In Judea, an unsuccessful revolt by the Jews in AD 66 to 74 resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, the holiest place for the Jews, by Roman troops. Then the abandonment of Qumran, the site where the Dead Sea Scrolls were kept in nearby caves and the destruction of the rebel forces at Masada.

There were more revolts in Judea during the Pax Romana, with one revolt, ending in AD 136. More than half a million Jews were massacred by Roman troops, while the survivors spread throughout the world. The Roman historian Suetonius, who lived from 70 to 122 AD claims that this loss had a profound impact on Augustus. "They said he was so affected that for several months straight he cut neither his beard nor hair, and sometimes he would (bang) his head against the door, crying: 'Quintilius Varus, give me back my legion!' And he observes the day of disaster every year as a day of sorrow and sorrow," Suetonius wrote. The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 55 to 120 AD) claims that Augustus, in his last will, advised his successor Tiberius (adopted son of Augustus) not to expand the empire but to keep it within its present limits. While Tiberius, who ruled from 14 to 37 AD, largely kept the empire within its limits, future emperors did not, with some future military adventures also ending in disaster.
There's also no shortage of strife and civil war during "Pax Romana." Emperor Caligula, who reigned from 37 to 41 AD, was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard, the unit tasked with protecting the emperor. Meanwhile, Nero's reign (54 to 68 AD) ended in civil war. Emperor Domitian (reigned 81 to 96 AD) was also assassinated during the so-called Pax Romana.

The most lasting military conquests made after Augustus' death occurred during the reign of Emperor Claudius, who reigned from 41 to 54 C.E. He and his successor, Nero, succeeded in attacking and occupying England. The attempt almost failed, and the Romans were almost expelled against the Iceni queen Boudicca in AD 60 to 61. Eventually the Roman Empire won and held England until AD 410.
However, Roman attempts to invade Scotland were unsuccessful. One of the most important efforts occurred during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned from 138 to 161 AD). He captured parts of Scotland and built a series of fortifications there which are sometimes referred to by modern historians as the "Antonine Walls". His successors were unable to defend even part of Scotland and the Romans eventually retreated to Hadrian's Wall, located in northern England around AD 160.
Other Roman rulers sought to expand the empire during their reign. Emperor Trajan (reigned 98 to 117) launched an ambitious effort to expand the Roman Empire, conquering Dacia, a region that lay around modern-day Romania. The Romans held Dacia until the 270s AD.
Trajan also attempted to invade and occupy what is now Iraq. While Trajan managed to advance into the Persian Gulf, his forces were unable to defend the region, and his successor Hadrian (117 to 138 AD) withdrew from Iraq and focused on strengthening and consolidating the empire's existing borders.
There were also many rebellions throughout the empire during the Pax Romana. In Judea, an unsuccessful revolt by the Jews in AD 66 to 74 resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, the holiest place for the Jews, by Roman troops. Then the abandonment of Qumran, the site where the Dead Sea Scrolls were kept in nearby caves and the destruction of the rebel forces at Masada.
There were more revolts in Judea during the Pax Romana, with one revolt, ending in AD 136. More than half a million Jews were massacred by Roman troops, while the survivors spread throughout the world.

Summary:

The Roman Empire was one of the greatest empires in history. While many mention the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, it didn't actually collapse until 1453 AD. During its success, the Roman Empire with its warriors and trading power has made it the strongest empire in history. The Roman Empire began in 27 BC, when Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, was given the title "Augustus," meaning "honored one," by the Roman senate.

This new title signified Octavian's elevation to the position of emperor in everything but name, ending the Roman Republic, according to many modern historians. Octavian was given this title after emerging victorious in a series of civil wars sparked by the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. During this war Mark Antony, Caesar's former general, fought for control of the Roman world against some of Caesar's assassins, and then he allied with Cleopatra to fight Octavian. Power instead became focused on Augustus and his successors.

Modern-day historians sometimes use the phrase "Pax Romana" to describe the period between 27 BC, when Octavian was given the title Augustus, and AD 180, when Emperor Marcus Aurelius died. This phrase is sometimes used because it was a relatively stable period in Roman history, compared to the period before and after those years. Augustus tries, in some ways, to describe his reign as a time of relative peace. While Augustus would like to describe his reign as peaceful, the reality is quite different.

During Augustus' reign, Roman armies fought in Iberia, conquering areas not yet under Roman control. The army also advanced deep into what is now Germany in hopes of incorporating it into the Roman Empire. This met with disaster when three legions, including their commander, Quintilius Varus, were completely annihilated at the Battle of the Teutoburg forest in 9 AD. The Roman historian Suetonius, who lived from 70 to 122 AD claims that this loss had a profound impact on Augustus.

While Tiberius, who ruled from 14 to 37 AD, largely kept the empire within its limits, future emperors did not, with some future military adventures also ending in disaster.

