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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Contact Information

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crt49@drexel.edu

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As a new student, you'll need to learn a lot of new information pretty fast or risk being clueless, penniless, and more than a bit confused about independent student life.

This is where the internet steps in, a realm of student resources with bountiful information about anything, where you can learn the things your parents never taught you (or that you weren't interested in learning at the time), such as how to budget your money, how to arrange an overdraft with your bank, and how to iron your clothes without leaving an iron-shaped pattern. In short, all the student resources you could ever possibly need are available online.

Below is a categorized list of useful student websites and online resources that will help to make student life that little bit easier from day one.

General websites for students
1. LifeHacker.co.uk
LifeHacker aims to help its users out with life in the modern world. Popular tags include 'Productivity', 'Money' and 'DIY'.
2. MentalFloss.com
Although essentially one of many time-wasting student websites, MentalFloss is good for learning interesting facts from around the world, covering topics such as food, culture and science. Admittedly, its main function may be as a procrastination aid, but you should still learn something.
3. UnplugTheTV.com
This student resource offers an alternative to TV (and, unfortunately, studying), hosting randomized videos on interesting scientific topics.
4. Sleepyti.me
This site tells you the best times to go to bed if you have to be up at a certain hour - a very useful tool within student life. Taking into account regular sleep cycles, Sleepyti.me can help if you suffer from grogginess in the mornings.
5. KeepMeOut.com
If you struggle to stay away from social media when you're meant to be studying, use KeepMeOut to block certain distracting websites.

Educational websites for students

Edx is one of the world's leading MOOC platforms. MOOCs (massive open online courses) are offered for free to anyone wishing to learn. Other major MOOC providers include Udacity.com, AcademicEarth.org and...
7. Coursera.org
Coursera covers a wide range of academic learning, allowing you to supplement your studies with some additional knowledge.

Cooking websites for students

Exactly what it says on the tin, StudentRecipes.com has recipes for 4,000 quick and easy student meals.
9. Recipepuppy.com
RecipePuppy allows you to search for recipes based on the ingredients you already have at home. Lazy students, rejoice.
10. Instructables.com
This is one of the most useful online student resources if you like making and fixing things yourself. You can learn anything from how to make spaghetti ice-cream to how to fix a broken shelf.

Health websites for students
11. The Ultimate Health Food Guide
This guide will be a lifesaver throughout student life for times when you're feeling wrung out, stressed or ill. Whatever your ailments, visit this resource to find out what foods to eat to build your immunity and vitality back up.
12. WebMD.com
WebMD allows you to check your current health status using its symptom checker. Although this resource is great for hypochondriacs, it doesn't replace the knowledge of a real doctor - go offline and visit your university's health center if you're really concerned.
13. NHS.uk
The website of the UK's National Health Service provides information on all kinds of illnesses, conditions, diseases and treatments. The site also gives comprehensive information on sexual health.
14. DontPassItOn.co.uk
DontPassItOn provides free chlamydia and gonorrhea testing kits by post to UK citizens aged 16-24.
15. ASHASexualHealth.org
Sexual health advice and resources for those based in the US.

Shopping & selling websites for students
16. Ebay.com
Well-established consumer-to-consumer site Ebay allows you to buy, sell or auction off almost anything, including clothing, electronic devices and antiques. It could come in handy if your student budget needs a boost, or if you want to find some bargains.
17. TheBookPond.com
The Book Pond allows you to sell your old academic textbooks or buy the ones you need from other students who are ready to pass them on.
18. Amazon.com
Amazon sells everything under the sun, including books, e-books and textbooks you may need for your program. However, its critics say it's damaging to independent bookstores, so you may want to consider using your local store instead of always shopping online.
19. Gumtree.com
Gumtree advertises jobs, second-hand goods, properties and services for people around the UK. If you're a student in the UK, it can be a good place to search for part-time job opportunities, look for accommodation, sell things you don't need any more, or even swap goods or skills.
20. Craigslist.com
The global version of Gumtree, Craigslist is big in the US and has many city/area divisions, so you can find listings close to you.
21. Freecycle.org
This online platform allows you to give away your unwanted things or get your hands on what other people are giving away. Handy for furniture and general bric-a-brac.

