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Why were grey wolves reintroduced in the Yellowstone National Park?

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Why were grey wolves reintroduced in the Yellowstone National Park?

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In 1995, 96 years after the last grey  wolf was killed within the boundaries of the Yellowstone National Park, the wolves were brought in because in their absence as a crucial predator, the increased elk population was overgrazing the deciduous, woody species such as aspen and cottonwood.

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Freshwater streams do not contribute with as much input to the aquatic environment of the Ria Formosa as the ocean. Still, the few existing freshwater courses possess such typical and essential biodiversity, that not mentioning it would mean subtracting important information about the whole Ria Formosa ecosystem.

The streams that cross the woodlands of the Ria Formosa are a crucial refuge for abundant and varied populations of aquatic birds. The vegetation growing in its margins takes great importance when assessed in terms of provider of food and shelter. Commonly found species are Typha sp., Tamarix africana, Phragmites communis, Juncus acutus, Fuirena pubescens, Carex riparia, C. hispida, Cladium mariscus, Callitriche stagnalis and Potamogeton sp.

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The western swamphen is worthy of note: it is an emblematic species of the Ria Formosa, where its populations have the biggest numbers of all the country.

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While contained in the Mediterranean Basin biodiversity hotspot as defined by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), given its scale and its convincing levels of organism and ecosystem diversity, the Ria Formosa is definitely entitled to be considered a biodiversity hotspot by its own merit.

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This hotspot is home to many unique reptile species and is considered one of the most important areas on Earth for endemic plants.

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The area farther from the sea, on the upper part of he Ria Formosa, is occupied by mixed pine forests composed mostly of Pinus pinaster and  Pinus pinea. Nevertheless, this seemingly degraded forest is very diverse, housing species with special conservation status and some endemisms.
Despite the monotony of pine trees, it is still possible to observe the spontaneous cork oak Quercus suber and the wild olive tree Olea europaea var. sylvestris, both remnants of the original Mediterranean woodlands. Other relics of this original vegetation like Arbutus unedo, Ulex argenteus subsp. subsericeus (an Iberian endemism) and several other Ericaceae such as Erica umbellata and Calluna vulgaris, can be found in less disrupted spots.

From late Winter to early Summer, the Ria Formosa woodlands bursts with colour from numerous flowering shrubs: Cistus libanotis, C. ladanifer, Halimium calycinum, H. halimifolium, Genista hirsuta, G. triacanthos, Stauracanthus boivinii and Tuberaria major, the latter one an endemism of the Algarve, very threatened and with a protected species status. Aromatic and medicinal plants such as  Lavandula pedunculata subsp. lusitanica and various species of the genus Thymus sp. are also a staple of the Ria Formosa's woodlands, spreading colour and perfume throughout the area. Being endemic to the Algarve and having a priority conservation status make Thymus lotocephalus deserve a special mention among the other thyme species.

Given the scorching summers in the Algarve region, heat-loving plant species also flourish in the Ria Formosa woodlands. The dwarf palm tree Chamaerops humilis is the most conspicuous of them, but Asparagus aphyllus, Euphorbia boetica and Serratula monardii subsp. algarbiensis are also great examples.

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The woodlands of the Ria Formosa are where the Egyptian mongoose feels most at home.

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The dainty yellow flowers that colours the Ria Formosa woodlands in the Spring.

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Evasive and circumspect, the Eurasian otter is one of the mammals that lurks around the Ria Formosa, especially in the vicinity of the freshwater streams. Though difficult to spot, it is not hard to find vestiges of its presence.

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The Mediterranean chameleon is the starlet of the Ria Formosa woodlands.

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The marshes arise in calm coastal areas of weak currents. The reduced tidal flow facilitates the deposition of suspended sludge and debris, originating mud banks who later become populated with vegetation.

Marshes are among the most productive areas of the biosphere. The nutrients arrive naturally to it, carried by the constant flow and ebb of the tides, by the sediments coming with the rivers and streams, and by the living beings who live and die there. Even the inopportune human action that frequently makes a dump out of the marsh, ends up promoting the build up of nutrients in it. The shallow depth of the marshes maintains a favourable temperature to the development of marine organisms and allows a good penetration of the light, guaranteeing an intense and almost continuous photosynthetic activity by algae and seagrasses.

The marshes are a shelter for many animal species, because it functions as a nursery for fish, molluscs and crustaceans of which several ones with economical interest.

The productivity of the marsh also supports its scientific value. It conditions the number of species of resident birds that inhabit and nest in it, as well the number of migratory birds who need it for stopping, resting and feeding, before resuming their long journeys. Also the marshes productivity sustains an extraordinary number of invertebrates, small vertebrates or plant species capable of maintaining others in an intricate web of food.

