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-Make “ending population growth” one of the UN Sustainable Development Goals

-Greatly increase the amount of foreign aid going to family planning

-Change the current foreign aid distribution, giving more support for health and education, while ending international military aid

-Global religious leaders should approve modern contraception methods and forcefully reject a fatalistic view of procreation

-Financially support media programs designed to change social norms to bolster family planning, best example is Population Media Center

-Hold a new global population conference, the first in twenty-five years, to reaffirm the ecological need to limit human numbers and the basic human right to family planning

-Connect family planning to international environmental and development funding; e.g., include family planning in the Green Climate Fund

-Create a new global treaty to end population growth, with all countries choosing population targets every half decade with a plan on how to achieve them (similar to the NDC format)

-Create an online platform similar to the ClimateWatch platform, where visitors can see countries’ goals, plans and achievements to date

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In high fertility developing countries, governments should …

Generously fund family planning programs

Make modern contraception legal, free and available everywhere, even in remote areas

Improve health care to reduce infant and child mortality

Restrict child marriage and raise the legal age of marriage (minimum 18 years)

Introduce obligatory education as long as possible (minimum until the age of 16), and generously fund the necessary infrastructure

In low fertility developed countries, governments should …

Embrace rather than fight aging and shrinking societies – read more here>>

Reorganize pensions and other socio-economic systems to accommodate aging societies

Eliminate baby bonuses, government funding for fertility treatments, and other incentives to raise fertility rates

Reduce immigration numbers (at least to a level that will stabilize national populations, preferably to one that will lower them) – read our blog here>>

Reduce resource consumption and pollution through an effective mix of taxes, incentives and regulations

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Join local environmental groups, encouraging them to “connect the dots” between population and the environment and address population issues

Write opinion pieces for local newspapers, contact local media sources requesting more reporting on population issues – create demand!

Municipalities should set growth management boundaries, discouraging sprawling development on their fringes

Towns and cities should purchase surrounding lands, or the development rights to such lands, in order to set them aside as nature preserves and open space

City councils should pass resolutions accepting limits to growth, and directing their national governments to develop policies to stabilize or reduce national populations

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-Have fewer children! One is good, two is enough

-Consider adoption!

-Read and educate yourself about population issues

- Educate your teenage child(ren) about sex and contraception early, without taboos.

- Spread your knowledge and concern among your friends and family, raise awareness about overpopulation on social media.

-Reduce your personal consumption: go vegan, limit flying, share your household with others

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Solutions to overpopulation and what you can do - The Overpopulation Project

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TOP identifies practical solutions on three levels to the environmental and social problems caused and exacerbated by growing human population.

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Effects  (consequences) of  over population 

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Effects  (consequences) of  over population 

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Overpopulation can have a number of effects, most of which are negative as examined below.

1. Lack Of Water

2. Lower Life Expectancy

3.Extinction

4.Resource Consumption

5.Faster Climate Change

6.Increased Intensive Farming

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There are almost Eight billion people on the planet and this number is growing rapidly.

Issues like pollution, climate change, and water shortages all seem to take precedence, but population growth is one of the main contributors to many other environmental issues.

Overpopulation will place great demands on resources and land, leading to widespread environmental issues in addition to impacting global economies and standards of living.

The issue is compounded by the difficulty in providing solutions for this problem and the misunderstanding of the causes and effects of overpopulation.

Here we will cover causes and effects of overpopulation to give you a more informed view of the risks that come with it.
On This Page:
Overpopulation Definition

Overpopulation occurs when there are more people than can be sustained by resources in a given area.

It leads to poverty, high mortality rates, lack of resources, environmental degradation, habitat loss, and ecosystem loss.

While it is a global issue, overpopulation is a serious problem in developing countries with fewer natural resources.

Causes of Overpopulation

With population growth comes a decrease in resources and an increase in mortality rates and poverty. There are a number of factors that contribute to overpopulation.

These are the leading causes:

Read our related article on the Cause of Overpopulation in South Africa for a bird's eye view of African overpopulation.

Poverty

Poverty is one cause for overpopulation. Lack of education and contraceptive resources makes it inevitable that sexual activity will bring new babies on the scene in the poorest countries.

Couple this with the uncertainty of survival and many couples aim to produce many offspring because they expect to lose a significant number of children before they can reach adulthood.

The effect is so extensive that the UN has predicted that the forty-eight poorest countries in the world are also likely to be the biggest contributors to population growth.

Their estimates state that the combined population of these countries is likely to balloon to 1.7 billion in 2050, from 850 million in 2010.

Poor Contraceptive Use

Though the availability of contraceptives is widespread in developed countries, poor planning on both partners' parts can lead to unexpected pregnancies.

Statistics have shown that in Great Britain 76% of women aged between 16 and 49 used at least one form of contraceptive.

It is assumed that the other 25% are desirous to build a family or face an unplanned pregnancy.

A study by the World Health Organization (WHO) shows that contraceptive usage drops to 43% in countries that are blighted by issues like poverty, which leads to higher birth rates.

Though couples may want to use some form of contraceptive, it is not available to them.

Child Labor

As distressing as it may be to hear, child labor is still used extensively in many parts of the world.

UNICEF estimates that approximately 150 million children are currently working, primarily in countries that have few child labor laws.

This means that children are often seen as a source of income by impoverished families.

Furthermore, children who begin work too young also lose the educational opportunities they should be granted, perpetuating a destructive cycle of poverty.

Reduced Mortality Rates

Improvement in medical technology has led to lower mortality rates for many serious diseases.

Particularly dangerous viruses and ailments such as polio, smallpox, and measles have been practically eradicated by such advances.

While this is positive news in many ways, it also means that people are living longer than ever before.

This "delay" in the cycle of life and death has led to birth rates outstripping death rates by over two to one.

However, in developing countries where the infant mortality rate is high, statistics show that people have more babies to counteract the probability of infant mortality.

Fertility Treatments

Though it only plays a minor role in comparison to the other causes of overpopulation, improved fertility treatments have made it possible for more people to have children.

The number of women using various fertility treatments has been on the rise since their inception.

Now, most women have the option of conceiving children, even if they may not have been able to do so without fertility treatments.

This is a blessing to those who greatly desire children, but it often results in a woman having multiple babies at once.

Immigration

Unchecked immigration into countries may lead to overpopulation to the point where those countries no longer have the required resources for their population.

In this case, overpopulation refers to the local inability to provide for the number of residents rather than the overarching problem of taxing global resources.

This is particularly problematic in countries where immigration numbers far exceed emigration numbers.

In some cases, immigrants may be attempting to escape population growth in their own countries, only to contribute to the same issues in the countries they move to.

However, data also exists to show that immigration can bolster economies, with the effect in the UK being particularly pronounced.

Effects of Overpopulation

There is a long list of environmental issues surrounding humanity's use and abuse of the planet.

Overpopulation effects mainly involve the number of resources required to support a large population.

When resources are overtaxed, it leads to a great deal of pollution, natural resource depletion, soil degradation, and other detriments to the environment.

In many countries, the resources are used faster than they can replenish. This leads to an overall degradation in the quality of life for the people that live there.

Lack of Water

Overpopulation creates greater demand for freshwater supplies. As only roughly 1% of the world's water is fresh and accessible, this creates a major issue.

In areas where fresh water is in short supply or heavily polluted, this demand creates dire suffering for residents.

Some estimates state that human demand for fresh water will stand at approximately 70% of what is available on the planet by 2025.

This will place those living in impoverished areas that already have limited access to fresh water at great risk.

Lower Life Expectancy

While higher life expectancy is leading to increases in population in developed countries, lower life expectancy may be caused by the same booms in population.

A large proportion of global population growth occurs in less developed countries.

This stretches the scant resources these countries have resulting in less access to medical care, fresh water, food, and jobs, all resulting in a drop in life expectancy.

Extinction

The effect of overpopulation on the world's wildlife is also a major issue. As demand for land grows, so too does the destruction of natural habitats, such as forests.

Some scientists warn that if present trends continue, as many as 50% of the world's wildlife species will be at risk of extinction.

Data has also been collected to show that there is a direct link between increases in human population and decreases in the number of species on the planet.

Natural Resource Depletion

As the global population grows, so too does the number of resources needed to keep so many people alive.

Food, water, and fossil fuels are all being consumed at record rates, placing greater demands on producers and the planet itself. This causes depletion of non-renewable natural resources.

This is exacerbated by urban sprawl. What is urban sprawl? It is the ever-expanding cities marked by burgeoning suburbia that seems to never end. It is high water consumption and an hour-long commute.

All of this is fueled by a burgeoning global population.

Ironically, it is the discovery of many of these natural resources - particularly fossil fuels - that have contributed to conditions that are favorable to population growth.

A study has shown that the world's ecosystem changed more rapidly in the latter half of the twentieth century than at any other point in history because of the use of these resources.

This is why it's vital that we explore these natural resources examples to see which ones we can use now to curb the negative effects of the energy needs of our global population.

Increased Intensive Farming

As the population has grown over the years, farming practices have evolved to produce enough food to feed larger numbers of people.

However, intensive farming methods is one of the most prevalent types of environmental degradation.

Environmental degradation refers to the damage to local ecosystems and the land, which may pose problems in the future.

Furthermore, intensive farming is also considered a major contributor to climate change due to the machinery required.

This effect will likely increase as the global population continues to grow.

Faster Climate Change

Overpopulation directly correlates to climate change, particularly as larger nations, like China and India, continue to develop their industrial capacities.

They now rank as two of the three largest contributors to emissions in the world, alongside the United States.

China's recent investments in the advantages of nuclear energy will help to clean up the environmental impact of its massive population.

However, this type of clean energy is too expensive for developing countries where it is needed the most to supply electricity for development without contributing to climate change.

Overpopulation Solutions

Overpopulation solutions are necessary to mitigate the impacts of overpopulation.

Education, access to contraceptives, and policy will help control the population in developing countries.

Better Sex Education

A lack of sex education - or poorly-implemented education - has led to overpopulation issues in many countries.

It has also led to rapidly spreading sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS. The more people know, the better decisions they can make for themselves and others.

Better education will also do away with many of the myths that surround sex and contraceptive methods.

Access to Contraceptives

Access to contraceptives must go hand-in-hand with better sex education.

The World Health Organization (WHO) states that 270 million women in developing countries would prefer to postpone giving birth but have no access to contraceptives.

Many organizations, such as the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), also support improving access to contraceptives.

This is the safest, most humane way to promote family planning around the world.

Changes in Policy

Many nations offer rewards, whether in the form of financial incentives or increased benefits, to those who have more children.

This helps to ensure that the country will have enough population to maintain GDP and wartime security. It also helps to offset the cost of caring for the elderly and maintaining retiree pensions.

However, when the benefits are too good it encourages women to have children for the sake of the financial benefits they will receive.

Family planning shouldn't be financially incentivized.

Education on Overpopulation

While a number of organizations exist to provide schools with curricula and teaching materials to cover the subject of global population, it is still a subject that is not covered in schools as well as it should be.

This education should extend beyond talking about sex and into the global consequences of overpopulation and family planning.

Dialog about the subject needs to be more open, with sites like debate.org offering useful resources that allow the issue to be confronted rationally.

The key is to discuss the issue without abandoning human dignity.

Overpopulation Effects

The effects of overpopulation look different depending on where you find it. In some areas there is no problem with overpopulation.

There are vast areas in the world where there are 0-50 people per square mile. The problem is that there also hasn't been a development of natural resources so people don't congregate there.

People flock to areas where there is access to water. This can be a river, spring, lake, ocean, or reservoir. If there is drinkable water, there is where you'll find heavy population density.

These areas have expanded due to our ability to drill deep wells for water.

In the developed world, overpopulated areas suffer from traffic congestion, air pollution, high crime, obesity, high rents, high housing prices, and expensive commodities.

Typically wages rise to meet the need and people stay because they enjoy the metro lifestyle and the convenience of shopping, schools, work, etc.

In the developing world, overpopulation has dire consequences.

People often don't have any shelter, they live on just a little water that's not always clean, they never have enough to eat, and work is hard to find.

Medical care can be nearly impossible to get. In some areas, people wait for hours or even days to be seen by a doctor.

In these areas, sexual education and access to contraceptives are seen as a lesser need than basic medical care because people suffer so deeply and lack basic things like clothing and shelter.

What is the Overpopulation Myth?

Many people, including the Population Research Institute, believe that the overpopulation theory put forth by Malthus is a myth based on bogus science.

They put forth the following tenets to disprove the overpopulation myth.

The earth has plenty of resources to support global population growth. The problem is distribution, not availability.

Forced abortions in nations like China and India are used to exterminate girls in favor of culturally valued boys.

Concentrations of abortion centers in areas that are majority black are used to control specifically the black population - the racist agenda of Planned Parenthood founder, Margaret Sanger.

The birth rate and death rate will naturally balance out when left alone.

Statistics show that we are currently living in the largest human population that ever will be.

