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By Marzano
For a nine-page pdf summary of Marzano's book, The Engaged Classroom, click on the link below.  Page eight will provide you a one page summary of engagement strategies.

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"Hattie Ranking: 252 Influences And Effect Sizes Related To Student Achievement."

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Movement - Jigsaw
For more information about what a Jigsaw is, visit the following site.

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OVERVIEW

The jigsaw classroom is a research-based cooperative learning technique invented and developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the University of Texas and the University of California. Since 1971, thousands of classrooms have used jigsaw with great success.

The jigsaw classroom has a four-decade track record of successfully reducing racial conflict and increasing positive educational outcomes such as improved test performance, reduced absenteeism, and greater liking for school.

Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece - each student's part - is essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product.

If each student's part is essential, then each student is essential; and that is precisely what makes this strategy so effective.

JIGSAW IN 10 EASY STEPS

The jigsaw classroom is very simple to use. If you're a teacher, just follow these steps:

STEP SEVEN

Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.

STEP EIGHT

Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group.

Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.

STEP NINE

Float from group to group, observing the process.

If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.

STEP TEN

At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material.

Students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.

ABOUT ELLIOT ARONSON

Elliot Aronson is currently Professor Emeritus at the University of California in Santa Cruz. He has long-standing research interests in social influence and attitude change, cognitive dissonance, research methodology, and interpersonal attraction. Professor Aronson's experiments are aimed both at testing theory and at improving the human condition by influencing people to change dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors.

Professor Aronson received his B.A. from Brandeis University in 1954, his M.A. from Wesleyan University in 1956, and his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1959. He has taught at Harvard University, the University of Minnesota, the University of Texas, and the University of California. In 1999, he won the American Psychological Association's Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, making him the only psychologist to have won APA's highest awards in all three major academic categories: distinguished writing (1973), distinguished teaching (1980), and distinguished research (1999).

MORE ABOUT
ELLIOT ARONSON

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The jigsaw technique is a cooperative learning approach that reduces racial conflict among school children, promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and increases enjoyment of the learning experience.

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Classroom activities that incorporate physical movement have a positive impact on students' energy levels.

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School Counselors & SEL
"For many students, their school counselor is their emotional and social guide and confidant. Here are some activities that counselors can initiate to assist students, staff, and parents in the critical area of emotional and social intelligence."

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For many students, their school counselor is their emotional and social guide and confidant. Here are some activities that counselors can initiate to assist students, staff, and parents in the critical area of emotional and social intelligence.

Organize parent education programs.

Throughout the country, local schools and parent organizations have joined forces to host Parent Universities -- daylong events during which parents have the opportunity to attend workshops on such issues as communicating with adolescents, managing stress, and supporting the social-emotional and educational needs of children. Consider hiring translators to accommodate the language needs of non-English speakers in your community.

Adopt a bully prevention program.

According to the American School Counselor Association, one out of every four children is bullied. These youngsters and teens suffer both physical and emotional abuse. They miss school, fear harassment in the bathroom and on the playground, and often feel they have nowhere to turn for assistance. Comprehensive school-based anti-bullying programs have been very successful in raising student, teacher, and parent awareness of the causes and effects of this all-too-common phenomenon. For information and resources for both parents and school staff, visit The Anti-Bullying Network.

Institute service-learning projects.

Participation in school and community-based service projects benefits students academically, socially, and emotionally. The National Youth Leadership Council Web site features resources for schools interested in starting a service-learning component, including examples of model school-based programs.

Start an advisory program for middle schoolers.

Proponents of small-group advisories for middle schools believe such programs provide adolescents with the ongoing support and connections they need to help them grow and thrive during these turbulent years. MiddleWeb, a Web resource for educators and parents, features several articles on middle school advisories, including an FAQ (frequently asked questions and their answers) written by advisory advocate Jim Burns.

Create an environment of accessibility.

At one New Jersey middle school, counselors stand in the school corridor between classes in order to acknowledge students and maintain a high profile. Their aim is to remind students that counselors are among the adults at school available to help them and to listen. At a California school, a counselor makes a point of visiting every class every two weeks.

Resources

American Psychological Association. The association offers free brochures on such topics as violence prevention, how to choose a psychologist, and commonsense ways to assess online mental health information.

Blueprints for Violence Prevention. This interactive Web site features detailed information on model programs for violence prevention, including school-based programs that focus on bullying prevention, classroom-based social-emotional learning curriculum, and more.

Educating Minds and Hearts: Social Emotional Learning and the Passage into Adolescence. Editor Jonathan Cohen has gathered a wealth of information from different experts. The thread that ties the different chapters together is the use of fictional characters "Raffi" and "Maura" as springboards for experts to talk about how particular social and emotional learning programs affect middle school students. 1999. Published by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Education World. Visit the School Counselors' section of this site for hundreds of articles and resources covering such critical topics as dealing with grief and loss, suicide prevention, depression, and fostering self-esteem. Many of the referenced articles are from the ERIC database of resources.

In the Mix. This PBS-sponsored Web site for educators features lesson plans and discussion guides for a variety of health and fitness subjects, including anger management, drug and alcohol abuse (including a lesson designed to help teens interpret alcohol advertising messages), depression, and self-image. Lessons are typically designed for middle and high school students and include a PBS "In the Mix" video component.

Promoting Social and Emotional Learning: Guide for Educators. This book by Rutgers University Psychology Professor Maurice Elias and others takes the best information about attempts in schools to give students the skills to be emotionally intelligent individuals. 1997. Published by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Suicide Awareness Voices of Education. Among this site's many resources is a thoughtful "Guide for Young People" on depression -- its causes and the importance of seeking adult help for friends and classmates.

Waging Peace in Our Schools. This book by Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti tells the story of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP), which was begun in New York City schools in 1985 and is now in more than 350 schools nationwide. The book serves as a practical guide to many of the successful strategies used by RCCP to produce emotionally intelligent children. 1996. Published by Beacon Press.