Money-saving websites for students
22. Groupon.com
Groupon offers daily deals on things such as spa days, fancy restaurants and city breaks. It's not exactly the place to go to for the essentials of student life, but it's a good way to treat yourself at the end of a stressful exam period, perhaps.
23. MoneySavingExpert.com
MoneySavingExpert has advice on everything from cheap flights to the best bank interest rates, helping your student budget stretch further.
24. Mint.com
Free to use, Mint can help you organize your finances and track your spending.
25. MyVoucherCodes.co.uk
MyVoucherCodes offers vouchers and discounts for a huge number of retail stores and restaurants within the UK. If you're in the US, RetailMeNot is the place to go.
26. UniDays.com
Just one of many student websites offering discounts, UniDays lists thousands of student discounts and offers around the globe. It's free to join and also available as an app.
27. WiseBread.com
WiseBread is dedicated to living well on a tight budget - whether you're a student or just trying to get more for your money. It offers advice on everything from debt management to growing your own fruit and vegetables.

Other useful resources for students
28. Genius.com poetry
An offshoot of Rap Genius, Lit Genius is a place where scholars have formed a community to annotate poetry and literature, both classic and recent. It's an extremely helpful resource for English literature students in particular.
29. TED.com
TED hosts thought-provoking talks given at events all over the world on the core topics of technology, entertainment and design - but in fact covering pretty much every aspect of human experience. The TED site is where you can find all the videos of these talks. They're another good procrastination device, but you may also find some inspiration for your next essay.
30. Wikipedia.org
Although your tutors will tell you never to reference Wikipedia in assignments, the collaboratively edited encyclopedia project can be a very useful tool for early-stage research into your assignment or project.
31. Bartleby.com
Bartleby publishes classic literature, poetry, non-fiction and reference texts free of charge.
32. Gutenberg.org
Similarly, Project Gutenberg provides free online access to texts whose copyright has expired; so far, it's digitized more than 56,000 texts.
33. TopUniversities.com
Finally, don't forget to check out all the student resources we have right here at TopUniversities.com, including a blogging community, student forums, university rankings, country guides, course guides, and advice on all aspects of student life - from scholarships and applications to studying abroad and career planning.

You canregister for freeto get regular updates, your own personal content feed, and access to our in-depth student guides.

What other student websites have you found useful? Share your recommendations in the comments below.
This blog post was originally published in July 2014. It was updated in April 2018.

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As a new student, you'll need to learn a lot of new information pretty fast or risk being clueless, penniless, and more than a bit confused about independent student life.

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Modules

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Modules

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Possibly the most important module that will be reiterated throughout the tutoring process.
a.      This lecture series begins by reviewing the stages of Bloom's Taxonomy

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

b.      This is followed up by discussing the memory building process. Clear definitions of perception, encoding, consolidation and retrieval will be presented.
c.      Memory and its various forms (working, short-term, sensory, long-term, and forgetting) will be introduced and studied in detail.
d.      The student will be given best practices for forming long-term memory.

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                             External Resources

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                             External Resources

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Place of Employment and Institution where currently enrolled

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Place of Employment and Institution where currently enrolled

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Alleghany Corporation

Lebow College of Business at Drexel University

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Self-regulation and non-cognitive protective factors can have a positive effect on academic performance. To assist high school students prepare for standardized testing, college level courses and college applications, one-on-one tutoring sessions will be offered that build upon evidence-based practices from neuroscience, psychology, and education. Weekly one-hour sessions scheduled for 3-month periods will actively engage students in activities to enhance learning, memory, retrieval, and test taking. Students will also learn about non-cognitive protective factors that can enhance academic performance including controlling stress levels, spacing out studying plans, the importance of sleep, memory in terms of encoding and retrieval, and the application of Bloom's Taxonomy.