A sharp decline in the human population is about to occur - the natural effect of abortion, contraceptives, and mortality in overpopulated areas.

Depopulation is a bigger risk than overpopulation - causing an economic catastrophe and cultural stagnation in countries with declining populations.

The overpopulation myth proponents seek to maintain individual human dignity and propose different solutions to natural resource depletion that don't involve harm to humanity.

Jordan Peterson worked on the UN Secretary General's Report on Sustainable Economic Development and argues that the world is heading toward a precipitous drop in the birth rate.

Final Thoughts

Education and medical care are the keys to helping women make the decisions they need to have the families they want when the time is right.

Overpopulation in any area taxes the natural resources and makes medical care, food, housing, and water harder to get than they should be.

The fact is that not every place on the planet can be developed to sustain large numbers of humans. That leads to overpopulation in areas where there are limited resources and many people.

What are your thoughts about global overpopulation? Let us know in the comments below!

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Causes of Overpopulation (and Effects on the Planet)

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There are almost Eight billion people on the planet and this number is growing rapidly. Issues like pollution, climate change, and water shortages all seem to take precedence, but population growth is one of the main contributors to many other environmental issues.

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1. The Decline in the Death Rate

2. Better Medical Facilities

3. More Hands to Overcome Poverty

4.Child Labor

5.  Technological Advancement in Fertility Treatment

6.  Immigration

7.  Lack of Family Planning

8.  Poor Contraceptives Use

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Overpopulation is an undesirable condition where the number of the existing human population exceeds the actual carrying capacity of Earth. Overpopulation is caused by a number of factors. Reduced mortality rate, better medical facilities, depletion of precious resources are few of the causes which result in overpopulation. It is possible for a sparsely populated area to become densely populated if it is not able to sustain life.

Growing advances in technology with each coming year has affected humanity in many ways. One of these has been the ability to save lives and create a better medical treatment for all. A direct result of this has been the increased lifespan and the growth of the population.

According to Wikipedia,

" Overpopulation occurs when a species' population exceeds the carrying capacity of its ecological niche. It can result from an increase in births (fertility rate), a decline in the mortality rate, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources. "

The human overpopulation issue is the topic I see as the most vital to solve if our children and grandchildren are to have a good quality of life.

~ Alexandra Paul

In the past fifty years or so, the growth of the population has boomed and has turned into overpopulation. In the history of our species, the birth and death rates have always been able to balance each other and maintain a population growth rate that is sustainable.

Since the time of the Bubonic Plague in the 1400s, the growth of the population has been on a constant increase. Between the time of the plague and the 21st century, there have been hundreds and thousands of wars, natural calamities, and man-made hazards.

However, none of these could make a dent on the population. Developing nations face the problem of overpopulation more than developed countries, but it affects most of the Earth as of now. When we are talking about overpopulation, we should first try to understand the underlying causes of it.

Various Causes of Overpopulation

1. The Decline in the Death Rate

At the root of overpopulation is the difference between the overall birth rate and death rate in populations. If the number of children born each year equals the number of adults that die, then the population will stabilize.

Talking about overpopulation shows that while there are many factors that can increase the death rate for short periods of time, the ones that increase the birth rate do so over a long period of time.

The discovery of agriculture by our ancestors was one factor that provided them with the ability to sustain their nutrition without hunting. This created the first imbalance between the two rates.

2. Agricultural Advancements

Technological revolutions and population explosions occur at the same time. There have been three major technological revolutions. They are the tool-making revolution, the agricultural revolution, and the industrial revolution.

Agricultural advancements in the 20th century have allowed humans to increase food production using fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and yields further. This allowed humans with more access to food that leads to subsequent population explosions.

3. Better Medical Facilities

Following this the industrial revolution started. Technological advancement was perhaps the biggest reason why the balance has been permanently disturbed.

Science was able to produce better means of producing food, which allowed families to feed more mouths. Besides, medical science made many discoveries, thanks to which they were able to defeat a whole range of diseases.

Illnesses that had claimed thousands of lives until now were cured because of the invention of vaccines. Combining the increase in food supply with fewer means of mortality tipped the balance and became the starting point of overpopulation.

4. More Hands to Overcome Poverty

However, when talking about overpopulation, we should understand that there is a psychological component as well. Poverty is considered as the leading cause of overpopulation. In the absence of educational resources, coupled with high death rates, which resulted in higher birth rates, that is why impoverished areas are seeing large booms in population.

For thousands of years, a very small part of the population had enough money to live in comfort. The rest faced poverty and would give birth to large families to make up for the high infant mortality rate.

Families that have been through poverty, natural disasters, or are simply in need of more hands to work are a major factor for overpopulation.

As compared to earlier times, most of these extra children survive and consume resources that are not sufficient in nature.

According to the UN, the forty-eight poorest countries in the world are also likely to be the biggest contributors to population growth. Their estimates say that the combined population of these countries is likely to increase to 1.7 billion in 2050, from 850 million in 2010.

5. Child Labor

It is no less than a tragedy that child labor is still in practice extensively in many parts of the world. As per the UNICEF, approximately 150 million children are currently working in countries having few child labor laws. The children being seen as a source of income by impoverished families begin work too young and also lose the educational opportunities reflected, particularly when it comes to birth control.

6. Technological Advancement in Fertility Treatment

With the latest technological advancement and more discoveries in medical science, it has become possible for couples who are unable to conceive to undergo fertility treatment methods and have their own babies.

Today there are effective medicines that can increase the chance of conception and lead to a rise in the birth rate. Moreover, due to modern techniques, pregnancies today are far safer.

7. Immigration

Many people prefer to move to developed countries like the US, UK, Canada, and Australia, where the best facilities are available in terms of medical, education, security, and employment. The result is that those people settle over there, eventually making those places overcrowded.

If the number of people who are leaving the country is less than the number of people who enter, it usually leads to more demand for food, clothes, energy, and homes.

This gives rise to a shortage of resources. Though the overall population remains the same, it just affects the density of the population, making that place simply overcrowded.

8. Lack of Family Planning

Most developing nations have a large number of people who are illiterate, live below the poverty line, and have little or no knowledge about family planning. Besides, getting their children married at an early age increases the chances of producing more kids.

Those people are unable to understand the harmful effects of overpopulation, and lack of quality education prompts them to avoid family planning measures.

9. Poor Contraceptives Use

Poor family planning on the part of partners can lead to unexpected pregnancies though contraceptives are easily available in developed countries.

As per statistics, 76% of women aged between 16 and 49 in Great Britain used at least one form of contraceptive, leaving a quarter open to unexpected pregnancies. Whereas a study by the World Health Organization (WHO) shows that this figure drops to 43% in underdeveloped countries, which leads to higher birth rates.

Fatal Effects of Overpopulation

1. Depletion of Natural Resources

The effects of overpopulation are quite severe. The first of these is the depletion of resources. The Earth can only produce a limited amount of water and food, which is falling short of the current needs.

Most of the environmental damage seen in the last fifty-odd years is because of the growing number of people on the planet. They include cutting down forests, hunting wildlife in a reckless manner, causing pollution, and creating a host of other problems.

Those engaged in talks about overpopulation have noticed that acts of violence and aggression outside of a war zone have increased tremendously while competing for resources.

2. Degradation of Environment

With the overuse of coal, oil, and natural gas, it has started producing some serious effects on our environment. Besides, the exponential rise in the number of vehicles and industries has badly affected the quality of air.

The rise in the amount of CO2 emissions leads to global warming. Melting of polar ice caps, changing climate patterns, rise in sea levels are a few of the consequences that we might have to face due to environmental pollution.

3. Conflicts and Wars

Overpopulation in developing countries puts a major strain on the resources it should be utilizing for development. Conflicts over water are becoming a source of tension between countries, which could result in wars. It causes more diseases to spread and makes them harder to control.

Starvation is a huge issue that the world is facing, and the mortality rate for children is being fuelled by it. Poverty is the biggest hallmark we see when talking about overpopulation.

All of this will only become worse if solutions are not sought out for the factors affecting our population. We can no longer prevent it, but there are ways to control it.

4. Rise in Unemployment

When a country becomes overpopulated, it gives rise to unemployment as there are fewer jobs to support a large number of people. The rise in unemployment gives rise to crime, such as theft, as people want to feed their families and provide them basic amenities of life.

5. High Cost of Living

As the difference between demand and supply continues to expand due to overpopulation, it raises the prices of various essential commodities, including food, shelter, and healthcare. This means that people have to pay more to survive and feed their families.

6. Pandemics and Epidemics

Poverty is linked to many environmental and social reasons, including overcrowded and unhygienic living conditions, malnutrition and inaccessible, inadequate, or non-existent health care, for which the poor are more likely to be exposed to infectious diseases. Further, high densities of population increase the chance of the emergence of new pandemics and epidemics.

7. Malnutrition, Starvation and Famine

When the availability of resources is scarce, starvation, malnutrition, along with ill health and diseases caused by diet-deficiency such as rickets become more likely.

Famine is typically associated with less-developed regions, and there is a high correlation with poverty levels.

8. Water Shortage

Roughly 1% of the world's water is fresh and accessible. Overpopulation is a major issue that creates immense pressure on the world's freshwater supplies.

As per the study, the human demand for freshwater would stand at approximately 70% of freshwater available on the planet by 2025. Therefore, people living in impoverished areas that already have limited access to such water will be at great risk.

9. Lower Life Expectancy

A large proportion of the world's population growth occurs in less developed countries. Therefore, lower life expectancy caused by the booms in population is experienced by less-developed nations.

This causes a shortage of resources in these countries resulting in less access to medical care, freshwater, food and jobs, and ultimately in a sharp fall in life expectancy.

10. Extinction

The impact of overpopulation on the world's wildlife is severe. As demand for land grows, the destruction of natural habitats, such as forests, becomes common.

Data has also been collected to show a direct link between increases in human population and decreases in the number of species on the planet. If present trends continue, as many as 50% of the world's wildlife species will be at risk of extinction, some scientists warn.

11. Increased Intensive Farming

With the growth of population over the years, farming practices have evolved to produce enough food required to feed a larger number of people. However, this intensive farming methods cause damage to local ecosystems and the land that may pose problems in the future.

Furthermore, intensive farming is also contributed to climate change due to the machinery required. If the population continues to grow at its current rate, this effect will likely intensify.

12. Faster Climate Change

Overpopulation forces larger nations, like China and India, to continue to develop their industrial capacities. They now rank as two of the three largest contributors to emissions in the world, other than the United States.

According to 97% of the scientific community, human activities are changing global temperatures. If more is not done to reduce individual carbon footprints on a wide scale, larger populations may speed these changes up.

Incredible Solutions To Overpopulation

1. Better Education

One of the first measures is to implement policies reflecting social change. Educating the masses helps them understand the need to have one or two children at the most.

Similarly, education plays a vital role in understanding the latest technologies that are making huge waves in the world of computing. Families that are facing a hard life and choose to have four or five children should be discouraged.

Family planning and efficient birth control can help in women making their own reproductive choices. Open dialogue on abortion and voluntary sterilization should be seen when talking about overpopulation.

2. Education for Girl Child

Currently, over 130 million young women and girls around the globe are not enrolled in school. The majority of these live in male-dominated societies, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia, that does not give women equal right to education as men.

Entrenched gender norms and child marriage further disrupt their access to education. The girl who receives less education is more likely to have children early and vulnerable to exploitation. Moreover, impoverished families are less likely to enroll their female children in school.

3. Making People Aware of Family Planning

As the population of this world is growing at a rapid pace, raising awareness among people regarding family planning and letting them know about serious after-effects of overpopulation can help curb population growth.

One of the best ways is to let them know about various safe sex techniques and contraceptive methods available to avoid any unwanted pregnancy.

4. Tax Benefits or Concessions

The government of various countries might have to come up with various policies related to tax exemptions to curb overpopulation.

One of them might be to waive a certain part of income tax or lowering rates of income tax for those married couples who have single or two children. As we humans are more inclined towards money, this may produce some positive results.

5. Knowledge of Sex Education

Imparting sex education to young kids at the elementary level should be a must. Most parents feel shy in discussing such things with their kids that results in their children going out and look out for such information on the internet or discuss it with their peers.

Mostly, the information is incomplete, which results in sexually active teenagers unaware of contraceptives and embarrassed to seek information about the same. It is, therefore, important for parents and teachers to shed their old inhibitions and make their kids or students aware of solid sex education.

6. Social Marketing

Social marketing has already been started by some societies to educate the public on overpopulation effects. The intervention can be made widespread at a low cost. A variety of print materials (flyers, brochures, fact sheets, stickers) can be distributed in places such as at local places of worship, sporting events, local food markets, schools and at car parks.

Infographic on Overpopulation
References: https://mahb.stanford.edu/blog/overpopulation-in-india/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12281798 https://www.dw.com/en/lets-talk-about-overpopulation/a-37481009 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/gallery/2015/apr/01/over-population-over-consumption-in-pictures

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Overpopulation: Causes, Effects and Solutions - Conserve Energy Future

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Overpopulation is an undesirable condition where the number of the existing human population exceeds the actual carrying capacity of Earth. Overpopulation is caused by a number of factors. Reduced mortality rate, better medical facilities, depletion of precious resources are few of the causes which result in overpopulation.