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Emotional Intelligence: What School Counselors Can Do

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For many students, their school counselor is their emotional and social guide and confidant. Here are some activities that counselors can initiate to assist students, staff, and parents in the critical area of emotional and social intelligence.

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"Share yourself with us, and show us how to share ourselves with others."
In our busy school lives, packed with curriculum, assessment and meetings, we sometimes lose sight of the necessity of making authentic connections with others (adults included!)

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Everyone works with children role at school teacher and more must watch.

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"Responsive Classroom is an evidence-based approach to teaching that focuses on engaging academics, positive community, effective management, and developmental awareness." To learn more about the principals of responsive classroom, click the link below

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The Responsive Classroom approach is informed by the work of educational theorists and the experiences of exemplary teachers. Read more!

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Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports:
"One of the foremost advances in schoolwide discipline is the emphasis on schoolwide systems of support that include proactive strategies for defining, teaching, and supporting appropriate student behaviors to create positive school environments."

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What is School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports

School-wide PBIS is a multi-tiered framework to make schools more effective places. It establishes a social culture and the behavior supports needed to improve social, emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes for all students. PBIS is flexible enough support student, family, and community needs.

Foundational Elements of PBIS

The four critical features of SW-PBIS include:

Locally-meaningful and culturally-relevant outcomes

Empirically-supported practices

Systems to support implementation

Data to monitor effective and equitable implementation and to guide decision making.

Outcomes

Setting observable and measurable goals helps schools hold themselves accountable to creating the kind of place where every student succeeds. Schools select the outcomes to target based on data they find meaningful, culturally equitable, and centered on students' achievements or school-level implementation.

Practices

Schools implementing PBIS select, implement, monitor, evaluate, and adapt the evidence-based practices they use in their settings. Specifically, they invest in practices that are:

Defined with precision

Documented with how and for whom to use them

Documented with specific outcomes

Demonstrated through research to be effective

Because PBIS is not a packaged curriculum or intervention, schools implement the core features of evidence-based practices in a way that fits with the schools' cultural values.

When it comes to school-wide practices, all schools:

Document a shared vision and approach to supporting and responding to student behavior in a mission or vision statement.

Establish 3-5 positively-stated school-wide expectations and define them for each school routine or setting.

Explicitly teach school-wide expectations and other key social, emotional, and behavioral skills to set all students up for success.

Establish a continuum of recognition strategies to provide specific feedback and encourage contextually appropriate behavior.

Establish a continuum of response strategies to provide specific feedback, re-teach contextually appropriate behavior, and discourage contextually inappropriate behavior.

Systems

Schools invest in the administrative, professional, and organizational systems critical to sustain PBIS implementation. These systems create the ability to deliver Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 practices. They also serve as the foundation to establish

Teaming structures

Scheduling practices

Staff selection

Training and coaching procedures

On-going data-based problem-solving routines

Data

School-wide PBIS schools collect and use data to guide their implementation and evaluate outcomes. It is critical to consider the local culture and context throughout the decision-making process to ensure equitable outcomes for all students and staff.

Tiers of SWPBIS: Continuum of Support

The type and level of behavior support provided for any student must match the intensity of his or her needs. Student responsiveness to academic and behavioral supports must guide instructional and intervention decisions. Schools implementing PBIS school-wide must organize behavior support across multiple tiers which increase in intensity as students' needs dictate.

Tier 1 supports are delivered to all students and emphasize teaching prosocial skills and behavior expectations. Schools acknowledge appropriate student behavior across all school settings. Tier 1 PBIS builds a social culture where students expect, prompt, and reinforce appropriate behavior for each other. When implemented with fidelity, Tier 1 PBIS systems and practices meet the needs of 80% or more of all students' needs.

Tier 2 supports focus on students who are not successful with Tier 1 supports alone. Students receiving Tier 2 support require additional teaching and practice opportunities to increase their likelihood of success. Tier 2 supports are often successful when provided within groups. At this level, systems and practices are efficient. This means they are similar across students and can be quickly accessed. Schools monitor fidelity and outcome data regularly to adjust implementation as needed. The typical range of Tier 2 supports include:

Self-management

Check-In, Check-Out

Small group social skill instruction

Targeted academic supports.

Typically, schools deliver Tier 2 supports to 5-15% of the student body.

Tier 3 are more intensive and individualized. Schools use more formalized assessments to match interventions to the behavior's function. They create individualized plans incorporating the student's academic strengths and deficits, physical and medical status, mental health needs, and family/community support. Support plans emphasize:

Prevention of problem situations

Active instruction of new, replacement, and adaptive behaviors

Formal strategies to acknowledge desired behavior

Systematic procedures to reduce the likelihood problem behaviors are reinforced

Safety routines

Accurate and sustained implementation

Data collection procedures to measure fidelity and impact

Coordination of family, agency, and other systems of care.

Tier 3 supports target the 3-5% of students with the highest support needs in the school.

Why Implement School-wide PBIS?

Specifically, PBIS implemented school-wide is associated with the following outcomes:[1],[2],[3],[4]

Get Started...

To get started implementing SW-PBIS, identify a representative leadership team. This team typically:

Completes readiness activities like securing staff buy-in and evaluating data systems

Identifies relevant training and coaching resources

Develops an action plan to guide implementation of PBIS practices, systems, and data school-wide

Implements a contextualized approach to PBIS to match the school's values and culture

Monitors, evaluates, and adjusts implementation in an on-going way

To learn more about PBIS resources available within your state, contact your state coordinator.