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Weekly one-hour sessions, 9 months to 1 year, which includes Mind, Brain, and Education presentations on how people learn and what can we do to improve learning, as well as guidance counseling

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In person, one-on-one tutoring with online supplemental test preparation. Optional coursework to reinforce concepts include: student pairings, pdf handouts of lecture materials, and group lectures.

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The learners are high school juniors and seniors coping with the stress of (a)  taking standardized tests, (b) selecting  colleges to apply to, and (c) completing the applications for potential college. The learners will be of similar ages, but will vary in learning disciplines.

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The students should come into the course with expectations that differ from an ordinary tutoring experience. After completing these modules, students will be able to:

1.    Understand general concepts of how the brain works, especially in terms of learning

2.     Apply methods for successfully engaging memory and achieving academic success that apply to him or her as an individual.

3.     Use new understanding of how his/her brain works on an individual level and applies it in selecting the right college and field of study

4.     Achieve increased scores on standardized tests

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a. In this module, each student will be taught the basics of neurons and four parts of the brain
b. The student will understand what areas are important for learning and unconscious decision making
c. Each student will also understand that the brain can change shape overtime

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 2. Module B – Neuro-pathways and the 4 stage learning cycle

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 2. Module B – Neuro-pathways and the 4 stage learning cycle

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a.      The student is taught about how the brain forms neuro-pathways

b.      The student will be able to see the bigger picture of why repetition is important to build myelin and confidence

c.      The student will understand that this process is strengthened overtime and cannot be achieved overnight
d.      The benefits of spacing out one's studying will be discussed.

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4. Module D – The importance of sleep, meditation and controlling stress levels

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4. Module D – The importance of sleep, meditation and controlling stress levels

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a.      As stated, the learners are high school students, and, therefore, deal with unusual hormone levels brought on by stress, social anxiety and physical changes. Therefore, it is important to teach the importance of sleep and how stress works in the body.

b.      After teaching the basics of how hormones work, the student will be given best practices to deal with stress

c.      The student will also understand why sleep is vital to the learning process

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All Weeks found HERE

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StudyBlue: Online Flashcards, Homework Help & Textbook Solutions

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Find and study online flashcards and class notes at home or on your phone. Visit StudyBlue today to learn more about how you can share and create flashcards for free!

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But spacing your learning requires advance planning. If you have the summer off, then now is the best time to plan for spaced practice in the Fall.
How should you space your learning?

Start planning early - the beginning of the semester, or even earlier. Set aside a bit of time every day, just for studying, even if your exams are months away. This may seem strange at first, if you are used to cramming right before an exam; but it's just a new habit that you will get used to if you persevere.

Review information from each class, but not immediately after class. A good way to do this is to reserve some time one day after each of your classes meet. For example, if you have classes Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, you might review the information on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday respectively for each of those classes.

Spacing your learning doesn't mean you won't be studying at all right before the exam. You can still study up until the exam - but instead of only studying then, spread it out so that you're studying days and weeks before the exam as well. You'll spend less time and learn more, in the short-term and in the long-term.

What should you do during these short learning sessions?
It's important that you don't just sit down and re-read your notes. Instead, you should use effective learning strategies such as retrieval practice or elaboration.

After you study information from the most recent class, make sure to go back and study important older information to keep it fresh.

This may seem difficult and you may forget some information from day to day, but this is actually a good thing! You need to forget a little bit in order to benefit from spaced practice - see this guest post for an explanation.

Create small spaces (e.g., a few days) between your study sessions, and do a little bit at a time, so that it adds up!
"But, but...cramming works!"
If you're reading this and you're skeptical because cramming has worked just fine for you in the past, here's why. Cramming can, indeed, do exactly what it suggests - cram information into your mind right before an exam. However, there are at least three really big problems with this.