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Matias Bunster

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Air pollution had become a harsh consequence of industrial growth across the country and world. ... States began passing legislation to reduce air pollution. And in 1970, a milestone year, Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments which led to the establishment of the nation's air quality standards.

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On this page:

EPA's Air, Climate, and Energy Research is at the forefront of air pollution research to protect public health and the environment. The research is providing the scientific foundation for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, states and communities to make decisions to effectively reduce and control air pollution.

Then

In October 1948, Donora, Pa., was enveloped in a lethal haze.

Over five days, nearly half of the town's 14,000 residents experienced severe respiratory or cardiovascular problems. It was difficult to breathe. The death toll rose to nearly 40.

Disturbing photos show Donora's streets hidden under a thick blanket of gray smog. A warm air pocket had passed high above the town, trapping cooler air below and sealing in pollutants.

Donora was no stranger to pollution. Steel and zinc smelters had long plagued the town with dirty air. But the air pocket left pollutants with no escape route. They sat stewing in the streets, where residents breathed them in lethal doses.

The situation in Donora was extreme, but it reflected a trend. Air pollution had become a harsh consequence of industrial growth across the country and world.

Crises like Donora's were widely publicized; people took notice and began to act.

Scientists started investigating the link between air pollution and health. States began passing legislation to reduce air pollution. And in 1970, a milestone year, Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments which led to the establishment of the nation's air quality standards.

Now

Today, policymakers and air quality managers rely on cutting-edge science to establish regulations and make management decisions to reduce and control air pollution with cost-effective approaches.

EPA's Air, Climate, and Energy Research conducts a vast amount of this research, producing findings and developing technology vital to our understanding of air pollution. For the most common pollutants, the research is compiled and synthesized every five years by EPA scientists to assess the adequacy of air regulations.

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Abstract

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Keywords: air pollution, environment, health, public health, gas emission, policy

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6).

In developing countries ( 7), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8, 9). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10, 11). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3, 5). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14, 15). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557-601 μg/m ³) compared to the Southern States (183-214 μg/m ³) ( 16, 17). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1, 23). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO ₂, NO, NO ₂, SO ₃, etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34, 35).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution, releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38, 39).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48).

The Chikungunya virus "took the airplane" from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36, 51).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM ₁₀, and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM ₁₀) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5, pose a greater risk to health ( 6, 56) ().

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5, followed by PM ₁₀, are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM ₁₀ and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61) ().

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM ₁₀ and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5, due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the "haze" formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12, 13, 61).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O ₃) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47, 48) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67, 68). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69, 70) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO₂)

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79, 80). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO ₂ can impair the sense of smell ( 81).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO ₂ can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO ₂ is 0.03 ppm ( 82). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83).

Lead

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85, 86).

Children and newborns ( 87) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91, 93).

Dioxins

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O ₃ cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO ₂) ( 102, 103).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104) ().

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105, 107). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109). No level of lead exposure seems to be "safe," and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone, as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116) and crops ( 117). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO ₂ transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121).

Discussion

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a "silent public health emergency" and "the new tobacco" ( 122).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate "health" was China ( 3). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

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One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in ...

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Air pollution is attributed to 9% of deaths globally. ... Death rates from air pollution are highest in low-to-middle income countries, with more than 100-fold differences in rates across the world.

Globally, death rates from air pollution have been falling. This has mainly been the result of progress on tackling indoor pollution.

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Air pollution is one of the world's largest health and environmental problems. It develops in two contexts: indoor (household) air pollution and outdoor air pollution.

We look in detail at the data and research on the health impacts of Indoor Air Pollution, attributed deaths, and its causes across the world in our full entry: Indoor Air Pollution.

We look in detail at how exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution, its health impacts and attributed deaths across the world in our full entry: Outdoor Air Pollution.

In this entry we look at the aggregate picture of air pollution - both indoor and outdoor.

All our charts on Air Pollution

Related research entries
Outdoor air pollution - attributed to 3.4 million deaths each year, outdoor air pollution is one of the world's largest health problems. How do the health impacts of outdoor air pollution vary across the world?

Indoor air pollution - indoor air pollution is a major health problem, especially for poorer households across the world.

Energy access - how does access to electricity and clean cooking fuels compare across the world?

Fossil fuels - how is the production and consumption of fossil fuels changing?

Causes of death - what are people across the world dying from?

Air pollution - the combination of outdoor and indoor particulate matter, and ozone - is a risk factor for many of the leading causes of death including heart disease, stroke, lower respiratory infections, lung cancer, diabetes and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) in its Global Burden of Disease study provide estimates of the number of deaths attributed to the range of risk factors for disease.

In the visualization we see the number of deaths per year attributed to each risk factor. This chart is shown for the global total, but can be explored for any country or region using the "change country" toggle.

Air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for death. In low-income countries it tops the list. In 2017, it was responsible for an estimated 5 million deaths globally. That means it contributed to 9% - nearly 1-in-10 - deaths.

Globally, air pollution contributed to 9% of deaths in 2017.

In the map shown here we see the share of deaths attributed to air pollution across the world. In 2017, this ranged from a low of 2% across high-income countries, to close to 15% across many countries in South and East Asia.

Air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for death. But its impacts go even further, also being one of the main contributors to global disease burden.

Global disease burden takes into account not only years of life lost to early death, but also the number of years lived in poor health.

In the visualization we see risk factors ranked in order of DALYs - disability-adjusted life years - the metric used to assess disease burden. Again, air pollution is near the top of the list making it one of the leading risk factors for poor health across the world.

Air pollution not only takes years from peoples' lives, but also had large effect on quality while they're still living.

Air pollution is a health and environmental issue across all countries of the world, but with large differences in severity.

In the interactive map we show death rates from air pollution across the world, measured as the number of deaths per 100,000 people of a given country or region.

We see that the death rates tend to be highest across Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. This highlights the large differences globally: death rates in the highest burden countries are more than 100 times greater than across much of Europe and North America.

The burden of air pollution tends to be greater across both low and middle income countries for two reasons: indoor pollution rates tend to be high in low-income countries due to a reliance on solid fuels for cooking; and outdoor air pollution tends to increase as countries industrialize and shift from low-to-middle incomes.

A map of the number deaths from air pollution by country can be found here.

In the visualization we show global death rates from air pollution over time - shown as the total air pollution, in addition to the individual contributions from outdoor and indoor pollution.

Globally we see that in recent decades the death rates from total air pollution has declined: since 1990 the number of deaths per 100,000 people have nearly halved. But, as we see from the breakdown, this decline has been primarily driven by improvements in indoor air pollution.

Death rates from indoor air pollution have seen an impressive decline, whilst improvements in outdoor pollution have been much more modest.

You can explore this data for any country or region using the "change country" toggle on the interactive chart.

Data: National average PM2.5 and ozone (O3) concentrations, 1990-2015

Geographical coverage: Global - by country

Time span: 1990 onwards

Available at: https://www.stateofglobalair.org/data

Data: Age-standardized death rates, DALY rates, absolute number of deaths, and absolute DALY from PM2.5 exposure

Geographical coverage: Global - by country

Time span: 1990 onwards

Available at: https://www.stateofglobalair.org/data

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Air pollution is one of the world's largest health and environmental problems. It develops in two contexts: indoor (household) air pollution and outdoor air pollution. We look in detail at the data and research on the health impacts of Indoor Air Pollution, attributed deaths, and its causes across the world in our full entry: Indoor Air Pollution .

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Air pollution leads to environmental damage, but it can also harm the health of people. Some of the most common ailments in the world are diseases caused by air pollution. Air pollution can cause respiratory diseases, due to the pollutants people breathe in, yet it can also impact other areas of the body as well, like people's hearts. What are the most common diseases caused by air pollution? How can air pollution be reduced to protect people from these diseases?

Most Common Diseases Caused By Air Pollution

Diseases caused by air pollutants kill and hospitalize millions of people every year. Estimates by the World Health Organization imply that one out of every eight deaths in the world is due to conditions associated with air pollution. New research has established stronger links between both outdoor and indoor air pollution and the development of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The most common diseases caused by air pollution include ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer and acute lower respiratory infections in children.

"Ischemic heart disease, or coronary heart disease, is linked with the buildup of calcium or other materials like fat within the coronary artery," explains says Kevin Wood, Vice President Sales & Marketing at . "This leads to blockages which prevent blood from reaching the heart and other areas of the body. Recent research indicates that air pollution accelerates the blockage of arteries, leading to increased incidences of ischemic heart disease." (1)

Particulate air pollution has been linked with strokes, which occur when the blood supply to the brain is cut-off. Strokes can easily lead to brain damage or death.

COPD refers to not a single disease, but multiple diseases which make it difficult to breathe. These diseases include bronchitis and emphysema, and both conditions can be caused by damage to the lungs from air pollutants.

Lung cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells within the lungs, and it is associated with air pollutants, especially particulate matter pollution, and secondhand smoke.

Lower respiratory infections often manifest as pneumonia, though they can show up as other ailments as well. Children are especially vulnerable to developing acute lower respiratory tract infections because their bodies and lungs are still developing, and emissions of soot and other pollutants hit them harder than adults.

Air Pollutants That Cause Disease

The air pollutants that cause disease include what the EPA has categorized as "Criteria Air Pollutants." These are the air pollutants that are the most abundant in the atmosphere, and consequently, they do the most damage to human health. These air pollutants have been singled out by the EPA as needing special attention to keep their levels within acceptable limits. The criteria air pollutants include Lead, Ozone, Particulate Matter, Nitrogen Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Sulfur Dioxide.

Lead used to be ubiquitous in the air, but since the passing of the Clean Air Act levels of lead in the air have declined by 98%, at least in the U.S. Lead can damage the nervous system, kidneys, and brain.

Particulate matter pollution is one of the main sources of the various diseases associated with air pollution. Particulate matter refers to tiny particles, both liquids, and solids, which exist in the air. The particles are so small they can penetrate both the lungs and bloodstream and do considerable damage. Particulate matter can come from a variety of sources, but the combustion of fossil fuels is one of the primary contributors to particulate matter air pollution.

"Ozone is a beneficial chemical when it is located in the upper atmosphere, as it protects the Earth from the sun's ultraviolet radiation," says Wood. "When ozone is at ground level it is a toxic pollutant and one of the key ingredients of smog. Ozone is often formed by the interaction of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) with sunlight and heat." (2)

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are colorless gases released by the combustion of fossil fuels, or by industrial processes. Both chemicals can damage the lungs and airway, leading to the exacerbation of cardiovascular diseases in those with pre-existing conditions. Nitrogen dioxide is also thought to be one of the causes of asthma.

"Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless gas that comes from the incomplete burning of fossil fuels," says Wood. "Frequently released by cars and industrial facilities, carbon monoxide prevents people from getting oxygen, so it can lead to confusion, nausea and even death rather quickly." (3)

Risk Factors for Air Pollution Diseases

"Risk factors for air pollution diseases include lifestyle habits and geographical location. Both indoor and outdoor air pollutants harm people," explains Wood. "Exposure to indoor air pollutants often comes from using coal, wood, or biomass to cook food. According to WHO estimates, many of the 4.3 million deaths that occurred due to air pollution in 2012 were linked to cooking with dirty fuels." (4)

Outdoor air pollution levels are worse in areas of the world that are undergoing rapid industrialization. Industrializing nations often have fewer regulations on emissions. Massive population centers with unsustainable emissions policies are the highest risk areas to live.

Stopping Diseases Caused by Air Pollution

Stopping diseases caused by air pollution means implementing smart control strategies, such as instituting emissions standards and creating technology that will reduce emissions.

The EPA recommends source control as one of the best strategies to reduce air pollution. Source control involves stopping pollution at its source by doing things like improving the efficiency of industrial processes and using less polluting fuels.

"Employing technology that reduces emissions is another way to improve overall air quality," says Wood. "Scrubbers on smokestacks, filters, electrostatic precipitators, and mechanical collectors on tailpipes are all ways of limiting air pollution through technological innovation. Innovations in clean air technology can be combined with economic incentives, like emissions trading and emissions caps. This encourages companies to adopt clean energy technology." (5)

Implementing emissions limiting strategies will usually also benefit the economy, as the society will have to spend less money on healthcare costs associated with diseases caused by air pollution.

The diseases caused by air pollution lead to shorter lives and they make those lives unhappier and tougher in the meantime. For these reasons, we should do all we can to reduce air pollution and stop the diseases associated with them.