[1] Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2009). Responsiveness-to-Intervention and School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports: Integration of Multi-Tiered System Approaches. Exceptionality, 17(4), 223-237. doi: 10.1080/09362830903235375

[2] Waasdorp, T., Bradshaw, C., Leaf, F. (2012). The Impact of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Bullying and Peer Rejection. Archives Of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(2), 149. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.755

[3] Simonsen, B., Britton, L., & Young, D. (2009). School-Wide Positive Behavior Support in an Alternative School Setting. Journal Of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(3), 180-191. doi: 10.1177/1098300708330495

[4] Bradshaw, C., Koth, C., Bevans, K., Ialongo, N., & Leaf, P. (2008). The impact of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) on the organizational health of elementary schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(4), 462-473. doi: 10.1037/a0012883

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Topic Page: When schools implement PBIS, they start by implementing it school-wide. Three critical features - systems, practices, and data - work together to promote positive, predictable, safe environments for everyone in all school settings.

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Workshop Model for High School
This (16 minute) video provides an opportunity to take a glimpse into one school's shift to integrating the workshop model into daily practice.  Two teachers are interviewed and there are clips of general and special education classrooms.  It's well worth watching.

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Evergreen Learning Spotlight: The Workshop Model

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Principal Kafele is an educational leader with a passion for meeting the needs of his diverse student population. His YouTube video, "You can't teach them if you don't know them," he challenges us to reflect on what we know about our students.

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Principal Kafele says, "You can't teach them if you don't know them!"

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---An evocative video on Culturally Responsive Teaching...Our kids need us!

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Culturally Responsive Teaching - Listen to the Silence

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Teach Like A Champion 2.0
"Teach Like a Champion is about the belief that the solutions to education challenges exist in the classrooms of real life teachers, that exceptional practitioners of the art of teaching are the true experts."  Teach Like a Champion 2.0 is a great K-12 resource and is highly recommended by fellow educators.  This link will give you a sneak peek into some of the techniques in the book.

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Inconsequential Competition
While a little effusive in her praise of "Friendly Controversy and Inconsequential Competition," this video does a good job describing these engagement techniques in three minutes.

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Friendly Controversy and Inconsequential Competition HD

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Five Ways to Start Your Lessons
This one and a half minute video gives you interesting and meaningful hooks for your lessons.

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Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. How could you use an object to pique students' interest?

2. How could you start your lessons in different ways for different purposes?

3. How does Ms. Alcala use her warm-up as both an assessment and a teaching opportunity?

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Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more. Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more. How could you use an object to pique students' interest?

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Conver-stations
This is a great discussion strategy for grades 4-12.  Students move around the room to deepen conversations.

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Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. How does this strategy encourage student-led conversations?

2. What are the benefits of using movement during class discussions?

3. How could this strategy be adapted to other activities?

Teachers

English Language Arts / 10 11 12 / Teacher

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Sarah Brown Wessling uses movement during small group discussion to help students deepen their conversations. Sarah asks only some students in each small group to move with each topic switch, allowing those students to carry the conversation from their previous group to the new group.

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Provide Choice
Student engagement is enhanced when students have choice.  This video is one high school's success story using personalized learning projects.

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Personalized Learning: Enabling Student Voice and Choice Through Projects

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Adapt these six tips to bring personalized learning projects into your classroom and build student engagement.

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The Culturally Responsive Teacher
"To engage students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, we must see them as capable learners... Approaching a student's education in culturally and linguistically responsive ways—rather than emphasizing deficits—has the potential to truly engage all students in learning, both in school and beyond."

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Belki Alvarez, a young girl one of us knows, arrived in New York from the Dominican Republic several years ago with her parents and two siblings. After a difficult start in the United States, both parents found jobs; their minimum-wage earnings were barely enough for a family of five to scrape by month to month. As the oldest child in the family, Belki soon had to assume caretaking responsibilities for her younger brother and sister. At only 8 years old, she was responsible for getting her siblings ready for school, taking them there each morning, bringing them back home at the end of the school day, and caring for them until her parents came home from work.

On weekends, she worked with her mother at the community street fair to make extra money for the family by selling products prepared at home. She astutely negotiated prices with customers and expertly handled financial transactions. Belki often spoke enthusiastically about having her own business in the future. She spoke Spanish fluently at home and in the community, and she often served as the English language translator for her parents.

Belki's teachers, however, did not know this competent, responsible, enthusiastic girl. They perceived her as lacking in language and math skills, having little initiative, and being generally disinterested in learning.

Such profound dissonance between her in-school and out-of-school experiences is not unique to Belki. Sadly, this is typical for an increasing number of students in U.S. schools today.

Over the past three decades, the racial, ethnic, and linguistic demographics of the K-12 student population in the United States have changed dramatically. In 1972, 22 percent of all students enrolled in elementary and secondary public schools were of racial/ethnic minority backgrounds (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2002). By 2003, racial/ethnic minority students accounted for 41 percent of total enrollments in U.S. public schools. In six states and the District of Columbia, students of color are already in the majority (NCES, 2005). The immigrant student population has also grown significantly in the past 30 years. Currently, one in five students speaks a language other than English at home, and the majority of these students are learning English as a second language in school (Center on Education Policy, 2006).

Successfully teaching students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds-especially students from historically -alized groups-involves more than just applying specialized teaching techniques. It demands a new way of looking at teaching that is grounded in an understanding of the role of culture and language in learning. Six salient qualities (see Villegas &amp; Lucas, 2002) can serve as a coherent framework for professional development initiatives in schools seeking to respond effectively to an increasingly diverse student population.

Our conception of culturally and linguistically responsive teaching is grounded in constructivist views of learning (National Research Council, 2000). From this perspective, learners use their prior knowledge and beliefs to make sense of the new ideas and experiences they encounter in school. A central role of the culturally and linguistically responsive teacher is to support students' learning by helping them build bridges between what they already know about a topic and what they need to learn about it.

For example, Belki will learn more from a social studies unit on immigration if her teacher draws on her very real experience as a newcomer to the United States. The teacher might ask her and other immigrant students in the class to describe their experiences learning a new language and compare living in the United States to living in their native countries. The teacher could build on those narratives to introduce relevant concepts, such as factors that lead people to immigrate and phases in the immigration process. The teacher could invite immigrant parents to the class to share their experiences. By involving the students and their parents in these ways, the teacher would not only help students build bridges to learning but also strengthen the connections between home and school. If the teacher does not tap into the experiences of students in the class and instead teaches the unit by focusing solely on the experiences of earlier immigrant groups coming to the United States-such as the Germans and Irish-the material will be much less relevant and engaging.