1. First, cramming actually takes more time. Think about it: if you learn more in the same amount of time spaced out (e.g., 5 hours in 1-hour increments compared to one 5-hour cram session), then you have to spend more time during the cramming session to get to the same level of learning.

2. Second, as quickly as you learned that information, you will then also forget it. You may do fine on the test, but all that extra time you spent during cramming? It will all have been wasted. If you had spaced your learning, you would forget much less after the test. No matter what you are learning - science, math, a foreign language - future learning will depend on previous learning. It is therefore very inefficient to forget everything you learned for one test, only to have to re-learn it again later along with new, more complicated information! This also applies to future classes, where it might be helpful to retain knowledge from a previous class.

3. Another reason why cramming is a bad idea is that it inevitably replaces sleep, which is very important for learning and also for your mental and physical health more generally. So, resolve to form a healthy habit today and plan to space your learning!

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This is the third post in a series designed to help students learn how to study effectively. You can find the first post here and the second post here. The purpose is to provide students with a resource that can help them take charge of their own learning. Today's ...

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What is Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning outcomes, lessons, and assessments of your course. :

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.

4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.

6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. You will see Bloom's Taxonomy often displayed as a pyramid graphic to help demonstrate this hierarchy. We have updated this pyramid into a "cake-style" hierarchy to emphasize that each level is built on a foundation of the previous levels.

You may use this graphic for educational or non-profit use if you include a credit for Jessica Shabatura and citation back to this website.
How Bloom's can aid in course design

Bloom's taxonomy is a powerful tool to help develop learning outcomes because it explains the process of learning:

Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it.

To apply a concept you must first understand it.

In order to evaluate a process, you must have analyzed it.

To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation.

However, we don't always start with lower order skills and step all the way through the entire taxonomy for each concept you present in your course. That approach would become tedious-for both you and your students! Instead, start by considering the level of learners in your course:

1. Are lots of your students freshman? Is this an "Introduction to..." course? If so, many your learning outcomes may target the lower order Bloom's skills, because your students are building foundational knowledge. However, even in this situation we would strive to move a few of your outcomes into the applying and analyzing level, but getting too far up in the taxonomy could create frustration and unachievable goals.

2. Are most of your students juniors and seniors? Graduate students? Do your students have a solid foundation in much of the terminology and processes you will be working on your course? If so, then you should not have many remembering and understanding level outcomes. You may need a few, for any radically new concepts specific to your course. However, these advanced students should be able to master higher-order learning objectives. Too many lower level outcomes might cause boredom or apathy.

How Bloom's works with learning outcomes

Fortunately, there are "verb tables" to help identify which action verbs align with each level in Bloom's Taxonomy.

You may notice that some of these verbs on the table are associated with multiple Bloom's Taxonomy levels. These "multilevel-verbs" are actions that could apply to different activities. For example, you could have an outcome that states "At the end of this lesson, students will be able to explain the difference between H2O and OH-." This would be an understanding level outcome. However, if you wanted the students to be able to "... explain the shift in the chemical structure of water throughout its various phases." This would be an analyzing level verb.

Adding to this confusion, you can locate Bloom's verb charts that will list verbs at levels different from what we list below. Just keep in mind that it is the skill, action or activity you will teach using that verb that determines the Bloom's Taxonomy level.

Bloom's Level

Key Verbs (keywords)

Example Learning Outcome

Evaluate
choose, support, relate, determine, defend, judge, grade, compare, contrast, argue, justify, support, convince, select, evaluate.

By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to determine whether using conservation of energy or conservation of momentum would be more appropriate for solving a dynamics problem.