When geographic conditions dictate poor air quality because of the proximity of pollution produced by factories or other contributors, building owners can address building occupant concerns by ensuring quality, high-efficiency air filters are used in the HVAC systems. Air filters can handle particles down to sub-micron size and even ozone, the main culprit in areas of susceptible to periodic high smog levels.

provides high-quality filter solutions that will protect you from air pollutants and the diseases caused by air pollution. Be proactive about ensuring your health and contact Camfil USA distributor near you today.
SOURCES http://www.who.int/respiratory/copd/causes/en/ http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/ozone.aspx http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/carbon-monoxide.aspx http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/
https://www.epa.gov/air-quality-management-process/managing-air-quality-control-strategies-achieve-air-pollution

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Diseases Caused By Air Pollution - Risk Factors and Control Methods - Air Filters for Clean Air

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Air pollution leads to environmental damage, but it can also harm the health of people. Some of the most common ailments in the world are diseases caused by air pollution. Air pollution can cause respiratory diseases, due to the pollutants people breathe in, yet it can also impact other areas of the body as well, like people's hearts.

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1. Source https://pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F :
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2.Source http://www.centroideal.cl/eng/chile-to-have-its-first-system-for-monitoring-antarctic-ocean-acidification/ :

The feature of this test is direct because the readers understand the text directly without further explanation. The audience of this source is anyone who's interested in knowing about child having its first system for monitoring Antarctic ocean acidification. It's pour pieces it's to explain about chilena monitoring and its founding. It's context it's that Chile's award of the problem that it's causing so it's doing something for it. It's structure its formal and organized preparing the reader for the information

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Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or skeletons are negatively impacted by increasing CO2 levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For example, increasing ocean acidification has been shown to significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. In a recent paper, coral biologists reported that ocean acidification could compromise the successful fertilization, larval settlement and survivorship of Elkhorn coral, an endangered species. These research results suggest that ocean acidification could severely impact the ability of coral reefs to recover from disturbance. Other research indicates that, by the end of this century, coral reefs may erode faster than they can be rebuilt. This could compromise the long-term viability of these ecosystems and perhaps impact the estimated one million species that depend on coral reef habitat.

value: the value of this source is the negative impact of oa in the marine organims based on the CO2 and PH

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The Chemistry

When carbon dioxide (CO ₂) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. These chemical reactions are termed "ocean acidification" or "OA" for short. Calcium carbonate minerals are the building blocks for the skeletons and shells of many marine organisms. In areas where most life now congregates in the ocean, the seawater is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate minerals. This means there are abundant building blocks for calcifying organisms to build their skeletons and shells. However, continued ocean acidification is causing many parts of the ocean to become undersaturated with these minerals, which is likely to affect the ability of some organisms to produce and maintain their shells.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the pH of surface ocean waters has fallen by 0.1 pH units. Since the pH scale, like the Richter scale, is logarithmic, this change represents approximately a 30 percent increase in acidity (see our pH primer web page for more information). Future predictions indicate that the oceans will continue to absorb carbon dioxide, further increasing ocean acidity. Estimates of future carbon dioxide levels, based on business as usual emission scenarios, indicate that by the end of this century the surface waters of the ocean could have acidity levels nearly 150 percent higher, resulting in a pH that the oceans haven't experienced for more than 20 million years.

The Biological Impacts

Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees. Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO ₂ conditions in the ocean, as they require CO ₂ to live just like plants on land. On the other hand, studies have shown that lower environmental calcium carbonate saturation states can have a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton. Today, more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. Thus, both jobs and food security in the U.S. and around the world depend on the fish and shellfish in our oceans.

The pteropod, or "sea butterfly", is a tiny sea creature about the size of a small pea. Pteropods are eaten by organisms ranging in size from tiny krill to whales and are a food source for North Pacific juvenile salmon. The photos below show that a pteropod's shell dissolves over 45 day when placed in sea water with pH and carbonate levels projected for the year 2100. Photo credit: David Liittschwager/National Geographic Stock. Used with permission. All rights reserved. National Geographic Images.

In recent years, there have been near total failures of developing oysters in both aquaculture facilities and natural ecosystems on the West Coast. These larval oyster failures appear to be correlated with naturally occurring upwelling events that bring low pH waters undersaturated in aragonite as well as other water quality changes to nearshore environments. Lower pH values occur naturally on the West Coast during upwelling events, but a recent observations indicate that anthropogenic CO ₂ is contributing to seasonal undersaturation. Low pH may be a factor in the current oyster reproductive failure; however, more research is needed to disentangle potential acidification effects from other risk factors, such as episodic freshwater inflow, pathogen increases, or low dissolved oxygen. It is premature to conclude that acidification is responsible for the recent oyster failures, but acidification is a potential factor in the current crisis to this $100 million a year industry, prompting new collaborations and accelerated research on ocean acidification and potential biological impacts.

Photo: Freshly harvested oysters from Yaquina Bay, Oregon (Credit: NOAA)

Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or skeletons are negatively impacted by increasing CO ₂ levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For example, increasing ocean acidification has been shown to significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. In a recent paper, coral biologists reported that ocean acidification could compromise the successful fertilization, larval settlement and survivorship of Elkhorn coral, an endangered species. These research results suggest that ocean acidification could severely impact the ability of coral reefs to recover from disturbance. Other research indicates that, by the end of this century, coral reefs may erode faster than they can be rebuilt. This could compromise the long-term viability of these ecosystems and perhaps impact the estimated one million species that depend on coral reef habitat.

Ocean Acidification: An Emerging Global Problem

Ocean acidification is an emerging global problem. Over the last decade, there has been much focus in the ocean science community on studying the potential impacts of ocean acidification. Since sustained efforts to monitor ocean acidification worldwide are only beginning, it is currently impossible to predict exactly how ocean acidification impacts will cascade throughout the marine food chain and affect the overall structure of marine ecosystems. With the pace of ocean acidification accelerating, scientists, resource managers, and policymakers recognize the urgent need to strengthen the science as a basis for sound decision making and action.

See the links below to learn more about ocean acidification and the type of research our group is involved in.

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When carbon dioxide (CO 2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. These chemical reactions are termed "ocean acidification" or "OA" for short.

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In 2014, a study conducted by a team of researchers at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory sought to map the phenomenon of ocean acidification around the globe.
The results show that all the oceans of the planet are affected by the phenomenon. Geographically, it is particularly the equatorial zones and the oceans closer to the poles that are affected. The equatorial Pacific is largely affected but more significantly in its northern part, close to the Russian and North American coasts. Overall, the areas near the coast are strongly affected by ocean acidification.

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Ocean Acidification Definition

Ocean acidification is the gradual decline in the pH of the oceans. This acidification is the result of the pollution that's particularly, directly or indirectly, caused by human action. As the ocean becomes more and more acidic, oceanic ecosystems start getting affected.
In this way, we can say ocean acidification is a complex phenomenon with multiple consequences for the global ecosystem equilibrium. In fact, more and more scientists are worried about the acceleration of ocean acidification.

Ocean Acidification: What Is It? Explanations Of The Phenomenon

What Is The Ocean's pH?

Like all fluids, the oceans have a pH, i.e., a hydrogen potential. This pH is a way of measuring the activity of the hydrons in the fluid, i.e., the degree of acidity and basicity of the liquid. While a low the pH means a more acidic fluid, the higher the pH the more alkaline it is.
The average pH of the oceans is normally around 8.25: this is this level that allows for optimal development of marine life as we know it today. The problem is that for several decades, the pH of the oceans tends to decrease: it has now a pH of around 8.14.

Why Are Oceans Becoming More Acidic? The Causes Of Ocean Acidification

The causes of oceans' acidification are manifold. The three main ones are:

the ocean's excessive absorption of CO

the ocean's absorption of nitrogen compounds

the ocean's absorption of sulfur compounds

Ocean Acidification Due To CO2 Absorption

It is mainly the CO2 absorbed by the ocean that's responsible for the global acidification of the oceans. Indeed, since the industrial revolution, human societies have been releasing significant amounts of greenhouse gases, prominently CO2, in the atmosphere, causing, among other things global warming. But all this CO2 does not stay in the atmosphere: some of it is absorbed by plants and trees, but most of it is absorbed by the oceans (about a third).
CO2 gradually dissolves in the water and this produces (among other things) carbonic acidic which reduces the pH of the water. For 250 years the ocean has absorbed hundreds of millions of tons of CO2 globally, and all this CO2 surplus has greatly contributed to increase the oceans' level of acidity.

The Role Of Nitrogen Compounds In Ocean Acidification

Human activities and in particular agricultural activities contribute to the emission into the atmosphere of large quantities of nitrogen compounds, represented in particular by N ₂ O (nitrous oxide). When these nitrogenous compounds dissolve in the ocean, they also have acidifying properties and contribute to the global acidification of the oceans.
Compared to the acidification caused by the increase in CO2 emissions, that generated by the disruption of the nitrogen cycle is rather low, but it is starting to become a subject of concern, especially near shorelines where agricultural activities are important.

Understanding Ocean Acidification In Video

Acidification Of The Oceans: What Consequences?

Acidification is a serious ecological problem. Although a drop of 0.1 pH point may seem derisory in itself, such a change can have significant consequences on the ecosystem.

Consequences Of Ocean Acidification On Plankton

One of the major consequences of ocean acidification is that it affects the ability of ocean plankton to renew. Indeed, many species of plankton need a specific pH to grow. If the pH is too low (the ocean is too acidic) these species no longer manage to structure their calcareous skeletons and have trouble developing.
But plankton is at the base of the marine ecosystem. It serves as a foundation for the food chain, but most importantly, it contributes to the oxygenation of the oceans. And, by extension, plankton also contributes to the production of oxygen in the atmosphere.
In summary: the more acidic the ocean becomes, less plankton there is growing and less oxygen is produced for the oceanic and atmospheric equilibrium. Ultimately, if plankton populations collapse, this could affect the amount of oxygen in the air we breathe.

Consequences Of Ocean Acidification On Corals

In the same way, scientists believe that ocean acidification affects corals. Corals are animals with often calcareous structures, which are the basis of ecological environments very rich in biodiversity: the coral reefs. Like plankton, in an acidic environment, the coral finds it harder to develop its calcareous structures, making it more vulnerable.
It's believed that much of the world's coral degradation is attributable to ocean acidification. By disappearing, coral often takes away with it a whole ecosystem of fish, algae and endemic organisms that constitute an important chain of the marine world.

Consequences Of Ocean Acidification On Marine Biodiversity

Acidification of ocean waters also has diverse impacts on marine biodiversity. Fish, crustaceans, algae and marine organisms all react differently to the evolution of pH.
Scientists have shown that some fish experience changes in their behavior or metabolism when the pH decreases. Some stay more fragile, and others start having trouble finding their food and leave to other places, disturbing the local balance.
For now, it is difficult to assess all the effects of ocean acidification on marine life, but it is likely to have very significant long-term consequences.

Other Effects And Consequences Of Ocean Acidification

Ocean acidification may also have other consequences for marine ecosystems which are still hard to perfectly understand. From ocean circulation to crustacean mortality, toxicity or erosion, ocean acidification is a systemic ecological threat that is sometimes hard to quantify.

The Solutions To Reduce Ocean Acidification

The main way of fighting ocean acidification is to reduce CO2 emissions of human origin. If the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere decreases, the CO2 dissolved in the ocean will also decrease, which will slow down the acidification phenomenon.
As well, limiting nitrogen and sulfur emissions is also a way to reduce ocean acidification, although the impact of these releases is minimal compared to the impact of CO2.
The problem is that these measures involve redefining our economic system in depth. Indeed, to reduce global CO2 emissions, we must massively reduce our energy consumption, change our consumption patterns, and reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. It is, therefore, a real ecological transition project that needs to be implemented urgently.

Ocean acidification in the world

In 2014, a study conducted by a team of researchers at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory sought to map the phenomenon of ocean acidification around the globe.
The results show that all the oceans of the planet are affected by the phenomenon. Geographically, it is particularly the equatorial zones and the oceans closer to the poles that are affected. The equatorial Pacific is largely affected but more significantly in its northern part, close to the Russian and North American coasts. Overall, the areas near the coast are strongly affected by ocean acidification.
Image credits to acidification on Shutterstock and dead reef on Shutterstock

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Ocean Acidification Definition - What Are Its Consequences And Solutions?

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Ocean acidification is the gradual decline in the pH of the oceans. This acidification is the result of the pollution that's particularly, directly or indirectly, caused by human action. As the ocean becomes more and more acidic, oceanic ecosystems start getting affected.

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value: It's valuable because it's teaches about the oa around the world and how it's organized this organization.

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GOA-ON Data Portal

The GOA-ON data portal provides easy access to data and visualizations

Canada's Ocean Acidification Community of Practice

Please join us for the next edition of the GOA-ON Webinar Series. Dr. Kristina Barclay will present a talk about Canada's Ocean Acidification Community of Practice, an organization with the goal of sharing knowledge and improving linkages between OA knowledge creators and end-users across Canada. The webinar will take place on Wednesday, 21 April 2021 at 14:00 EDT (UTC -4). If you can't make the live event, the webinar will be recorded and archived on the GOA-ON YouTube Channel.
Register for the Webinar

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GOA-ON Data Portal The GOA-ON data portal provides easy access to data and visualizations Canada's Ocean Acidification Community of Practice Please join us for the next edition of the GOA-ON Webinar Series. Dr. Kristina Barclay will present a talk about Canada's Ocean Acidification Community of Practice, an organization with the goal of sharing knowledge and improving linkages between OA knowledge creators and end-users across Canada.