A relevant aspect is that the marsh vegetation has a strong purifying action by the great capacity of absorption and fixation of heavy metals, many of which are toxic to other organisms. On the other hand, the abundant microorganisms that exist there metabolise and convert them into useful nutrients that would otherwise pollute its waters.

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Bivalve diversity is considerable in the Ria Formosa

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Bivalve diversity is considerable in the Ria Formosa

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Benthic bivalves species are present in extremely numerous populations in the Ria Formosa, with many of them economically interesting: the grooved carpet clam (Ruditapes decussatus), the common cockle (Cerastoderma edule), the pod razor (Ensis siliqua), the Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea angulata) and the bean clams (Donax trunculus) are the most sought after.

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Birds of prey aren't as common in the Ria Formosa as their aquatic counterparts, but the hen harrier can sometimes be seen hunting around the area during migratory periods and in the Winter.  It is also possible to observe Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus), the common buzzard (Buteo buteo), the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). Typical nocturnal birds of prey are the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), the common barn owl (Tyto alba) and the tawny owl (Strix aluco).

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The black-winged stilt is a common sighting among the wading birds that populate the Ria Formosa.

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The striking beak of the Eurasian spoonbill makes it one the easiest birds to identify when birdwatching in the Ria Formosa. Unfortunately, this species is not as common as the little egret (Egretta garzetta) or the white stork (Ciconia ciconia), so it is always surprising to find it in large numbers.

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The Eurasian widgeon is only of the numerous members of the duck family that can be found in the Ria Formosa during the Winter.
Many species of migratory aquatic birds from northern Europe spend Winter or make the Ria a stopover point on their route to more southern areas.

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Dunes are probably the harshest habitat in the Ria Formosa: their sandy nature makes them unstable, very susceptible to the action of winds and tides. For this, they are perhaps less rich in terms of species than the marshes or the woods, but at least 35 plant species are known to thrive in the dunes of Ria Formosa. These species are considered characteristic of this habitat.

Any plant that settles and thrives there must be able to withstand strong maritime winds loaded with salt particles, excessive sunlight and ample thermal ranges, from the scorching summer heat to the biting winter cold. These are organisms with a highly specialised ecological niche, possessing physiological features that allow them to persist despite the adverse environmental conditions.

Characteristic dune vegetation :

Cakile maritima

Salsola kali

Elymus farctus

Euphorbia paralias

Euphorbia peplis

Ammophila arenaria

Otanthus maritimus

Calystegia soldanella

Lotus creticus

Eryngium maritimum

Crucianella maritima

Pancratium maritimum

Helichrysum italicum

Pseudorlaya pumila

Thymus carnosus (an iberian endemism!)

Armeria pungens

Artemisia campestris ssp maritima

Anthemis maritima

Corynephorus canescens

Linaria polygalifolia ssp lamarckii

Linaria pedunculata

Reichardia gaditana

Silene niceensis

Paronychia argentea

Ononis variegata

Medicago littoralis

Polygonum maritimum

Hypecoum procumbens (another endemism!)

Anagallis monelli

Linaria spartea

Scrophularia frutescens

Cleome violacea

Corrigiola litoralis

Aetheorhiza bulbosa

Pycnocomon rutifolium

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An Iberian endemism making our beaches more beautiful and aromatic!

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The Ria Formosa population of Sternula albifrons, a declining species in Europe, represents 40% of the total species numbers in Portugal. This seabird nests in the dunes and salt flats of the Ria Formosa.

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Seagrasses - the underwater prairies of the Ria Formosa marshes

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Seagrasses - the underwater prairies of the Ria Formosa marshes

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Three species of seagrass form extensive meadows in the Ria Formosa. These seagrasses are angiosperms that found their way from land into the sea through evolutionary processes. Most of the time they are submerged,  except when the tidal amplitude is wide enough to expose them.

Seagrasses are considered ecosystem engineers in the Ria Formosa, for they simultaneously depend on the environmental conditions and themselves act as an habitat for a bountiful community of micro and macro-organisms.  In seagrass meadows, animals such as cuttlefish, fish, octopi, seahorses, clams, crabs, urchins and nudibranchs, find an abundant food source, as well as protection form currents, waves and predators and a spot to nest and lay the next generation.

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Cymodocea nodosa

Zostera marina

Zostera noltei

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Two species of seahorses (Hippocampus guttulatus and H. hippocampus) make the seagrass meadows their home. Unfortunately, economical pressures make them a target for poaching and excessive fishing and their numbers are rapidly declining.