Learning outcome examples adapted from, Nelson Baker at Georgia Tech: nelson.baker@pe.gatech.edu
How Bloom's works with Quality Matters

For a course to meet the Quality Matters standards it must have learning outcomes that are measurable. Using a verb table like the one above will help you avoid verbs that cannot be quantified, like: understand, learn, appreciate, or enjoy. Quality Matters also requires that your course assessments (activities, projects, and exams) align with your learning outcomes. For example, if your learning outcome has an application level verb, such as "present", then you cannot demonstrate that your students have mastered that learning outcome by simply having a multiple choice quiz.

Course level and lesson level outcomes

The biggest difference between course and lesson level outcomes is that we don't directly assess course level outcomes. Course level outcomes are just too broad. Instead, we use several lesson level outcomes to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome. To create good course level outcomes, we need to ask ourselves: "what do I want the students to have mastery of at the end of the course?" Then, after we finalize our course level outcomes, we have to make sure that mastery of all of the lesson level outcomes underneath confirm that a student has mastery of the course level outcome-in other words, if your students can prove (through assessment) that they can do each and every one of the lesson level outcomes in that section, then you as an instructor agree they have mastery of the course level outcome.

How Bloom's works with course level and lesson level outcomes:

Course level outcomes are broad. You may only have 3-5 course level outcomes. They would be difficult to measure directly because they overarch the topics of your entire course.

Lesson level outcomes are what we use to demonstrate that a student has mastery of the course level outcomes. We do this by building lesson level outcomes that build toward the course level outcome. For example, a student might need to demonstrate mastery of 8 lesson level outcomes in order to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome.

Because the lesson level outcomes directly support the course level outcomes, they need to build up the Bloom's taxonomy to help your students reach mastery of the course level outcomes. Use Bloom's Taxonomy to make sure that the verbs you choose for your lesson level outcomes build up to the level of the verb that is in the course level outcome. The lesson level verbs can be below or equal to the course level verb, but they CANNOT be higher in level. For example, your course level verb might be an Applying level verb, "illustrate." Your lesson level verbs can be from any Bloom's level that is equal or below this level (applying, understanding, or remembering).

Steps towards writing effective learning outcomes:

1. Make sure there is one measurable verb in each objective.

2. Each outcome needs one verb. Either a student can master the outcome , or they fail to master it. If an outcome has two verbs (say, define and apply), what happens if a student can define, but not apply? Are they demonstrating mastery?

3. Ensure that the verbs in the course level outcome are at least at the highest Bloom's Taxonomy as the highest lesson level outcomes that support it. (Because we can't verify they can evaluate if our lessons only taught them (and assessed) to define.)

4. Strive to keep all your learning outcomes measurable, clear and concise.

When you are ready to write, it can be helpful to list the level of Bloom's next to the verb you choose in parentheses. For example:

Course level outcome 1. (apply) Demonstrate how transportation is a critical link in the supply chain.

1.1. (understand) Discuss the changing global landscape for businesses and other organizations that are driving change in the global environment.

1.2. (apply) Demonstrate the special nature of transportation demand and the influence of transportation on companies and their supply chains operating in a global economy.

This trick will help you quickly see what level verbs you have. It will also let you check that the course level outcome is at least as high of a Bloom's level as any of the lesson level outcomes underneath.

Before you begin constructing your outcomes:

Please read our Learning Outcome : Before and After Examples page.

Additional External Resources:

For a longer list of Bloom's Verbs - TIPS tip: You can also use the "find" function (press: Ctrl-f or command-f on a mac) in your browser to locate specific verbs on this list.

To see how Bloom's can be applied specifically to distance education: Digital Approaches to Bloom's Taxonomy

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Using Bloom's Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Outcomes

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Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning.

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Note: This site is moving to KnowledgeJump.com. Please reset your bookmark.

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training, and learning processes.

The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, et al. 1956):

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains may be thought of as categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to these three categories as KSA ( Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor], and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as "the goals of the learning process." That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill, knowledge, and/or attitude.

While the committee produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, they omitted the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level. However, there have been at least three psychomotor models created by other researchers.