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By the mid-15th century, constant struggles for dominance with its Balkan neighbours and Roman Catholic rivals had diminished Byzantine imperial holdings to Constantinople and the land immediately west of it. Furthermore, with Constantinople having suffered through several devastating sieges, the city’s population had dropped from roughly 400,000 in the 12th century to between 40,000 and 50,000 by the 1450s. Vast open fields constituted much of the land within the walls. Byzantine relations with the rest of Europe had soured over the last several centuries as well: the Schism of 1054 and the 13th-century Latin occupation of Constantinople entrenched a mutual hatred between the Orthodox Byzantines and Roman Catholic Europe. Nevertheless, just as deeply entrenched was the understanding that Byzantine control of Constantinople was a necessary bastion against Muslim control of land and sea in the eastern Mediterranean.

In contrast to the Byzantines, the Ottoman Turks had extended their control over virtually all of the Balkans and most of Anatolia, having conquered several Byzantine cities west of Constantinople in the latter half of the 14th century. Constantinople itself became an Ottoman vassal during this period. Hungary was the primary European threat to the Ottomans on land, and Venice and Genoa controlled much of the Aegean and Black seas. Sultan Murad II laid siege to Constantinople in 1422, but he was forced to lift it in order to suppress a rebellion elsewhere in the empire. In 1444 he lost an important battle to a Christian alliance in the Balkans and abdicated the throne to his son, Mehmed II. However, he returned to power two years later after defeating the Christians and remained sultan until his death in 1451.

Now sultan for the second time, Mehmed II intended to complete his father’s mission and conquer Constantinople for the Ottomans. In 1452 he reached peace treaties with Hungary and Venice. He also began the construction of the Boğazkesen (later called the Rumelihisarı), a fortress at the narrowest point of the Bosporus, in order to restrict passage between the Black and Mediterranean seas. Mehmed then tasked the Hungarian gunsmith Urban with both arming Rumelihisarı and building cannon powerful enough to bring down the walls of Constantinople. By March 1453 Urban’s cannon had been transported from the Ottoman capital of Edirne to the outskirts of Constantinople. In April, having quickly seized Byzantine coastal settlements along the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara, Ottoman regiments in Rumelia and Anatolia assembled outside the Byzantine capital. Their fleet moved from Gallipoli to nearby Diplokionion, and the sultan himself set out to meet his army.
In the meantime, Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus entreated major powers in Christendom to aid him in the impending siege. Hungary refused to assist, and, instead of sending men, Pope Nicholas V saw the precarious situation as an opportunity to push for the reunification of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, a priority of the papacy since 1054. Orthodox leaders voted in favour of union, but the people of Constantinople were adamantly against it and rioted in response. Military support came from Venice and Genoa. An Ottoman attack on a Venetian ship in the Bosporus prompted the Venetian Senate to send 800 troops and 15 galleys to the Byzantine capital, and many Venetians presently in Constantinople also chose to support the war effort, but the bulk of the Venetian forces were delayed for too long to be of any help. For Genoa’s part, the city-state sent 700 soldiers to Constantinople, all of whom arrived in January 1453 with Giovanni Giustiniani Longo at their head. Emperor Constantine XI named Giustiniani commander of his land defenses and spent the rest of the winter strengthening the city for a siege.

In the 15th century, Constantinople’s walls were widely recognized as the most formidable in all of Europe. The land walls spanned 4 miles (6.5 km) and consisted of a double line of ramparts with a moat on the outside; the higher of the two stood as high as 40 feet (12 metres) with a base as much as 16 feet (5 metres) thick. These walls had never been breached in the thousand years since their construction. An adjoining sea wall ran along the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara, the latter section being 20 feet (6 metres) high and 5 miles (8 km) long. When combined with a large metal chain that had been drawn across the Golden Horn, Constantine was confident that the city’s defenses could repel a naval assault and withstand Mehmed’s land forces until relief came from Christian Europe. However, Constantine’s capacity to defend his city was hampered by his small fighting force. Eyewitness Jacopo Tedaldi estimates a presence of 30,000 to 35,000 armed civilians and only 6,000 to 7,000 trained soldiers. Giustiniani intended to concentrate most of these men at the land walls to the north and west, the centre of which he observed to be the most vulnerable section of the city. A small fleet of naval and armed merchant vessels were also stationed in the Golden Horn to defend the chain. However, without outside support, Constantinople’s defenders would be spread thin.

The Ottoman besiegers vastly outnumbered the Byzantines and their allies. Between 60,000 and 80,000 soldiers fought on land, accompanied by 69 cannon. Baltaoğlu Süleyman Bey commanded a fleet stationed at Diplokionion with an estimated 31 large and midsize warships alongside nearly 100 smaller boats and transports. Mehmed’s strategy was straightforward: he would use his fleet and siege lines to blockade Constantinople on all sides while relentlessly battering the walls of the city with cannon. He hoped to breach them or otherwise force a surrender before a Christian relief force could arrive.