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Martin Bustos

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Air pollution in Santiago is a serious problem every winter, causing thousands of cases of breathing problems within the population. With more than 6 million people and almost two million vehicles, this large city receives rainfall only during winters. Depending on the frequency of storms, statistics show that every time it rains, air quality improves for a couple of days, followed by extreme levels of air pollution.

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Repositorio Académico - Universidad de Chile

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Repositorio Académico - Universidad de Chile

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Repositorio académico de la Universidad de Chile. Tesis, artículos y libros publicados en formato digital con distintos niveles de acceso

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Chile: deaths from air pollution 2000-2017. ... In 2017, the number of deaths due to air pollution exposure in the South American country was estimated at 5,670, up from 5,290 deaths in 2010.

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Learn more about how Statista can support your business.

IHME, & Health Effects Institute. (April 3, 2019). Number of deaths attributable to air pollution exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017 [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/

IHME, und Health Effects Institute. "Number of deaths attributable to air pollution exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017." Chart. April 3, 2019. Statista. Accessed April 08, 2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/

IHME, Health Effects Institute. (2019). Number of deaths attributable to air pollution exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017. Statista. Statista Inc.. Accessed: April 08, 2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/

IHME, and Health Effects Institute. "Number of Deaths Attributable to Air Pollution Exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017." Statista, Statista Inc., 3 Apr 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/

IHME & Health Effects Institute, Number of deaths attributable to air pollution exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017 Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/ (last visited April 08, 2021)

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Deaths due to air pollution in Chile 2017 | Statista

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Learn more about how Statista can support your business. IHME, & Health Effects Institute. (April 3, 2019). Number of deaths attributable to air pollution exposure in Chile between 2000 and 2017 [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/868777/number-deaths-air-pollution-chile/ IHME, und Health Effects Institute.

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"Ambient air pollution accounts for an estimated 4.2 million deaths per year due to stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, acute and chronic respiratory diseases. Around 91% of the world's population lives in places where air quality levels exceed WHO limits."

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Air pollution leads people to be exposed to fine particles in polluted air that penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing diseases including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and respiratory infections. Industry, transportation, coal power plants and household solid fuel usage are major contributors to air pollution. Air pollution continues to rise at an alarming rate, and affects economies and people's quality of life.

Air pollution threatens the health of people in many parts of the world. New estimates in 2018 reveal that 9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants. Both ambient (outdoor) and household (indoor) air pollution are responsible for about 7 million deaths globally per year; in the Western Pacific Region alone, around 2.2 million people die each year.

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Air pollution kills an estimated seven million people worldwide every year. WHO data shows that 9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants. WHO is working with countries to monitor air pollution and improve air quality.

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According to the Ministry of Environment, air pollution is partly caused by people who use moist, green firewood for heating. Along with car exhaust fumes and industrial pollution, this practice causes the toxic clouds hanging over Chile's cities

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Emergency measures included shutting down more than 900 businesses temporarily and banning about 40 percent of the capital's 1.7 million cars from roads.

Smog is nothing new in Chile, and it does not only haunt Santiago. Many cities are in narrow valleys that limit air. The situation is deteriorating however.

A few years back, a terrible fact became known. In 2011, 10 million people of a total population of 17 million were exposed to fine dust particulates way above the permitted limit. These tiny particles can travel through the respiratory tract into the lungs, causing coughing, sneezing and shortness of breath. Long-term exposure to such fine particulates is linked to higher rates of chronic bronchitis, reduced lung functions, increased risk of heart attacks and other diseases.

The official figures only confirmed a reality which is all too well known to many Chilean families. Winter after winter, they face the dilemma of needing both heating and air. Chile is one of the most southern countries on earth, which means the winters are cold. Some parts of the country are permanently cold.

According to the Ministry of Environment, air pollution is partly caused by people who use moist, green firewood for heating. Along with car exhaust fumes and industrial pollution, this practice causes the toxic clouds hanging over Chile's cities.

There is a social dimension to the issue. Houses tend to be poorly insulated, and people have no money to improve the buildings. Marcelo Mena, who is in charge of air quality at the Ministry of Environment, says that many inhabitants of Chile's icy south "heat with green firewood - which is not fit for burning and pollutes the air - because it is simply the cheapest."

Architect Óscar Carrillo agrees. He is a member of a civil-society organisation, the cooperative Manzana Verde in the Biobío region which specialises in sustainable construction and other issues. According to Carrillo, it is "very urgent" to improve heating systems short term. "Long-term, we need urban development which avoids building in areas where pollution accumulates." Re-forestation would also help to clean the air, he adds.

Deputy Minister Mena claims that 75 municipalities have been declared to be "saturated zones". That means that they surpass the limit of air pollution often and progressively. Plans for rigorous decontamination apply in these cases. However, six out of 10 Chileans live in the emergency areas. They are breathing poisonous air. The risks include reduced lung function, higher probability for contracting infections, cancer and early death.

Javier Cisterna Figueroa is a journalist and lives in Concepción, Chile.

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In Chile, air pollution is a major problem

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Emergency measures included shutting down more than 900 businesses temporarily and banning about 40 percent of the capital's 1.7 million cars from roads. Smog is nothing new in Chile, and it does not only haunt Santiago. Many cities are in narrow valleys that limit air. The situation is deteriorating however.

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Every year in Chile, air pollution costs the health sector at least $670 million and is the root cause of the 127,000 emergency health consultations and more than 4,000 premature deaths. ... “This way we can do our bit and contribute to clean the air of our city, which is one of the most polluted in the country.

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A programme launched in 2014 to replace 200,000 firewood-based heaters is improving air quality, the Government says

This post originally appeared in UN Environment's 'UNEP Stories'.

Using firewood to heat homes releases toxic fumes that adversely affect people's health. Chile is tackling this as part of a strategy to confront one of its biggest environmental challenges - air pollution.

Firewood produces as much as 94 per cent of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions in some Chilean cities, according to the Ministry of Environment. But lack of money is preventing many households from switching to cleaner energy sources or changing their 30-year-old heaters and stoves.

In winter, when there is little rain or no wind to wash way the smog, the air becomes unbearable in cities like Santiago, which is in a valley, where particulate matter gets trapped.

Every year in Chile, air pollution costs the health sector at least $670 million and is the root cause of the 127,000 emergency health consultations and more than 4,000 premature deaths.

To address this challenge, in 2014, the Government launched a programme in the centre-south region to replace 200,000 firewood heaters with more energy-efficient heaters such as new gas, paraffin or wood pellet-based heaters. This has resulted in a reduction in emissions and improved indoor air quality.

Toxic emissions from old firewood heaters can be double those of a pellet-based heater, and three times those of a paraffin-based heater, the Chilean Ministry of Environment estimates.

"The new heater improves our living conditions. Not only is it cheap, more importantly it contributes to reducing air pollution in our community, Coyhaique," said Ramón Soto Vidal, who received a paraffin heater.

"I think this is a really clean alternative, and is great for apartments... Firewood is impractical and it pollutes our air, which is worrisome," said Raquel Fuica, from Osorno, a city in the centre-south region of the country where fine particulate matter can be higher than Santiago's, mainly because of firewood.

Another beneficiary in Osorno, Verónica Nahuel, invited her neighbours who are still using solid fuels to apply for the heater replacement programme. "This way we can do our bit and contribute to clean the air of our city, which is one of the most polluted in the country."

The country has started to enjoy the results of these and other efforts.

"This year we have seen the effects and the benefits of atmospheric decontamination plans that we did not notice in previous years, due to drought and bad ventilation conditions," says Environment Minister Marcelo Mena.

Mena revealed that between 1 April and 29 June 2017 severe air pollution episodes in the main cities of the centre-south region were 45 per cent lower than in the same period of 2016.

Episodes occur when high concentrations of airborne particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) pose a risk to human health. Currently 10 million people are exposed to an average concentration of fine particles (particulate matter of 2.5 microns) above 10 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3), a level deemed unsafe by the World Health Organization.

"Severe episodes are down by almost half in a great part of Chile... A transformation towards a cleaner heating has begun, is irreversible and has allowed both the State and citizens to collaborate to clean the air in the cities," says the Minister.

The Government also subsidizes insulation in low and middle income households as part of a programme that attempts to annualy improve the housing conditions of 100,000 families. Insulation reduces the demand for heating by 30 percent, which means lower bills and emissions, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs estimates.

Local is global
Energy use in homes is one of Chile's main sources of short-lived climate pollutants, which the country has been trying to reduce as part of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition since 2012. This is an international voluntary alliance hosted by UN Environment, comprising governments, international organizations and businesses with the goal of reducing methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbon emissions.

"Local pollution [in cities and towns] today begins to have relevance at a global level in the context of climate change," says Mena. "If we are capable of tackling short-lived contaminants, we will reduce the sustained increase of planetary temperature and have a safe climatic future with a less than 1.5° C increase."

Chile has committed to reducing short-lived climate pollutants as part of its contribution to the Paris Agreement.

The Government has also managed to reduce pollution through taxation: a 2014 vehicle emissions tax saw emissions of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide drop by 30 per cent between 2015 and 2016; and tax relief was introduced for imports of less polluting vehicles that comply with 'Euro 6' standards, says Mena.

Chile has demonstrated a strong commitment to the Breathe Life Campaign, a joint initiative led by the World Health Organization, UN Environment and the Climate & Clean Air Coalition to mobilize cities and individuals to protect our and the planet's health from the effects of air pollution. Its main goal is to achieve the World Health Organization's air quality targets by 2030.

Santiago has been leading the way with its Santiago Respira campaign since 2014, which aims to decrease global emissions of particulate matter by 60 per cent.

Recently Chiguayante, Concepción, Hualqui and Talca joined hands with Santiago and are now part of the Breathe Life campaign.

Back to Top

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A programme launched in 2014 to replace 200,000 firewood-based heaters is improving air quality, the Government says This post originally appeared in UN Environment's 'UNEP Stories'. Using firewood to heat homes releases toxic fumes that adversely affect people's health. Chile is tackling this as part of a strategy to confront one of its biggest environmental challenges - air pollution.

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The studies carried out by these Chilean researchers are particularly relevant in an environmental context where predictions related to global change indicate that the oceans will continue to acidify, and the Southern Ocean is not exempt from increases in global level atmospheric C02
value: Its valueble because its explains what its happeing in chile by oa

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At South Bay on Doumer Island (Antarctica) a team of Chilean scientists installed a pH sensor, an oceanographic instrument to be used to study one of the most conspicuous effects of climate change at the White Continent.
Andrea Navarro, from Yelcho Station in Antarctica. A group of Chilean oceanographers achieved a new milestone in the national science effort: the installation of a monitoring system in Antarctica for the study of ocean acidification, a process that results in the lowering of pH in the oceans due to an increase in absorption of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) from the atmosphere.

This effort involved scientists from the Research Center Dynamics of High Latitude Marine Ecosystems (IDEAL) at the Austral University of Chile (UACh), as a part of the 55th Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ECA). The researchers submerged the latest-generation sensor at South Bay on Doumer Island, near the Antarctic Peninsula. The equipment, imported from the United States, was carried aboard the scientific vessel "Karpuj" belonging to the Chilean Antarctic Institute (INACH). The device was lowered into water 30 meters deep, together with other oceanographic instrumentation.

This sensor will supply data every three hours for the period of one year, which will allow researchers to better understand the coastal marine ecosystems of Antarctica. The high resolution recordings will help in characterizing the chemical variations of the waters and the associated biological and physical processes. At the same time, the information could be used for future analysis for proposals for an Antarctic marine protected area where Chile and Argentina are working.

The operation was carried out in South Bay since this coastal area is representative of Antarctica, having glacial influence as well as a high degree of marine productivity, characteristics considered ideal for the installation of a monitoring system.

The studies carried out by these Chilean researchers are particularly relevant in an environmental context where predictions related to global change indicate that the oceans will continue to acidify, and the Southern Ocean is not exempt from increases in global level atmospheric C02.

" Antarctica is one of the systems most susceptible to global warming and, therefore, it is essential to understand what is happening in the various zones. Reports about acidification of the oceans surrounding the White Continent are scarce, due to the logistical complexities involved in getting there," explained marine biologist Emilio Alarcón, who participated in the installation of this monitoring system.

"This acidification could have great implications for organisms that live in the water column and on the ocean floor. When the pH decreases and acidification accelerates, the water is more corrosive and therefore, those marine species that need to calcify in early and adult stages, such as some molluscs, may find it difficult to acquire calcium carbonate from the water," noted researcher Dr. José Luis Iriarte, leader of this study.
More sensors in Patagonia
The Chilean researchers will download the sensor data in February, 2020. Once analyzed, the results can be compared with those of similar studies conducted in the Arctic.