Their compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest cognitive process or behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised, such as the Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO). However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each category):

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000):

The chart shown below compares the original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate. The new version of Bloom's Taxonomy, with examples and keywords is shown below, while the old version may be found here

Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge Matrix

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using action words, but added a cognitive and knowledge matrix.

While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional:

Factual - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems.

Conceptual - The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together.

Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.

In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to form a matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge - metacognition:

Metacognitive - Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and knowledge of one's own cognition.

When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance objectives:

The Cognitive Dimension

However, others have identified five contents or artifacts (Clark, Chopeta, 2004; Clark, Mayer, 2007):

Facts - Specific and unique data or instance.

Concepts - A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name, includes multiple specific examples, shares common features. There are two types of concepts: concrete and abstract.

Processes - A flow of events or activities that describe how things work rather than how to do things. There are normally two types: business processes that describe work flows and technical processes that describe how things work in equipment or nature. They may be thought of as the big picture, of how something works.

Procedures - A series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the achievement of a task. There are two types of actions: linear and branched.

Principles - Guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern. It includes not only what should be done, but also what should not be done. Principles allow one to make predictions and draw implications. Given an effect, one can infer the cause of a phenomena. Principles are the basic building blocks of causal models or theoretical models (theories).

Thus, the new matrix would look similar to this:

The Cognitive Dimension

An example matrix that has been filled in might look something like this:

Next Steps

Review

Useful Links

References

Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.

Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

Clark, R., Chopeta, L. (2004). Graphics for Learning : Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

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Bloom's Taxonomy was created under the leadership of Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in learning and education, such as analyzing and evaluating, rather than just remembering facts.

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How students learn. A Neurological overview

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How students learn. A Neurological overview

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This article is based on a talk by Daniela Kaufer, associate professor in the Department of Integrative Biology, for the GSI Teaching & Research Center's How Students Learn series in Spring 2011.

On this page:
Key Learning Principles
Research Fundamentals
Applications to Teaching
Further Reading

Also available:
Video and full summary of Daniela Kaufer's talk "What Can Neuroscience Research Teach Us about Teaching?"

Key Learning Principles

From the point of view of neurobiology, learning involves changing the brain.

Moderate stress is beneficial for learning, while mild and extreme stress are detrimental to learning.

Adequate sleep, nutrition, and exercise encourage robust learning.

Active learning takes advantage of processes that stimulate multiple neural connections in the brain and promote memory.

Research Fundamentals

Changing the brain: For optimal learning to occur, the brain needs conditions under which it is able to change in response to stimuli (neuroplasticity) and able to produce new neurons (neurogenesis).

The most effective learning involves recruiting multiple regions of the brain for the learning task. These regions are associated with such functions as memory, the various senses, volitional control, and higher levels of cognitive functioning.

Moderate stress: Stress and performance are related in an "inverted U curve" (see right). Stimulation to learn requires a moderate amount of stress (measured in the level of cortisol). A low degree of stress is associated with low performance, as is high stress, which can set the system into fight-or-flight mode so there is less brain activity in the cortical areas where higher-level learning happens. Moderate levels of cortisol tend to correlate with the highest performance on tasks of any type. We can therefore conclude that moderate stress is beneficial for learning, while mild and extreme stress are both detrimental to learning.

Moderate stress can be introduced in many ways: by playing unfamiliar music before class, for example, or changing up the format of discussion, or introducing any learning activity that requires individual participation or movement. However, people do not all react the same way to an event. The production of cortisol in response to an event varies significantly between individuals; what constitutes "moderate stress" for one person might constitute mild or extreme stress for another. So, for example, cold-calling on individual students in a large-group setting might introduce just the right amount of stress to increase some students' performance, but it might produce excessive stress and anxiety for other students, so their performance is below the level you know they are capable of. Any group dynamic that tends to stereotype or exclude some students also adds stress for them.