Learning also involves questioning, interpreting, and analyzing ideas in the context of meaningful issues. With this in mind, an English teacher in a community in the U.S. Southwest that had a large Latino population designed a unit on immigration to the United States. The students were asked to write a letter to the editor of a local newspaper expressing their views on the topic. To write the letter, the students realized that they needed to understand the issues more deeply. So they summarized relevant newspaper articles and developed and administered a questionnaire in their neighborhoods to learn about the community's views on immigration. They debated in class the proposal to build a fence along the United States/Mexico border. Working in groups, they wrote letters to the editor and then assessed their drafts using a rubric that focused on grammar, clarity of position taken, and development of supporting arguments. After receiving the teacher's feedback, the students revised and sent their letters. The students were deeply engaged in a process that helped improve their writing skills.

In embracing constructivist views of learning, we do not mean to suggest that there is no place in schools for direct instruction, memorization, and basic skills instruction. When such transmission-oriented strategies predominate, however, their pedagogical value diminishes, much to the students' disadvantage. Such an approach to teaching does not give students opportunities to actively engage in learning and integrate new ideas and frameworks into their own ways of thinking. Therefore, students are less likely to learn to think critically, become creative problem solvers, and develop skills for working collaboratively-all qualities that are essential for success in life and work.

To teach subject matter in meaningful ways and engage students in learning, teachers need to know about their students' lives. We are not suggesting that teachers learn generic information about specific cultural or social groups. Such thinking leads to stereotypes that do not apply to individual students.

Instead, teachers need to know something about their students' family makeup, immigration history, favorite activities, concerns, and strengths. Teachers should also be aware of their students' perceptions of the value of school knowledge, their experiences with the different subject matters in their everyday settings, and their prior knowledge of and experience with specific topics in the curriculum. For example, Belki's teachers would benefit from knowing that she and her family are immigrants, that she often serves as the English language translator for her parents, that she aspires to own a business some day, and that she expertly manages financial transactions at the weekend street fair.

Effective strategies for learning about students' lives outside school include conducting home visits, creating opportunities in the classroom for students to discuss their aspirations for the future, posing problems for students to solve and noting how each student goes about solving them, and talking with parents and other community members. For instance, Belki's teacher might have asked her to give examples of how she uses math outside school. The teacher could have learned even more by visiting the street fair. By observing her animated interactions with customers, the teacher would have seen that Belki is a fluent Spanish speaker with sophisticated negotiation skills and some important math skills.

The vast majority of teachers in the United States are white, middle class, and monolingual English speaking. In most cases, their lives differ profoundly from the lives of their students. Although information-gathering strategies are simple enough to develop, it is more challenging for teachers to learn how to interpret what they discover about students through their data gathering. To make productive instructional use of this information, teachers must possess two fundamental qualities: They must have sociocultural consciousness and hold affirming views toward diversity (Nieto, 1996).

We define sociocultural consciousness as the awareness that a person's worldview is not universal but is profoundly influenced by life experiences, as mediated by a variety of factors, including race, ethnicity, gender, and social class. Teachers who lack sociocultural consciousness will unconsciously and inevitably rely on their own personal experiences to make sense of students' lives-an unreflective habit that often results in misinterpretations of those students' experiences and leads to miscommunication. For example, students from cultures with a less individualistic and more collectivist worldview than that of mainstream U.S. culture may be overlooked in class and assumed to be less capable than their mainstream peers because, in general, they do not seek individual attention and praise.

To develop sociocultural consciousness, teachers need to look beyond individual students and families to understand inequities in society. In all social systems, some positions are accorded greater status than others, and such status differentiation gives rise to differential access to power. Teachers need to be aware of the role that schools play in both perpetuating and challenging those inequities. Professional development carried out in groups and guided by an experienced facilitator who is knowledgeable about multicultural issues can be instructive. Activities might involve reading about the differential distribution of wealth and income in the United States or reflecting on the well-documented fact that a person's social class is the best predictor of academic success and future social standing (Natriello, McDill, &amp; Pallas, 1990). To see the powerful connections between social and education inequities, participants could read The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America, by Jonathan Kozol (2006). By reading and discussing accounts of successful teaching and learning in diverse settings (see Garcia, 1999; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Nieto &amp; Rolón, 1997), teachers can develop a vision of how schools can challenge such inequities.

Unfortunately, evidence suggests that many teachers see students from socially subordinated groups from a deficit perspective (Nieto, 1996). Lacking faith in the students' ability to achieve, these teachers are more likely to have low academic expectations for the students and ultimately treat them in ways that stifle their learning. They are more apt to use drill, practice, and rote-learning activities at the expense of more challenging work that demands the use of higher-order thinking skills. They are also less likely to call on the students in class, give them sufficient wait time to respond thoughtfully to questions, or probe incomplete answers for clarity.

By contrast, teachers who see students from an affirming perspective and truly respect cultural differences are more apt to believe that students from nondominant groups are capable learners, even when these students enter school with ways of thinking, talking, and behaving that differ from the dominant cultural norms. Teachers who hold these affirming views about diversity will convey this confidence by providing students with an intellectually rigorous curriculum, teaching students strategies for monitoring their own learning, setting high performance standards and consistently holding students accountable to those standards, and building on the individual and cultural resources that students bring to school. For example, instead of setting out to "correct" students' language through the use of decontextualized drill and worksheet activities, the English teacher who asked her students to write to the newspaper editor helped her students develop their writing skills by involving them in purposeful and intellectually stimulating tasks.