This group of scientists also installed two other similar monitoring systems in the Reloncaví fjord in the Lakes (Los Lagos) region of Chile, and at Whale Sound (Seno Ballena) in the Straits of Magellan. This will provide the researchers with a data gradient stretching southward from northern Patagonia, to determine a trend toward Antarctica

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Chile to have its first system for monitoring Antarctic ocean acidification | Centro IDEAL

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At South Bay on Doumer Island (Antarctica) a team of Chilean scientists installed a pH sensor, an oceanographic instrument to be used to study one of the most conspicuous effects of climate change at the White Continent. Andrea Navarro, from Yelcho Station in Antarctica.

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This event was organized by the Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, where CIICC presented the stand “Ocean Acidification: the other CO2 problem”, which shows experimentally the effects of ocean acidification on calcareous organisms.

value: Its a study organized by a univeristy to explain the problem that oa is.

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Publicado el septiembre 2, 2014 por Musels

Deja tu comentario

During June 2014 it was conducted "The Science Fair", an activity which was attended by whole the team of MUSELS researchers and collaborator.

This event was organized by the Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, where CIICC presented the stand "Ocean Acidification: the other CO2 problem", which shows experimentally the effects of ocean acidification on calcareous organisms.

Watch the full story here:
http://www.santotomas.cl/sede/detalleNoticia/santiago_ust/43213/centro

Gentileza Universidad Santo Tomás

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MUSELS SPONSOR AN OCEAN ACIDIFICATION STAND IN SANTIAGO DE CHILE

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Publicado el septiembre 2, 2014 por Musels Deja tu comentario During June 2014 it was conducted "The Science Fair", an activity which was attended by whole the team of MUSELS researchers and collaborator.

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What does ocean acidificacion affects Santiago and what does Sandiago do with it?

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measures implemented by the Chilean government to end or reduce ocean acidification:

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measures implemented by the Chilean government to end or reduce ocean acidification:

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Measure 1: Protect the seabed from
Chilean Exclusive Economic Zone in the face of threats
like underwater mining 15
Measure 2: Protect ecosystem services
coastal wetlands 22
Measure 3: Protect and manage sustainably
underwater forests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Measure 4: Create marine climate shelters
as nature-based solutions 33
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions in
ocean economy 38
Measure 5: Gradually reduce gas emissions
from Chilean maritime transport 39
Measure 6: Reduce the carbon footprint
in Chilean aquaculture 43
Measure 7: Encourage the use of marine energy
non-conventional renewable alternatives 47
Adaptation and generation of
capacities in the ocean 51
Measure 8: Improve the Change Adaptation Plan
Climate for Fisheries and Aquaculture with focus
in social and gender inequality and inequity,
and metrics for goal traceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Measure 9: Implement an Integrated System of
Observation of the Chilean Ocean (SIOOC)

value: this text its valueble because it indicates the implemented by the Chilean government to end or reduce ocean acidification

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Effects of ocean acidification on the socio-ecological system of the southern Chilean mussel farming: impacts on the market and challenges for future sustainability under hypothetical models

value: the value of this source is the efects of oa on the socioecological system in chile

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Effects of ocean acidification on the socio-ecological system of mitiliculture in southern Chile: Market impacts and challenges for future sustainability under hypothetical models

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The effects of global change are modifying the fundamental characteristics of the oceans, generating variations in different physical-chemical parameters (e.g. temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, among others). Greenhouse gas models indicate that an evident increase in the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and, consequently, in the partial pressure of CO2, is leading to a decrease in pH in seawater, a process known as Acidification of the...

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Acidification negatively impacts marine ecosystems and the services that the sea provides to society. National economies dependent on tourism and fishing will be directly affected. In the region, the economic impact of ocean acidification will be different in each country. Countries like Chile, Mexico and Peru have a high economic dependence on the fishing resource, especially the cultivation of mollusks; while Colombia, Costa Rica and Cuba have a greater dependence on tourism associated with coral reefs.

value: this source ist valueble because its indicates why acidification impacts negatively the marine ecosystems and the services that the sea provides to society.

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Organismos marinos como los corales y los moluscos están bajo amenaza por la acidificación de los mares.

PROBLEMA

La acidificación de los océanos está ocurriendo de manera acelerada como consecuencia del aumento de la emisión de dióxido de carbono, CO2, a la atmósfera, proveniente del uso de los combustibles fósiles. Esto afecta a algunos organismos marinos, como corales y moluscos, que son especialmente vulnerables a los cambios de la química del agua de mar. La energía que los organismos gastan para superar las condiciones de mayor acidez reduce la energía disponible para procesos fisiológicos como la reproducción y el crecimiento.

Los niveles de acidez no son iguales en todo el planeta y existe muy poca información disponible para América Latina y el Caribe por ser un tema de investigación reciente para la región que demanda la creación de nuevas capacidades humanas y tecnológicas.

La acidificación impacta negativamente los ecosistemas marinos y los servicios que el mar brinda a la sociedad. Economías nacionales dependientes del turismo y la pesca se verán directamente afectadas. En la región, el impacto económico de la acidificación de los océanos será distinto en cada país. Países como Chile, México y Perú tienen una alta dependencia económica del recurso pesquero, especialmente el cultivo de moluscos; mientras que Colombia, Costa Rica y Cuba tienen una mayor dependencia del turismo asociado a los arrecifes de coral.

Sin la información necesaria, no es posible identificar la evolución de la acidificación de los océanos, lo que implica un grave riesgo a la gran diversidad de especies y arrecifes coralinos que protegen las costas.

INFORMACIÓN PARA LA ACCIÓN

La red pretende brindar información para establecer los niveles actuales de acidificación de los océanos y analizar las tendencias a largo plazo y así fomentar políticas encaminadas a la reducción de las emisiones de CO2. Estas políticas son necesarias para evitar la pérdida de especies marinas de interés comercial y la desaparición de arrecifes de coral.

En el Pacífico Norte, esta información sobre el impacto de la acidificación en los organismos ha permitido modificar procesos productivos a gran escala.

Con dicha información, las autoridades tienen la base científica para elaborar políticas de reducción de emisiones de CO2 que deben incluir la transición a economías bajas en carbono y la sensibilización de la sociedad sobre comportamientos ambientalmente responsables, como promover el transporte sostenible. Se propone proteger, restaurar y extender ecosistemas que capturan CO2 a largo plazo, como los manglares, marismas y praderas marinas, conocidos como ecosistemas de "carbono azul".

Para ello, se deben desarrollar nuevas tecnologías, capacidades y metodologías que permitan llenar los vacíos de información actuales en la región. Una de las formas es mediante el monitoreo de la acidificación y el estudio de sus efectos sobre algunos organismos marinos.

La red permite ayudar a cumplir el Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible 14 de las Naciones Unidas, Vida Submarina, para minimizar y abordar los efectos de la acidificación de los océanos y fomentar la cooperación científica, aumentar los conocimientos y transferir tecnología marina.

LA CIENCIA

Las técnicas nucleares e isotópicas son instrumentos eficaces para estudiar la acidificación de los océanos y han contribuido en gran medida a entender los efectos de este problema, por ejemplo en el estudio de procesos biológicos como la calcificación.

Los corales permiten reconstruir las condiciones ambientales del pasado. Sus bandas de crecimiento anual son reveladas mediante técnicas de rayos X. Los científicos de la red utilizan la técnica de espectrometría de masas para medir el isótopo boro-11, el cual permite determinar la acidez del agua en el pasado, y el uranio/torio para determinar la edad de corales fósiles.

La red cuenta con científicos capacitados en estas técnicas para medir de forma precisa la acidificación de los océanos.

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Organismos marinos como los corales y los moluscos están bajo amenaza por la acidificación de los mares. PROBLEMA La acidificación de los océanos está ocurriendo de manera acelerada como consecuencia del aumento de la emisión de dióxido de carbono, CO2, a la atmósfera, proveniente del uso de los combustibles fósiles.

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A group of Chilean oceanographers achieved a milestone for national science: they installed a monitoring system in Antarctica that will allow them to study ocean acidification, a process that occurs when the pH of the seas decreases, due to greater ocean absorption of the atmosphier.

value: its valueble bc it explains what its Chile doing with oa

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Credit: Ethan Daniels/Shutterstock

Images beamed back from space are helping scientists monitor how vulnerable the world's oceans are to human pressures. As the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, it gets absorbed into the oceans, making them more acidic.

Ocean acidification is a serious but often overlooked concern facing the world's oceans and the shellfish, corals and other creatures that reside in them, say the researchers.

The international team of scientists published some of their early findings and images in the journal Environmental Science and Technology today.

Acidifying oceans

A quarter of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere dissolves into our seas. This changes the seawater chemistry, making it more acidic. This is known as ocean acidification.

Since the start of the industrial era, the pH of ocean surface water has dropped by 0.1, equivalent to a 26 per cent increase in acidity.

But acidification isn't happening at the same pace everywhere, some places are acidifying faster than others. Observing the earth from space using satellites can help identify which regions on Earth are most at risk from ocean acidification.

Microwave sensors on the satellite measure the salt content - or salinity - of the water. The scientists use salinity, alongside other sea surface measurements, as a proxy for something known as the total alkalinity. This is a measure of the ocean's ability to neutralise acid.

Changes in total alkalinity can't directly be used to monitor ocean acidification but they can help identify areas that will acidify most for a given increase in carbon dioxide. All other things being equal, the lower the alkalinity, the more the water will acidify for a given amount of carbon dioxide.

The team is made up of scientists from the University of Exeter, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Ifremer , the European Space Agency ( ESA) and international collaborators.

Acidifying hotspots

Coral skeletons are made from a form of calcium carbonate, which can't grow when water acidity exceeds a certain level. At least two thirds of reefs in the Greater Caribbean Region are threatened by human impacts, including ocean acidification, the paper notes.

Dr Peter Land, an expert in satellite earth observation at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory and lead author on the new paper, tells Carbon Brief:

Ocean acidification is expected to have a direct effect on calcifying organisms such as corals, making it harder for them to grow, with knock-on effects on organisms that depend on them ... As with temperature, each organism has its own preferred range of pH, just like plants in a garden. When the whole ocean becomes more acidic, this can leave some organisms with nowhere to hide.

The polar oceans in the Arctic and Antarctic are particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. The Bay of Bengal is another major focus of research, partly because of unique sea water water characteristics and partly because of poor data coverage using traditional methods.

A global approach

Traditionally, scientists monitor ocean acidification using instruments deployed from research ships at sea. But information gathered this way is limited by where ships travel to.

Dr Jamie Shutler from the University of Exeter, who heads the research team, says:

It can be both difficult and expensive to take year-round direct measurements in such inaccessible locations. We are pioneering this data fusion approach so that we can observe large areas of Earth's oceans, allowing us to quickly and easily identify those areas most at risk from the increasing acidification.

Scientists have also put sensors on a network of free-floating buoys, known as ARGO floats. But these don't yet have global coverage.

The benefit of the satellite circling Earth 700 kilometres above our heads is that it gathers information from remote regions that are hard to reach on the ground, such as the Arctic.

Satellites are also a very efficient way to monitor Earth's surface, as they take a snapshot of the whole planet every few days.

Satellite futures

Satellites have been making reliable measurements of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, for a couple of decades now. But they have only been capable of measuring sea surface salinity since 2009.

The ESA Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and Nasa's Aquarius satellites measure salinity, but these are nearing the end of their lifetimes, the paper notes. The new research is the first to build a global map representative of ocean acidification from a complete set of satellite sea surface salinity data.

At the moment, Nasa's Ocean Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2), launched in December 2014, is designed to monitor atmospheric carbon dioxide. But ocean acidification is likely to be a focus of future work, say the scientists.

Main image: A field of staghorn corals provides a thicket of branches for small reef fishes to hide in.

Updated 18th Feb 09:15 to clarify the relationship between total alkalinity and a region's vulnerability to ocean acidifcation. Many thanks for the comments leading to this correction. Updated 17th Feb 2015 15:00 to explain how carbon dioxide dissolving in the oceans relates to total alkalinity. Originally, the piece implied carbon dioxide has a direct effect on alkalinity. In fact, it has an indirect effect through changing the carbonate chemistry of seawater. This has been clarified with a couple of extra sentences.

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New satellite reveals places on Earth most at risk from ocean acidification | Carbon Brief

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Credit: Ethan Daniels/Shutterstock Images beamed back from space are helping scientists monitor how vulnerable the world's oceans are to human pressures. As the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, it gets absorbed into the oceans, making them more acidic.