Adequate sleep, good nutrition, and regular exercise: These common-sense healthy habits promote optimal learning performance in two ways. First, they promote neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Second, they keep cortisol and dopamine (stress and happiness hormones, respectively) at appropriate levels. All-night cramming sessions, skipped meals, and skipped exercise can actually reduce the brain's capacity for high academic performance. (This is true for instructors as well as students.)

Active learning: Cognitive functions associated with the lower levels of Bloom's taxonomy (see diagram at left), such as understanding and remembering, are associated with the hippocampus (the area of the brain responsible for memory and spatial awareness). The higher-level cognitive functions of Bloom's taxonomy, such as creating, evaluating, analyzing, and applying, involve the cortical areas responsible for decision-making, association, and motivation.

More complex thought processes are more beneficial for learning because they involve a greater number of neural connections and more neurological cross-talk. Active learning takes advantage of this cross-talk, stimulating a variety of areas of the brain and promoting memory.

Applications to Teaching

Classroom Activities, from the Teaching Guide for GSIs

Some Basic Active Learning Strategies, from the University of Minnesota Center for Educational Innovation

Further Reading
Please note that some links may require Library proxy access. Please see the Library's page Connect from Off Campus.
Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne and Uta Frith (2005). The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Felder, Richard M. and Rebecca Brent (1996). " Navigating the Bumpy Road to Student-Centered Instruction." An abridged version of this article was published in College Teaching 44: 43-7.

Tokuhama-Espinosa, Tracey (2011). Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-Based Teaching. New York: W. W. Norton.

Walker, J. D. et al. (2008). " A Delicate Balance: Integrating Active Learning into a Large Lecture Course." CBE Life Sciences Education 7.4: 361-67.

Winter, Dale et al. (2001). " Novice Instructors and Student-Centered Instruction: Identifying and Addressing Obstacles to Learning in the College Science Laboratory." The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 2.1: 14-42.

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This article is based on a talk by Daniela Kaufer, associate professor in the Department of Integrative Biology, for the GSI Teaching & Research Center's How Students Learn series in Spring 2011. On this page: Key Learning Principles Research Fundamentals Applications to Teaching Further Reading Also available: Video and full summary of Daniela Kaufer's talk "What Can Neuroscience Research Teach Us about Teaching?"

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Focused on Transcience

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Learning and Memory - Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland

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Queensland Brain Institute Queensland Brain Institute

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The human brain is the engine that drives our species' triumphs, problems, and possibilities. Yet no one knows how it works, and neuroscientists are only just beginning to learn how to manipulate it to our benefit. How much business potential - in medicine, education, entertainment, and a dozen other industries - is locked up inside this black box?

Neuroscientist Chris deCharms poses that question to students of the Singularity University Executive Program in a lecture on October 3. The fact is, advances in brain science are coming thick and fast on a number of fronts, promising new capabilities in coming years. "We are the generation that will witness and produce a transformation in the ability to look into the organ that makes us who we are and take control of its capacity," he says.

Crucial to this shift are medical imaging technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI. This system combines magnetic fields and radio waves to map the nuclei of atoms into images. Applied to the brain, fMRI can track blood flow over time, showing which areas are most active when the subject performs a specific task. These machines are already yielding powerful insights, and they will only get better as spatial and temporal resolution improves.

The first step is to chart brain functions to see what various parts of the brain do and how they do it. Much of the neocortex, the seat of higher functions in humans, already has been explored in some degree. To the extent that we can figure out how these functional areas work - current understanding is primitive, but already useful - we can aid, augment, and simulate them. The approach need not be invasive; consider popular software packages that present puzzles to promote "brain fitness."

The next step is to stimulate brain activity directly to send new information to those areas. This field is exploding as well, thanks to electronic neural implants that pipe aural sensations directly to the cortex (cochlear implants), halt involuntary motor tics in Parkinson's patients (deep brain stimulation), and empower paraplegics to control computers using thoughts alone (brain/computer interfaces).