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An endemic aromatic plant with a high conservation status requirement

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A localised endemism, only recorded in the Ria Formosa: a true treasure of biodiversity!

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The large space occupied by the Ria Formosa, as well the varied geomorphological features of the lagoon itself and associated areas, provide a wide canvas for an astounding variety of habitats: barrier islands, marshes, shoals and mud, dunes, salt flats, freshwater and brackish lagoons, freshwater courses, agricultural areas and woods. This is suggestive of an equally floristic and faunistic diversity contained within the domain of the Ria Formosa. Let's focus our attention on three more frequently found habitats in the Ria Formosa and the organisms that take up residence in them: the dunes, the marshes and the woodlands.

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The Ria Formosa is the name by which a geological phenomenon in the Algarve (Portugal) is know.
It is an estuarine lagoon system protected by five sandy barrier islands and two sandy peninsulas that mediate the transition from land to sea, while at the same time being highly influenced by tidal action.
Connection with the ocean is made through five natural inlets and an artificial one.
The Ria Formosa stretches from east to west across 60km, with it's widest point situated off centre, towards the western extremity.
The lagoon system is made up of intertwining channels and arenaceous banks, a portion of which is permanently submerged, while a significant percentage emerges during low tide. The average depth of the lagoon is 2 m, with an irregular layout of the bottom, making navigation in the lagoon very limited.
Despite several fresh water courses flowing into the Ria Formosa lagoon system, their input is not as significative as predicted: they are seasonal, with little flow and a torrential regime, due to the poor local rainfall. Because of this situation, the Ria Formosa lagoon is almost exclusively fed by seawater.
Just like the rest of the Algarve region, the Ria Formosa has a mediterranean type climate with semi-arid characteristics: prolonged dry seasons during Summer months and mild winters with a western Atlantic influence.
There are many urban areas located within the Ria Formosa territory. The ones that exert the biggest effect on the lagoon are the cities of Faro, Olhão and Tavira, each with an average human population of 20,000 inhabitants.

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Map provided by the National Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests (ICNF)

The Ria Formosa and several adjacent areas were the subject of legal protection with the creation of a Natural Reserve on 1978. This status was updated to a Natural Park a decade later, with the purpose of assuring the ecological, scientific, economic and social value of the area. This was a very important step in the preservation of the Ria Formosa for it has always been subject to an assortment of pressures due to the Algarve being the most important tourist destination in Portugal.
The main objectives of the Natural Park of the Ria Formosa are the protection and conservation of the lagoon system, namely its flora and fauna (including migratory species) and their habitats, while acknowledging the need to reconcile the protection of natural and cultural heritage of the Ria Formosa with an sustainable social and economic development of its urban areas and inhabitants. Thus, the Natural Park provides support for:

traditional and other economic activities as long as they are compatible with a rational use of resources;

recreational, leisure and tourism activities that take into account the particularities of the protected area and its carrying capacity;

environmental education, in order to make the resident population and visitors aware of the need to preserve natural and cultural values of the Ria Formosa.

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Fish also have a place in the Ria Formosa

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Fish also have a place in the Ria Formosa

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About 65 species of ichthyofauna are identified for the Ria Formosa. Some of them are sedentary, others make only an occasional appearance, while a third group migrates frequently from the Ria to the ocean and vice-versa.
Among all the fish species registered, the ones with highest economic interest are the pictured gilt-head seabream (Sparus aurata), the white seabream (Diplodus sargus), the European bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), the Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) and the European eel (Anguilla anguilla).

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Plant life above the water surface - biodiversity in the marshes exceeds the expectations

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Plant life above the water surface - biodiversity in the marshes exceeds the expectations

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But the Ria Formosa's marshes aren't only made up whats submerged. Many shoals and sandbanks have gathered enough sediment through the ages to be able to rise above average high tide level, making them available to the settlement of a diverse plant community. With time, this plant community ends up shaping and consolidating the lagoon system: once established it dampens the currents, sedimentation accelerates and moisture is removed from the sediment through the root system.

Plant communities found above the water level in marshes are mainly composed of the following species:

Spartina maritima

Arthrocnemum perenne

Salicornia nitens

Suaeda maritima

Halimione portulacoides

Limonium algarvense

Sarcocornia fruticosa

Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

Suaeda vera

Limoniastrum monopetalum

Atriplex halimus

Salsola vermiculata

Juncus spp.

Artemisia campestrisCistanche phelypaea

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Juicy and salty... A gourmet treat harvested from the Ria Formosa.

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Located higher in the marsh, it rarely becomes submerged.