Teachers can activate students' prior knowledge by asking them to discuss what they know about a given topic, as Belki's teacher could have done by having the immigrant students in the class share their personal experiences with immigration. Teachers can embed new ideas and skills in projects that are meaningful to the students, as the English teacher who helped students improve their writing skills through researching immigration did.

Teachers can also give English language learners access to the curriculum by drawing on the student's native language resources. They can provide students who are literate in their native language with material to read in that language to help them build background knowledge for specific content. They can encourage students to use bilingual dictionaries. They can prepare study guides for instructional units that define relevant vocabulary and outline key concepts in English, using simplified language. They can also use more visual cues and graphic organizers and incorporate more hands-on activities into their lessons.

Using pertinent examples and analogies from students' lives is another instructional strategy that helps students build bridges to learning. For example, one of us recently observed a teacher introducing the concept of rhythm in poetry by having students analyze the rhythm in a well-known hip-hop recording and then engaging the students in a similar analysis of a poem by Robert Frost. In U.S. history classes, teachers can help engage students from historically -alized groups by having them examine the curriculum to determine whose perspectives are and are not presented. This would work well, for example, with a textbook treatment of slavery. If the students determine through an analysis of the text that they are learning little about the real experiences of slaves, they can read one of the many published slave narratives to deepen their understanding. As these examples suggest, the job of the culturally and linguistically responsive teacher involves engaging all students in learning for understanding.

Numerous practices embedded in the fabric of everyday schooling put students from nonmainstream groups at a disadvantage. These include a school culture of low expectations for students from low-status groups, inadequate general and multicultural learning materials, large class sizes, assignment of the least-experienced teachers to classes in which students need the most help, insensitivity toward cultural differences, questionable testing practices, and a curriculum that does not reflect diverse student perspectives.

To continue to move toward greater cultural and linguistic responsiveness in schools, teachers must see themselves as part of a community of educators working to make schools more equitable for all students. Teaching is an ethical activity, and teachers have an ethical obligation to help all students learn. To meet this obligation, teachers need to serve as advocates for their students, especially those who have been traditionally -alized in schools.

For example, teachers involved in school- or district-level textbook review committees could ensure that selected textbooks and supplemental materials appropriately reflect the diversity of experiences and perspectives in the student population. Those who have input into the design of professional development activities could identify specific areas in which the faculty might need professional growth. Topics might include how to implement strategies for learning about students' lives, become socioculturally conscious, build on students' interests outside school to advance curriculum goals, and tap community resources in teaching. Responsive classroom teachers could also request common planning time with the English as a second language teacher to coordinate instruction in ways that maximize content learning for their English language learners.

Certainly, individual teachers can enhance their success with students from diverse backgrounds by working on their own to cultivate these qualities of responsive teaching. However, the framework that we have presented here will have the greatest effect on a school if teachers and school leaders develop a shared vision of the culturally and linguistically responsive teacher.

Imagine Belki Alvarez's school life if her teachers had explored these six qualities and shared ideas for applying them in their teaching. They could have capitalized on her entrepreneurial skills to help her learn mathematical concepts. They would have seen her as a capable learner and understood the relevance of her life experiences for her school learning. They might have tapped her experience as the English translator for her family by having her translate for other Spanish-speaking students in the class who spoke minimal English. Approaching a student's education in these culturally and linguistically responsive ways-rather than emphasizing deficits-has the potential to truly engage all students in learning, both in school and beyond.

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The Culturally Responsive Teacher - ASCD

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Belki Alvarez, a young girl one of us knows, arrived in New York from the Dominican Republic several years ago with her parents and two siblings. After a difficult start in the United States, both parents found jobs; their minimum-wage earnings were barely enough for a family of five to scrape by month to month.

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Self-Efficacy In Students' Everyday Lives

Students share their perspectives on the importance of self-efficacy in helping them to reach their goals.

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Self-Efficacy In Students' Everyday Lives

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Without Apology
"The idea of 'boring content' is a myth... If teachers assert to their students that certain areas of content are "boring", the students will begin to believe it and become disengaged almost immediately."  Here's a strategy to address "boring."

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The following is an imagined scenario in my eleventh grade English classroom:The following represent three key techniques to avoid when strategizing with

"Without Apology" "Ms. Driggers, why do we have to read early American poetry? It's just a bunch of stuff written by old white men and in words I can't understand. It's so boring!"

How do I respond to this student? Before I do anything else, I need to take a step back and remember my job as an educator, and my number one goal: to make learning fun and engaging. I have to make the study of early American poetry matter to these students.

The wrong thing to do would be to say, "I know this may be difficult for you, Marshall, but we are required to study this topic, so even though it isn't the most exciting thing in the world, I will help you through it" because this reinforces the fact that I find the content boring, which makes Marshall check out of it completely.

First, by assuming the worst about a particular unit of study, the teacher is showing her lack of enthusiasm and confidence in the subject mastery. The lack of confidence exhibited by a teacher can transfer to a student, and hinder them by not allowing them to reach their full potential on their own.

Second, the idea of the blame game is something that goes on around many classrooms across the country. Simply put, teachers are placing blame on a number of factors for having to teach a certain piece of content. For example, "I'm sorry class, but the state requires that we learn this for the end-of-course examinations, so they made me do it", is an example of blaming it.

Finally, making content too accessible for students can be a bad thing. Sure, as a teacher, it is important to get students engaged in the material, but substituting the study of early American poetry, for example, with songs about America is completely wrong. It would, however, be completely fine to introduce the study of early American poetry with a song of the same genre and time-period. As a teacher, having a sense of continuity is very important, and if teachers make content too relatable or accessible, he or she may lose their classroom engagement and involvement altogether.

So, how does it work?

To find success with this strategy in the classroom, teachers should focus on two outside concepts for learning: integrated knowledge and activation of prior knowledge.

Peter Smagorinsky, author of
Teaching English By Design, defines integrated knowledge as "exploration through a set of questions over a period of time, within related texts" (123). Integrated knowledge is also beneficial because it allows students to "actively participate [in the study of texts] while helping them construct their own knowledge about a topic with contributions and compositions" (123).