Stimulating the brain is analogous to writing data to a computer, and the equivalent of reading data from the brain is on the horizon. DeCharms describes a dramatic experiment in which subjects look at a symbol while an imaging machine represents activity in the brain's visual center. The images look amazingly like the original symbols - a result tantamount to mind reading. Give this a moment to sink in: The imaging device saw directly into the brains of the subjects. "Could we do this with memories? Mental imagery? Desires?" he asks. "We don't know."

The message is clear: The new frontier is inner space. Companies that effectively match emerging knowledge about the brain with profound human needs have a shot at striking gold.

In surfing, the impact zone is the spot where the wave crashes down over your head. It's a tough place to be, but it's where the power of the ocean is at its most intense. Tech has its own impact zone, the place where emerging technologies meet the market and either disrupt ...

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This Is Your Brain On Business: Neuroscience Creates Opportunities For Innovation

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The human brain is the engine that drives our species' triumphs, problems, and possibilities. Yet one knows how it works, and neuroscientists are only just beginning to learn how to manipulate it to our benefit. How much business potential - in medicine, education, entertainment, and a dozen other industries - is [...]

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The intersection of mind and machine is the next great frontier for big business, writes Fortune contributor Olivier Oullier.

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Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.

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Strategies to Support Inclusion and Self-Efficacy

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Strategies to Support Inclusion and Self-Efficacy

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In order to promote self-efficacy and inclusion, students will be encouraged to create and study flashcards (hard and/or soft copies) to help with their development of understanding the material.

A student will have the opportunity to pair up with another student in a collaborative environment where each student can quiz and be quizzed on a variety of topics. These paired study sessions can be completed in person or online.

Group sessions will be available to refresh the understanding of how the brain works, learns and forms memory.

The tutoring center will be open during normal business hours, seven days a week in order to encourage frequent drop in visits so that students can learn at times that best fit their schedules

Encouraging messages and mentorship will be provided to current students by prior students in order to drive motivation and excitement.

Scholarly articles and lecture handouts will be provided to students in an order to further educate themselves beyond what is taught in the tutor setting.

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Technology will be used in a variety of forms.

TED talks, available on YouTube, will act as scripted lectures to reinforce lessons taught in group sessions.

Online study sessions between paired students, through the use of Zoom or Skype, will be highly encouraged.

Questions and facts of the day regarding neuroscience of learning and standardized test taking will be published daily and sent via email.

The 3D Brain app will be offered as a good resource to view before, during and after neuroscience lessons

Study Blue Flashcards are available for students to use, and add to.

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In order to properly assess each student's progress, we have designed a multi-staged evaluation process:

Formative Stage:
Before beginning Module A, the student will go through a pre-assessment phase. The pre-assessment phase consists of taking a practice standardized test in order to evaluate where the student is, score-wise, and the range in which the student can realistically reach. The student will also be given a series of pre-assessments to examine non-cognitive factors such a stress, learning strategies, mindset, study areas to focus on, and goals. After these tests, the student will have a one-on-one conversation with a tutor, where we will evaluate the student's study habits, and how much the student know about the brain, memory and study procedures.

Interim Stages:
After completing each module, the student will be given a quiz to assess the amount of lecture material retained. In order to move onto the next module, a minimum score of 80% needs to be achieved. Tutors will work on areas that the student may have missed in each quiz. Going forward, the student will take a monthly standardized practice test in order to evaluate areas where the student needs to focus his or her attention. We will analyze the data to confirm MBE and training is having positive affects.

Summative Stage:
In this stage, we revisit the pre-assessment testing and match that benchmark to a post-assessment standardized practice test. Once again, we will analyze the data to confirm MBE and training has had positive affects. At this time, the student will have the opportunity to provide us with feedback. After college acceptance and standardized tests are complete, the student will continue to use these study guides and procedures during the remainder of their academic years.