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Ocean acidification has been shown to affect organisms and ecosystems, impacting ecosystem services such as food security, by endangering fisheries and aquaculture. It also impacts coastal protection (for example by weakening coral reefs shielding the coastline), transportation and tourism. The ocean’s capacity to store carbon dioxide and help regulate the climate will be affected, as the capacity of the ocean to absorb CO₂ decreases as ocean acidification increases. Regular observations and measurements of ocean acidification in open oceans and coastal areas are necessary to improve our understanding of the effects, enable modelling and predictions and help inform mitigation and adaptation strategies.

value: This sources is valuable because it's explains and give examples of why the oa has an negative impact in the ecosystem.

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The ocean absorbs around 30% of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) released to the atmosphere as a result of human activities. As CO ₂ dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, decreasing the ocean's pH. This is called ocean acidification. The acidity of the ocean has increased by 26% since the beginning of the industrial era.

GBP, IOC, SCOR (2013). Ocean Acidification Summary for Policymakers - Third Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO Click on the image for a high resolution version
Pre-industrial pH levels and predicted pH levels for 2100.
₂ World.
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Sweden

Ocean acidification is also changing other aspects of seawater carbonate chemistry. The saturation of calcium carbonate minerals, such as calcite and aragonite, is lowered, reducing the availability of these minerals. Organisms using calcium carbonates as the main building blocks of their shells and skeletal structures, such as mussels, crustaceans and corals, are struggling or unable to form and maintain the shells and carapaces they need.

Adapted from: Dore Click on the image for a high resolution version
Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and ocean pH values. Atmospheric CO₂, shown in red, is measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Seawater pCO₂ (green) and pH values (blue) are from the ocean to the north of Hawaii (Station Aloha). As CO₂ accumulates in the ocean, the water becomes more acidic (the pH declines).
et al. 2009. PNAS 106:12235-12240.

Ocean acidification has been shown to affect organisms and ecosystems, impacting ecosystem services such as food security, by endangering fisheries and aquaculture. It also impacts coastal protection (for example by weakening coral reefs shielding the coastline), transportation and tourism. The ocean's capacity to store carbon dioxide and help regulate the climate will be affected, as the capacity of the ocean to absorb CO ₂ decreases as ocean acidification increases. Regular observations and measurements of ocean acidification in open oceans and coastal areas are necessary to improve our understanding of the effects, enable modelling and predictions and help inform mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Under the United Nations' 2030 Agenda, the IOC-UNESCO is the custodian agency for the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target Indicator 14.3.1, calling for the "average marine acidity (pH) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations". The methodology provides detailed guidance to scientists and countries about how to carry out measurements following the best practices established by experts in the ocean acidification community and explains how to report the collected information.

IOC-UNESCO OCEAN ACIDIFICATION PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS

UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and its Ocean Science Section are involved in the coordination of several programmes to monitor and study ocean acidification and its effects.

The IOC is part of the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network (GOA-ON). The network aims to improve understanding and measurements of global ocean acidification and its effects by coordinating regional and national research efforts, improving data quality and comparability by organising targeted workshops and providing data visualisation tools.

The IOC and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) sponsor the International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP), an ocean carbon monitoring and research programme. The IOCCP promotes the development of a global network of ocean carbon and biogeochemistry observations, coordinates the development of globally acceptable strategies and provides technical coordination by developing operating methodologies, practices and standards for the carbon research community.

The IOC Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific, IOC WESTPAC, is located in one of the most productive oceanic regions, home to more than 600 coral species and around 53% of the world's coral reefs. As these organisms are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification, IOC WESTPAC aims to establish regional research and monitoring networks on ocean acidification in the Western Pacific and its adjacent regions and to develop a regional program to monitor the impacts of ocean acidification on coral reef ecosystems. IOC WESTPAC has hosted and organised several workshops on ocean acidification research and monitoring, strengthening awareness and scientific capacities in the region.

RELATED IOC ACTIVITIES

FACTS ABOUT OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

As the acidity of the ocean increases, its capacity to absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere decreases. This decreases the ocean's role in moderating climate change.

The biological impacts of ocean acidification will vary, because different groups of marine organisms have a wide range of sensitivities to changing seawater chemistry.

Since the industrial revolution, the surface ocean's pH has dropped by 0.1 pH units and is projected to drop 0.3-0.4 units (equivalent to a 100-150% increase in acidity) by the end of the 21st century. Note that pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, meaning that a change of one unit represents a tenfold change in acidity.

50% of marine life is expected to be affected by ocean acidification, with the consequences propagating through the food web, impacting most aspects of ocean related services.

Contact

Kirsten Isensee ( k.isensee@unesco.org)
Programme Specialist - Ocean Carbon Sources and Sinks

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The ocean absorbs around 30% of carbon dioxide (CO 2) released to the atmosphere as a result of human activities. As CO 2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, decreasing the ocean's pH. This is called ocean acidification. The acidity of the ocean has increased by 26% since the beginning of the industrial era.

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Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve. ... The impacts of ocean acidification are not uniform across all species

Value of the source: This text it's valuable because it explains the effect on the organism.

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What is ocean acidification?

Human activities release CO ₂ into the atmosphere, which leads to atmospheric warming and climate change, as explained in Causes of climate change. Around a third to a half of the CO ₂ released by human activities is absorbed into the oceans. While this helps to reduce the rate of atmospheric warming and climate change, it also has a direct, chemical effect on seawater, which we call ocean acidification (Figure 1).

Box 1: What is pH?

Ocean acidification is often expressed in terms of the pH of seawater. pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. A pH below 7 is considered acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is considered alkaline, or basic.

Average ocean water pH is currently 8.1. The pH scale is logarithmic, so a one point change on the scale means a tenfold change in concentration.

What are the observed changes?

Since around 1850, the oceans have absorbed between a third and a half of the CO ₂ emitted to the atmosphere. As a result, the average pH of ocean surface waters has fallen by about 0.1 units, from 8.2 to 8.1 (Figure 2). This corresponds to a 26 % increase in ocean acidity, a rate of change roughly 10 times faster than any time in the last 55 million years.

What can we expect in the future?

The degree of future ocean acidification will be very closely linked to future increases in atmospheric CO 2 (Figure 3). If greenhouse gas emissions continue as they are doing at present (the RCP8.5 trajectory, see Causes of climate change), seawater could increase its acidity by 0.4 units (see Box 1) by the end of the century.

The acidification of the oceans will not be uniform worldwide. Polar seas, and upwelling regions, often found along the west coasts of continents, are expected to acidify faster than temperate or tropical regions. The pH will vary significantly depending on the ecosystem. In some parts of the Arctic the water is acidic enough to corrode some types of shells and in California occasional corrosive events have already occurred. Most surface waters will be continually corrosive within decades.

What are the effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms and ecosystems?

Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve.

The present-day pH of seawater is highly variable, and a single organism can cope with fluctuations of different pH levels during its lifetime. The problem with ocean acidification is the sustained nature of the change, as the risk comes from the lifetime exposure to lower pH levels. The rapid pace of acidification will influence the extent to which calcifying organisms will be able to adapt.

The impacts of ocean acidification are not uniform across all species. Some algae and seagrass may benefit from higher CO 2 concentrations in the ocean, as they may increase their photosynthetic and growth rates. However, a more acidic environment will harm other marine species such as molluscs, corals and some varieties of plankton (Figure 4). The shells and skeletons of these animals may become less dense or strong. In the case of coral reefs this may make them more vulnerable to storm damage and slow the recovery rate.

Marine organisms could also experience changes in growth, development, abundance, and survival in response to ocean acidification (Figure 5). Most species seem to be more vulnerable in their early life stages. Juvenile fish for example, may have trouble locating suitable habitat to live.

Despite the different responses within and between marine groups, positive or negative, research suggests that ocean acidification will be a driver for substantial changes in ocean ecosystems this century. These changes may be made worse by the combined effect with other emerging climate-related hazards, such as the decrease of ocean oxygen levels - a condition known as ocean deoxygenation -that is already affecting marine life in some regions (Long et al. 2016).

What are the effects on human societies?

Changes in marine ecosystems will have consequences for human societies, which depend on the goods and services these ecosystems provide. The implications for society could include substantial revenue declines, loss of employment and livelihoods, and other indirect economic costs.

Socioeconomic impacts associated with the decline of the following ecosystem services are expected:

Food: Ocean acidification has the potential to affect food security. Commercially and ecologically important marine species will be impacted, although they may respond in different ways. Molluscs such as oysters and mussels are among the most sensitive groups. By 2100, the global annual costs of mollusc loss from ocean acidification could be over US$100 billion for a business-as-usual (RCP8.5) CO₂ emissions pathway.

Coastal protection: Marine ecosystems such as coral reefs protect shorelines from the destructive action of storm surges and cyclones, sheltering the only habitable land for several island nations. This protective function of reefs prevents loss of life, property damage, and erosion, and has been valued at US$9 billion per year.

Tourism: This industry could be severely affected by the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems (e.g. coral reefs). In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park attracts about 1.9 million visits each year and generates more than A$5.4 billion to the Australian economy.

Carbon storage and climate regulation: The capacity of the ocean to absorb CO₂ decreases as ocean acidification increases. More acidic oceans are less effective in moderating climate change.

What can coastal decision makers do?

While reducing global greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) is the ultimate solution to ocean acidification, undertaking some challenging decisions and actions can help us prepare for the adverse effects of ocean acidification. This is the adaptation approach.

At the local level, the following policy and management options can help to minimise the adverse effects of other local stressors and, as a result, help marine ecosystems to cope better with changing environmental conditions.

Improvements in water quality: Monitoring and regulating localised sources of acidification from runoff and pollutants such as fertilisers.

Development of sustainable fisheries management practices: Regulating catches to reduce overfishing and creating long-term bycatch[1] reduction plans.

Implementation of new technologies: Different techniques can be applied depending on the industry. For example, in the aquaculture industry, new forecasting systems have been developed to account for seasonal upwellings that bring low pH seawaters to the ocean surface and cause massive shellfish die-offs.

Sustainable management of habitats: Increasing coastal protection, reducing sediment loading and applying marine spatial planning.

Establishment and maintenance of Marine Protected Areas: Protecting highly vulnerable and endangered marine ecosystems.

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What is ocean acidification? Human activities release CO 2 into the atmosphere, which leads to atmospheric warming and climate change, as explained in Causes of climate change . Around a third to a half of the CO 2 released by human activities is absorbed into the oceans.

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The polar oceans in the Arctic and Antarctic are particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. The Bay of Bengal is another major focus of research, partly because of unique seawater characteristics and partly because of poor data coverage using traditional methods.

value: its valuebale bc it teaches about the polar ocean sennsitivity to ca

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Credit: Ethan Daniels/Shutterstock

Images beamed back from space are helping scientists monitor how vulnerable the world's oceans are to human pressures. As the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, it gets absorbed into the oceans, making them more acidic.

Ocean acidification is a serious but often overlooked concern facing the world's oceans and the shellfish, corals and other creatures that reside in them, say the researchers.

The international team of scientists published some of their early findings and images in the journal Environmental Science and Technology today.

Acidifying oceans

A quarter of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere dissolves into our seas. This changes the seawater chemistry, making it more acidic. This is known as ocean acidification.

Since the start of the industrial era, the pH of ocean surface water has dropped by 0.1, equivalent to a 26 per cent increase in acidity.

But acidification isn't happening at the same pace everywhere, some places are acidifying faster than others. Observing the earth from space using satellites can help identify which regions on Earth are most at risk from ocean acidification.

Microwave sensors on the satellite measure the salt content - or salinity - of the water. The scientists use salinity, alongside other sea surface measurements, as a proxy for something known as the total alkalinity. This is a measure of the ocean's ability to neutralise acid.

Changes in total alkalinity can't directly be used to monitor ocean acidification but they can help identify areas that will acidify most for a given increase in carbon dioxide. All other things being equal, the lower the alkalinity, the more the water will acidify for a given amount of carbon dioxide.

The team is made up of scientists from the University of Exeter, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Ifremer , the European Space Agency ( ESA) and international collaborators.

Acidifying hotspots

Coral skeletons are made from a form of calcium carbonate, which can't grow when water acidity exceeds a certain level. At least two thirds of reefs in the Greater Caribbean Region are threatened by human impacts, including ocean acidification, the paper notes.

Dr Peter Land, an expert in satellite earth observation at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory and lead author on the new paper, tells Carbon Brief:

Ocean acidification is expected to have a direct effect on calcifying organisms such as corals, making it harder for them to grow, with knock-on effects on organisms that depend on them ... As with temperature, each organism has its own preferred range of pH, just like plants in a garden. When the whole ocean becomes more acidic, this can leave some organisms with nowhere to hide.

The polar oceans in the Arctic and Antarctic are particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. The Bay of Bengal is another major focus of research, partly because of unique sea water water characteristics and partly because of poor data coverage using traditional methods.

A global approach

Traditionally, scientists monitor ocean acidification using instruments deployed from research ships at sea. But information gathered this way is limited by where ships travel to.

Dr Jamie Shutler from the University of Exeter, who heads the research team, says:

It can be both difficult and expensive to take year-round direct measurements in such inaccessible locations. We are pioneering this data fusion approach so that we can observe large areas of Earth's oceans, allowing us to quickly and easily identify those areas most at risk from the increasing acidification.