Essentially, by having students construct their own knowledge, I am allowing them to make learning personal. Using this strategy within the strategy would be helpful for students and teachers because there is active participation happening amongst classmates and student-teacher interaction.

The
activation of prior knowledge is also essential when developing this strategy for classroom use. According to Jeanne Ormrod, author of Educational Psychology Developing Learners, activation of prior knowledge is defined as "a process of reminding learners of things they already know relative to a new topic" (201). By asking students to draw on what they already know about early America (characteristically), and the main components of a poem (which they learned in ninth grade), the teacher is already engaging the students in critical thinking by asking them to narrow their focus in the instruction to two specific things. Further, the teacher can enhance this strategy by providing questions (much like integrated knowledge) to get students actively thinking.

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The following is an imagined scenario in my eleventh grade English classroom:The following represent three key techniques to avoid when strategizing with "Without Apology" "Ms. Driggers, why do we have to read early American poetry? It's just a bunch of stuff written by old white men and in words I can't understand.

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Rubrics - How Do They Help?
"Rubrics are multidimensional sets of scoring guidelines that can be used to provide consistency in evaluating student work...Rubrics are great for students: they let students know what is expected of them, and demystify grades by clearly stating, in age-appropriate vocabulary, the expectations for a project."

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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Paraprofessional Support
Paraprofessionals are an important resource to ensure high student engagement in our most academically fragile students.  Here are some recommended "Strategies and Practices for Effective Use of Paraprofessionals" in our classrooms.  This guide was created by New Jersey Positive Behavior Supports in Schools.

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Student Self-Efficacy
The National Council of School Psychologist developed this resource to support student self-efficacy.  Self-efficacy is "the ability to define a goal, persevere, and see oneself as capable."

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Paraprofessionals As Classroom Partners
"School-Related Professionals are
important team members in every educational endeavor..."  This article presents steps to engage teachers and paraprofessionals in meaningful partnerships to support students in meeting standards.

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Promoting Student Self-Assessment
In this Strategy Guide, you'll learn about a number of specific methods that will promote self-assessment and contribute to a richer understanding of student learning.

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About this Strategy Guide

In this Strategy Guide, you'll learn about a number of specific methods that will promote self-assessment and contribute to a richer understanding of student learning.

Research Basis

Because of their diverse literacy needs, our students need us to differentiate the product, process and content of learning according to their learning style, interest and readiness. Yet, recognizing student growth and literacy needs requires more than one voice and more than one snapshot. Research has reminded us of the value of continued assessment and of students as partners in their own assessment. This heightened metacognition leads to increased engagement across content areas and remains a key characteristic of life-long learning. Motivation to learn increases when students are asked to critically analyze their own learning. And, if continued assessment informs instruction, students and teachers benefit from student feedback about what a student does and does not understand.

So, how can we promote self-assessment that is respectful, meaningful and informative to us and to students? Several self-assessment tools can provide a window into student understanding and needs.

Strategy in Practice

Assessment, and specifically self-assessment, allows us to tap into student differences in order to see how our teaching can respond to their needs. Several simple, transferable methods can be used at any point in a unit in order to promote reflection on learning and inform our instruction.

Student Created Rubrics: Ask students to contribute to the creation of a rubric that defines success. A reading response task, a multi-modal presentation, or a group discussion leads to higher levels of learning when students are included in defining success.

Learning Contract: Ask students to create and agree to a learning contract at the beginning of a unit. The learning contract can define the learning goals, the "photo album" of evidence of learning, and agreed upon activities. At numerous times during the unit, ask students to revisit the contract, record new learning or muddy points and to get feedback from you or other peers.

Muddy Point Board: Designate an area in the room or a board for students to pin questions, muddy points, or topics they'd like the class to revisit. Asking students to periodically pick a question or comment from the board to discuss can build student ownership of learning.

Nameless Voice: Ask students to anonymously submit sample work to share with the class. Sample paragraphs on the overhead, a visual vocabulary card, or a ticket out the door quick write can all be samples of student work that the class or individual students can use. Ask students to write or discuss how the nameless voice is similar or different to their understanding.

Letter to a Future Student: At the conclusion of a unit, ask students to write a letter to a future student in the class explaining what they've learned in a unit or what to do when a text is difficult or what I've learned about my own learning that might help you, etc. Regardless of the topic, the medium provides useful feedback on student thinking and learning while promoting reflection on learning.

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About this Strategy Guide In this Strategy Guide, you'll learn about a number of specific methods that will promote self-assessment and contribute to a richer understanding of student learning. Research Basis Because of their diverse literacy needs, our students need us to differentiate the product, process and content of learning according to their learning style, interest and readiness.

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Creating a Culture of Can
"An 'enabled' learner can grasp macro views, uncover micro details, ask questions, plan for new knowledge and transfer thinking across divergent circumstances...(this happens) by setting a tone for learning that suggests possibility, and by creating a culture of can."

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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Intelligence Is Not Fixed (Especially in Children!)
This article from the Centre for Educational Neuroscience presents the most updated research on the fallacy that I.Q. is fixed.  It's a pretty easy read for a heady subject!

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The idea that our intellectual ability is written in the stars is not one that's confined to the classroom, but it's certainly relevant, indeed central, to the way that teachers approach their craft. This idea is also key to the way that children are perceived, and the way that they perceive themselves. Here we will briefly explore what intelligence is, then look at the literature around how performance on cognitive tasks can be advanced or held back.
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is typically measured as Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ describes an individual's average performance on a range of standardised tests spanning multiple domains, compared to the performance of a representative sample of people the same age. Standardised tests of intelligence usually measure so-called underlying cognitive ability: things like memory, speed of reactions and attention, as opposed to people's knowledge of facts. What makes the tests 'standardised' is that they have been run on a large, representative group of children of different ages, so that we know the level at which children of a given age will tend to perform, and what score would put a child in the bottom or top 20% at a given age, and so on.