On April 6 the Ottomans began their artillery barrage and brought down a section of the wall. They mounted a frontal assault of the land walls on April 7, but the Byzantines repelled them and were able to repair the defenses. After pausing to reposition his cannon, Mehmed reopened fire and thereafter maintained daily bombardment.

On April 12 the sultan dispatched a contingent of troops to subdue two nearby Byzantine forts and ordered Baltaoğlu to rush the chain. The fleet was twice driven back, and Baltaoğlu retreated to Diplokionion until the night of the 17th, when he moved to capture the Princes Islands southeast of the city at the same time that Mehmed’s land regiments assaulted the Mesoteichon section of the wall. Constantinople’s defenders once again held their ground, however, and Baltaoğlu’s success at the islands was irreparably marred by the revelation that three relief ships from the pope and one large Byzantine vessel had nearly reached the city unhindered. The Ottoman galleys were too short to capture the tall European warships, and, with the help of the Golden Horn fleet, the warships safely sailed past the chain. Upon hearing of his navy’s defeat, Mehmed stripped Baltaoğlu of his rank and arranged for his replacement.

Mehmed was determined to take the Golden Horn and pressure the Byzantines into submission. He angled one of his cannons such that it could strike the defenders of the chain and then began to construct an oiled wooden ramp upon which he intended to portage his smaller vessels from the Bosporus to the Golden Horn. By April 22 the ships had circumvented the chain in this way and, barring the chain itself, seized control of all the waters surrounding the city. The defenders attempted to attack the remainder of the Ottoman fleet in the Bosporus, but they were defeated.

Having encircled Constantinople in full, Mehmed continued his artillery barrage of the land walls through May 29. The Ottoman cannon created several breaches, but most were too narrow to send troops through. The city’s defenders continued to repair the walls at night and reinforced areas at the damaged Gate of St. Romanus and the Blachernae sector. In the early hours of May 29, Ottoman labourers filled the moat surrounding the city. Just before dawn, the sultan launched a coordinated artillery, infantry, and naval assault on Constantinople. Two attempts to rush the Gate of St. Romanus and the Blachernae walls were met with fierce resistance, and the Ottoman soldiers were forced to fall back. Mehmed ordered a third attack on the gate, this time with one of his own palace regiments of 3,000 Janissaries. A small group reached the top of a tower through another gate but were nearly eliminated by the defenders until Giustiniani was mortally wounded by Ottoman gunfire while on the ramparts. He was carried to the rear, and his absence sowed confusion and lowered morale among the ranks. This allowed the sultan to send in another Janissary regiment and take the inner wall at the Gate of St. Romanus.

A rout of the defenders ensued, with many of the Venetian and Genoese fighters retreating to their ships in the Golden Horn. Emperor Constantine XI is reported to have been killed while either fighting near the breach or fleeing to an escape boat. Although the sultan attempted to prevent a total sack of the city, he permitted an initial period of looting that saw the destruction of many Orthodox churches. When most of Constantinople was secure, Mehmed himself rode through the streets of the city to the great cathedral of Hagia Sophia, the largest in all of Christendom, and converted it into the mosque Ayasofya. He stopped to pray and then demanded that all further looting cease immediately. The sultan thus completed his conquest of the Byzantine capital.

Mehmed II and his army were remarkably restrained in their handling of affairs after the fall of Constantinople. They largely refrained from slaughtering commoners and nobility, instead choosing to ransom them to their home states and primarily executing only those who fought after the surrender. Mehmed repopulated the city with people from a multitude of backgrounds and faiths and relocated his capital from Edirne to Constantinople, ensuring a multicultural seat of power for a multicultural empire. He also began to view himself as Kayser-i Rûm (“Caesar of Rome”), the inheritor of the Roman Empire and all its historical lands. He asserted this claim with a series of campaigns that thoroughly subjugated both the Balkans and Greece by the late 15th century.

For Christendom, Mehmed’s victory at Constantinople represented a serious shift in its dealings with the East. Now devoid of both a long-standing buffer against the Ottomans and access to the Black Sea, Christian kingdoms relied on Hungary to halt any further westward expansion. Many modern scholars also agree that the exodus of Greeks to Italy as a result of this event marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.

Summary:

Fall of Constantinople, (May 29, 1453), conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. The dwindling Byzantine Empire came to an end when the Ottomans breached Constantinople’s ancient land wall after besieging the city for 55 days. Mehmed surrounded Constantinople from land and sea while employing cannon to maintain a constant barrage of the city’s formidable walls. The fall of the city removed what was once a powerful defense for Christian Europe against Muslim invasion, allowing for uninterrupted Ottoman expansion into eastern Europe.