Theories about what actually underlies intelligence and whether intelligence is a general factor or consists of multiple separate factors (such as spatial or verbal reasoning) are very interesting and have a long and rich history. However, trying to do the subject of intelligence justice here would be almost impossible, so let's restrict ourselves considerably and say that we're only interested in how well children perform in the classroom.

Children's intelligence fluctuates as they develop. It used to be held that IQ stabilises by around the age of 10. This was the rationale for introducing tests at 11-12 years of age in those education systems where ability is used to select which secondary school children attend. However, recent evidence suggests that both verbal and non-verbal intelligence may vary during the teenage years, by up to 20 IQ points[i], suggesting that such selective systems do not have a firm foundation.

The question of how well children perform in the classroom can be answered with two main types of evidence: genetic studies that assess what proportion of a person's performance on a test can be attributed to what he or she has inherited, and experimental studies that try to alter performance on cognitive tests.
What do genetic studies say?
Although studies of genetics can adopt a range of techniques, the twin method has been particularly informative in the field of education. The twin method relies on studying the behaviour of identical and non-identical twins: although both types of sibling should share very similar environments, identical twins share 100% of their genetic make-up; non-identical twins share, on average, 50%. This allows researchers to estimate the relative contributions of genetic factors (heritability) compared to shared environmental factors (which would be common to both twins), and non-shared environmental factors (which would be unique to each twin). Under the assumption that the environment tends to make identical and non-identical twins similar to each other to the same extent, if identical twins behave much more similarly than their non-identical counterparts, heritability can be assumed to be high for that behaviour. It is the extra genetic similarity that is making identical twins' behaviour more similar.

Using the twin technique, it has been estimated that around 60-65% of variability in children's performance, as rated by their teachers, can be attributed to genetics in the areas of science[ii], maths[iii], and general intelligence[iv].

Estimates of heritability when standardised tests are used are a little lower and more variable, possibly because teacher ratings take things like motivation into account too. In a study of Dutch twins[v], standardised tests of IQ in childhood (9-11 years) and adolescence (12-14 years)[vi] found that heritability was quite different depending on what was measured. The least genetic influence was found for 'full scale IQ' (34%) and the most for 'performance IQ' (64%; this scale includes non-verbal reasoning skills). The influence of genetics was also shown to increase as the children got older, an effect which has been shown many times, and is thought to reflect the fact that as children grow up they get to choose their own activities more.

Possibly the highest estimates of heritability come from studies of reading, where 65%, but perhaps as much as 82%, of variability in children's reading skills can be attributed to genetics[vii]
What happens when you try to change IQ?
So, the genetic studies suggest that the genes you inherit from your parents have a strong effect on your performance in school. But what happens when things change? When children change their mindset? Or when something about the environment changes? Is the effect of genes always dominant?
The growth mindset
Carol Dweck and her colleagues have been pioneers in the field of the growth mindset, and the impact that this could have in the classroom. A growth mindset refers to thinking or being taught that intelligence is something that changes over time. For example, a student with a growth mindset might encounter a maths problem and believe that it's difficult because they haven't yet learned how to solve that type of problem, and that when they do their maths ability will increase; by contrast, a student with a fixed mindset might come across a problem and think that they find it difficult because they're not good at maths.

Some studies have found that when students are taught the growth mindset their grades improve somewhat. For example, half of a group of US college students were taught that the brain develops new synaptic connections when we learn and half were taught that some people are just good at some subjects. Over the academic year there was a difference between the groups of 0.23 grade points: that's a little less than the difference between two adjacent grades such as B and B+[viii].

This effect has been shown in younger students too. Students in the 7 th grade in the US (that's the first year of middle school) were either taught study skills for eight sessions, or study skills plus growth mindset for the same period of time. A grade point difference of about 0.30 emerged between the groups by the end of the year[ix]. Dweck and her colleagues suggest that when students are taught a growth mindset they learn that challenges offer opportunities to get brighter rather than making them feel stupid. To the extent that growth mindset is effective, it demonstrates that children's expectations and beliefs about learning can influence educational outcomes.

That said, a brand new analysis has been released of all the papers that have been published on a) the relationship between mind-set and academic achievement and b) the extent to which interventions to change mind-set can impact on academic achievement [x]. Considering the data from over 400,000 individual participants, the authors found a very weak relationship between mind-set and academic achievement ( = .10), with only 37% of the studies included showing a significant, positive association. Furthermore, of those studies which attempted to positively impact on academic achievement by changing students' mindset, only 12% found a significant, positive benefit. Notably, studies were more likely to find positive effects if they taught mind-set through reading materials, and if students came from low socioeconomic backgrounds, suggesting that this technique may still have potential for some children.
The Flynn effect
The world has been running a natural experiment on the influence of the environment on IQ scores over the last hundred or so years. There has been an increase in performance on standardised IQ assessments from the early 20 th century (since IQ tests have been available), by around 3 IQ points per decade in the US. What exactly is causing this effect has not been determined: possible explanations have included the development of more stimulating every day environments, including rich optical displays, cognitively demanding curricula and jobs, a greater need to manipulate abstract information in a technological age, as well as better nutrition and reduction in infectious disease. It's likely to be a combination of factors, but what we can be sure of is that those factors are environmental not genetic, as we simply don't evolve that fast! Note, too, that the heritability of IQ can stay the same even while the average IQ of the whole population is increasing for environmental reasons. That's because IQ is about individual differences - who's at the bottom, who's at the top, who's in the middle - not the level that everyone is performing at.
The value of a good teacher
Every teacher knows that they can make a real, positive difference for a child. One study from 2010 shows this elegantly. The authors studied reading ability in 1 st and 2 nd grade students in Florida, and found a greater influence of genetics, greater heritability, in classes with better teachers[xi]. This is a little difficult to unpick, but it comes down to what's holding children back: if everyone has a terrible teacher then no one will learn to read well, no matter how well their parents might do on an IQ test. However, if everyone has a fantastic teacher then it's no longer the teacher that could hold children back, it's something about them, their 'potential', their attention.

This effect has been seen in the home as well: estimates of the heritability of IQ are much higher in affluent families than in impoverished families. In one study in the USA, the heritability of IQ scores in affluent families was around 60%, while the influence of the shared environment (essentially the quality of the home) was almost zero, yet for impoverished families the opposite effect was seen[xii]. What this means is that what's holding children back is different in different families - children of affluent parents have the opportunity to reveal their potential, while children of impoverished parents do not. What holds children back may also differ between cultures: the pattern of lower heritability of IQ in impoverished families was not observed when the study was run in Western Europe[xiii]. One interpretation of this difference was that the social security 'safety net' of many countries in Western Europe softened the restrictive influence of poverty on cognitive development observed in the US sample.
The verdict?
Together, these studies neatly show that while there is something about intelligence that is fixed, how intelligence is revealed depends strongly on the environment; that is, how we view our abilities, as well as the culture, the home and the teachers that we're exposed to.

So, if we're talking about intelligence as a theoretical underlying potential, then this is a neuro-hit. But if we're thinking about whether children's ability to perform in the classroom is fixed, it's a glorious neuro-miss! Indeed, much cutting edge research in educational neuroscience is currently examining ways that children's cognitive abilities may be improved through techniques as diverse as mindfulness training, working memory training, learning a musical instrument, increasing aerobic fitness, and learning a second language.

Interestingly, in a survey of 667 UK primary school teachers, 94% said that they thought genetics was at least as important as the environment in determining intelligence - yet 80% of teachers reported no training on genetics during teacher training[xiv], so teacher trainers please take note: knowledge is power for teachers, too!
Further resources
Members of the CEN wrote a recent article on how genetics research may be relevant for education: Thomas, M. S. C., Kovas, Y., Meaburn, E., & Tolmie, A. (2015). What can the study of genetics offer to educators? Mind, Brain & Education, 9(2), 72-80. The main message of this paper was that a genetic approach to education does not imply that outcomes are determined by genes; rather, the genetics of education will help direct researchers to the environmental influences that will improve outcomes at the individual level.

Carol Dweck has written a book called Mindset. Watch Carol Dweck discuss the power of expectations on learning at TED.

For more on the Flynn effect, the wikipedia page is a good resource.

For an example of research using the twin study method, members of the Twins Early Development Study published a detailed monograph in 2007 investigating the heritability of learning in the early school years: Yulia Kovas, Claire M.A. Haworth, Philip S. Dale & Robert Plomin (2007). The Genetic and Environmental Origins of Learning Abilities and Disabilities in the Early School Years School Years. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 2007. Volume 72, Pages vii-160

[i] Ramsden, S., Richardson, F. M., Josse, G., Thomas, M. S. C., Ellis, C., Shakeshaft, C., Seghier, M. L., & Price, C. J. (2011). Verbal and non-verbal intelligence changes in the teenage brain. Nature, 479, 113-116. (3 November 2011) doi:10.1038/nature10514

[ii] Haworth, C. M. A., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2009). The Etiology of Science Performance: Decreasing Heritability and Increasing Importance of the Shared Environment From 9 to 12 Years of Age. Child Development, 80(3), 662-673. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01289.x

[iii] Oliver, B., Harlaar, N., Hayiou-Thomas, M. E., Kovas, Y., Walker, S. O., Petrill, S. A., Spinath, S. A., Dale, F. M., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2004). A Twin Study of Teacher-Reported Mathematics Performance and Low Performance in 7-Year-Olds. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), Sep 2004, 504-517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.504

[iv] Petrill, S. A., Spinath, F. M., & Plomin, R. (2004). Nature, nurture and academic achievement: A twin study of teacher assessments of 7-year-olds. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 323-342.

[v] van Soelen, I. L. C., Brouwer, R. M., van Leeuwen, M., Kahn, R. S., Hulshoff-Pol, H. E., & Boomsma, D. I. (2011). Heritability of verbal and performance intelligence in a pediatric longitudinal sample. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 14 (2), 119-128,

[vi] Using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children- Third version (WISC III).

[vii] Byrne, B., Coventry, W. L., Olson, R. K., Samuelsson, S., Corley, R., Willcutt, E. G., Wadsworth, S., Defries, J. C. (2009). Genetic and Environmental Influences on Aspects of Literacy and Language in Early Childhood: Continuity and Change from Preschool to Grade 2. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 22(3), 219-236.

[viii] Aronson and colleagues (2002)- Aronson, J., Fried, C., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.

[ix] Blackwell, L. A., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Theories of intelligence and achievement across the junior high school transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78, 246-263.

[x] Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To what extent and under what circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29 (3).

[xi] Taylor, J., Roehrig, A. D., Soden-Hensler, B., Connor, C. M., & Schatschneider, C. (2010). Teacher quality moderates the genetic effects on early reading. Science, 328 (5977), 512-514. Doi 10.1126/Science.1186149

[xii] Turkenheim, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D'Onofrio, B., & Gottesman, I. I. (2003). Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children. Psychological Science, 14 (6), 623-628. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x

[xiii] Elliot M. Tucker-Drob, Timothy C. Bates (2015). Large Cross-National Differences in Gene × Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Intelligence. Psychological Science, Vol 27, Issue 2, pp. 138 - 149.

[xiv] Walker, S. O., & Plomin, R. (2007). The Nature-Nurture Question: Teachers' perceptions of how genes and the environment influence educationally relevant behaviour. Journal of Educational Psychology, 25 (5), 509-516. Doi: 10.1080/01443410500046697

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The idea that our intellectual ability is written in the stars is not one that's confined to the classroom, but it's certainly relevant, indeed central, to the way that teachers approach their craft. This idea is also key to the way that children are perceived, and the way that they perceive themselves.