Scientists have also put sensors on a network of free-floating buoys, known as ARGO floats. But these don't yet have global coverage.

The benefit of the satellite circling Earth 700 kilometres above our heads is that it gathers information from remote regions that are hard to reach on the ground, such as the Arctic.

Satellites are also a very efficient way to monitor Earth's surface, as they take a snapshot of the whole planet every few days.

Satellite futures

Satellites have been making reliable measurements of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, for a couple of decades now. But they have only been capable of measuring sea surface salinity since 2009.

The ESA Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and Nasa's Aquarius satellites measure salinity, but these are nearing the end of their lifetimes, the paper notes. The new research is the first to build a global map representative of ocean acidification from a complete set of satellite sea surface salinity data.

At the moment, Nasa's Ocean Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2), launched in December 2014, is designed to monitor atmospheric carbon dioxide. But ocean acidification is likely to be a focus of future work, say the scientists.

Main image: A field of staghorn corals provides a thicket of branches for small reef fishes to hide in.

Updated 18th Feb 09:15 to clarify the relationship between total alkalinity and a region's vulnerability to ocean acidifcation. Many thanks for the comments leading to this correction. Updated 17th Feb 2015 15:00 to explain how carbon dioxide dissolving in the oceans relates to total alkalinity. Originally, the piece implied carbon dioxide has a direct effect on alkalinity. In fact, it has an indirect effect through changing the carbonate chemistry of seawater. This has been clarified with a couple of extra sentences.

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New satellite reveals places on Earth most at risk from ocean acidification | Carbon Brief

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Credit: Ethan Daniels/Shutterstock Images beamed back from space are helping scientists monitor how vulnerable the world's oceans are to human pressures. As the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rises, it gets absorbed into the oceans, making them more acidic.

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Ocean acidification impacts important sectors of the US economy, like fisheries and tourism, it affects food supply and makes global warming worse by hindering the oceans' ability to absorb CO2. For communities that depend on coastal resources, their way of life and cultural identity is on the line.

value: This source is valuable because it shows how it affects the economy

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CO2 and Ocean Acidification: Causes, Impacts, Solutions

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Rising CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere are changing the chemistry of the ocean, and putting marine life in danger.

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What is Chile doing with ocena acidification? (Chile has a lot of sea coast)

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How does ocean acidification affects the world (in terms of humans and enviorments)?

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important acpects to undestand ocean acidification: 

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important acpects to undestand ocean acidification: 

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(Emilia Gonzalez 9E)
How does the humans effect the enviorment based on ocean acidification?

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Higiene y Salud

Septiembre / 2002

EL AGUA POTABLE EN EL CONDOMINIO
Por:
Ingeniero en Gestión Ambiental

La salubridad relaciona todos los factores y aspectos que conciernen al mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de la población y al cuidado de la salud colectiva. Busca adaptar al ambiente físico que rodea al hombre en las condiciones que le permitan vivir sano a través de la aplicación de los principios y normas sanitarias.

Con relación a la terminología de salud, es interesante transcribir la definición de la Organización Mundial de la Salud.

a) Salud: Es un estado de completo bienestar físico, mental y social, no solamente la ausencia de enfermedades.
b) Salubridad: Es la ciencia y arte de organizar y dirigir los esfuerzos colectivos para proteger, fomentar y reparar la salud.
c) Higiene: Es el conjunto de normas de vida que aseguran al individuo el ejercicio pleno de todas sus funciones
d) Saneamiento: Es la rama de la salubridad destinada a eliminar los riesgos del ambiente natural, sobretodo resultante de la vida común, y crear y promover en él las condiciones óptimas para la salud.

Cabe destacar el hecho que esta última definición, caracterizada por lo conceptual, no sólo pretende, a través del saneamiento, eliminar los riesgos del ambiente para evitar la transmisión de enfermedades, sino lograr el completo bienestar de las comunidades. Para anular estos riesgos o reducirlos a límites compatibles con la civilización y estándares actuales, se precisa disponer de principios, técnicas, normas y métodos que se apliquen al medio, con un claro concepto integral de la Gestión Ambiental.

La respuesta dependerá directamente del grado de educación y entendimiento de la comunidad respecto del origen y consecuencias de los problemas de saneamiento que se pueden producir.

En una Metrópolis como la nuestra, en la cual están mezcladas un sinnúmero de condiciones y realidades, se complica la aplicación cabal del saneamiento debido a la cantidad de factores humanos, ambientales o técnicos que intervienen directa o indirectamente en su solución.

Los Estanques de Agua

A diferencia de otros lugares, la calidad del agua en nuestra ciudad es excelente en cuanto a sus características físicas, químicas y bacteriológicas.

El problema radica principalmente en los edificios que almacenan agua en estanques. Aquí la calidad del agua se ve alterada por la gran cantidad de materia orgánica que puede entrar por las rupturas de las cañerías y por fallas en la mantención de los estanques de almacenamiento.

Según las normas sanitarias, el cloro que debe llegar a los estanques de agua debe ser de 0,3 a 0,5 ppm. Si esta cantidad disminuye, puede que no sea suficiente para eliminar algas, hongos y materia orgánica en general, por lo cual el agua comienza a contaminarse.

Se entiende por desinfección aquel método que permite la destrucción de los agentes capaces de producir infecciones y enfermedades al ser humano, mediante la aplicación directa de medios químicos o físicos, aunque existen formas microbianas, como las esporas, que no son afectadas por los métodos corrientes de desinfección.

Después de largos años de experiencias y estudios, se ha concluido que hoy en día, existen desinfectantes que destruyen la flora bacteriana que se encuentra en el agua y en los estanques, especialmente las de origen entérico (enfermedades gastrointestinales). Una de las principales razones que se pueden citar para aconsejar la aplicación de desinfectantes, son: fácil aplicación, efecto inocuo para el hombre al ser utilizadas en las dosis correctas, facilidad para tener una buena residualidad en la red de distribución y efectiva acción.

La acción bactericida depende de una serie de variables que tienen gran importancia en el rendimiento de los desinfectantes, entre las cuales cabe mencionar:

a) Naturaleza de los organismos que han de destruirse;

b) Grado de concentración de los microorganismos;

c) Tiempo de contacto entre el desinfectante y los microorganismos;

d) Concentración y composición del agente o agentes químicos liberados en el agua;

e) Temperatura del agua;

f) Concentración y composición de las impurezas presentes en el agua;

g) PH del agua (acidez o alcalinidad).

Condiciones físicas óptimas de un estanque de almacenamiento de agua potable

Paredes y pisos con estucado fino a grano perdido;

Llaves independientes de alimentación y desagÃ¼es;

Tapas herméticas para evitar el ingreso de polvo, insectos, aves y roedores;

Eliminar las ventilaciones que ocasionalmente dejan las empresas constructoras, por las cuales también ingresan agentes contaminantes.

La resolución NÂº 2290 del Servicio de Salud del Ambiente, exige una limpieza y desifección de los estanques de almacenamiento de agua potable una vez al año, con revisiones cada tres meses. Sin embargo, la experiencia profesional recomienda realizarla cada seis meses, ya que se acumulan sedimentos y óxido que degradan la calidad del agua durante ese período.

En el manual de normas técnicas para Instalaciones Domiciliarias de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado (DS MOP NÂº 70/81), cuyo texto fue modificado por DS MOP NÂº 46/84, dispuso que todos los Edificios y Conjuntos Habitacionales conectados a la Matriz Pública (cañería que habitualmente va por la acera o por la calle), deben contar con un Medidor o Remarcador para registrar los consumos comunes de agua, además del consumo general.

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curso administración edificios y condominios

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condominios.cl - Artículo #14: EL AGUA POTABLE EN EL CONDOMINIO

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Higiene y Salud Septiembre / 2002 EL AGUA POTABLE EN EL CONDOMINIO Por:Ingeniero en Gestión Ambiental La salubridad relaciona todos los factores y aspectos que conciernen al mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de la población y al cuidado de la salud colectiva.

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900 personas en zonas rurales de Chile reciben agua limpia gracias a un programa de descontaminación del agua a través de tecnologías limpias.
En Chile la falta de acceso al agua potable y saneamiento se manifiesta en manera dramática en el sector rural, donde existe una población de 2,2 millones de los cuales 400 mil personas no tienen acceso al agua potable, es decir no están conectados a una red y 1,5 millones de personas no tienen acceso al saneamiento.

Esto refleja la situación en muchas áreas rurales en América Latina y el Caribe, donde los objetivos de desarrollo sostenibles de contar con servicios de agua y saneamiento manejados de forma segura sigue siendo una utopía, especialmente en áreas rurales dispersas.

Es justamente en estas situaciones complejas y desafiantes que la innovación puede traer valor y proponer soluciones.

Y es en este contexto desafiante que el Advanced Innovation Center (AIC) desarrolló Plasma Water Sanitation System (PWSS) o Sistema de sanitización del agua por plasma, un quiebre tecnológico capaz de eliminar el 100% de virus, bacterias y protozoos contenidos en el agua.

El mecanismo consiste en la transformación de un flujo continuo de agua contaminada en plasma no térmico a través de una descarga eléctrica de bajo consumo. Más detalladamente, el proceso se divide en cuatro partes:

1. Se bombea el agua ejerciendo alta presión durante el transporte hasta el tubo de vidrio, una vez se encuentre en el interior, se eleva la velocidad a 320 m/s, originando una caída repentina de la presión hasta que el agua entra en un estado bifásico, líquido y gas.

2. Se produce la sanitización, que consiste en hacer pasar el agua a través de un campo eléctrico de 5,000 V, donde se ionizan las partículas de agua generando un estado de plasma estable, el cuarto estado de la materia.

3. Los micoorganismos mueren al entrar en contacto con las altas temperaturas del estado plasmático.

4. Se recombina y condensa para retornar al estado líquido en condiciones seguras para ingerir.

La máquina tiene una capacidad de 2.500 litros por día, de manera que puede dar servicio a 125 personas. No requiere de químicos para la desinfección y utiliza muy poca energía. La primera de múltiples aplicaciones posibles, Camp Unit (CU), es un equipo diseñado para la implementación de soluciones descentralizadas en comunidades rurales y periurbanas que no cuentan con acceso a agua potable.

La aplicación en terreno de esta iniciativa comenzó en el año 2011 con la instalación de un primer prototipo en el campamento San José en Cerrillos, Santiago, Chile, apoyado en su componente de difusión por BID-FOMIN vía el programa un Techo para Chile. Este prototipo permitió validar en el terreno la tecnología, establecer costos de operación y mantenimiento, y desarrollar un equipo ya operativo que cuenta con mejoras técnicas.

Posteriormente, en el año 2014 comenzó un proyecto piloto de escalamiento de la tecnología a cinco localidades de la zona central de Chile, "Agua potable para Todas y Todos" financiado por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Social de Chile (MDS) y ejecutado por Fundación AVINA - Chile en conjunto con AIC, Fundación Proyecto Propio y la Fundación Nacional para la Superación de la Pobreza a través de su programa Servicio País.

Construyendo sobre estos logros, gracias al apoyo de una operación del BID, se logró acelerar el proceso de escalamiento y mejora tecnológica, implementando la tecnología PWSS para proveer de agua sanitizada a cinco comunidades vulnerables de la zona central de Chile, además de desarrollar un modelo de trabajo comunitario para la adopción de tecnologías innovadoras mejorando el acceso al agua en el país y en la región.

Este apoyo del BID se financió con AquaFund, un fondo temático del BID para agua y saneamiento, el principal mecanismo de financiación para apoyar las inversiones del Banco en el sector desde su creación en el 2008. El AquaFund es financiado con recursos propios del BID y con recursos de socios donantes: el Gobierno de Austria, la Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (Aecid), la Fundación PepsiCo y la Cooperación Suiza a través de su Agencia para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación (COSUDE) y el Secretariado de Estado para Asuntos Económicos (SECO). Es decir: la iniciativa fue apoyada con fuerza por mucho actores y donantes.

Gracias a este financiamiento, durante el período 2016-2017 se organizaron mesas de trabajo con múltiples actores para definir las comunidades en las que serían instalados los Camp Units comprometidos en el programa. Las comunidades que fueron partícipe de este proyecto fueron: Hogar Koinomadelfia en la comuna de Peñaflor, escuela rural Heriberto Erlwein de la localidad el Pangue en la comuna de Curacaví, Escuela G345 de Rungue, Posta de Rungue y Liceo de Montenegro.

El primer año se enfocó en el desarrollo de innovación y desarrollo, lo que permitió tener una maquina más robusta y de un alto estándar cumpliendo el objetivo trazado.

Con la tecnología mejorada, en cada una de las localidades se instaló un Camp_Unit, modulo adaptado que integra una unidad PWSS, los que funcionan alternadamente por ciclos de hasta 20 horas diarias llegando a sanitizar hasta 4800 litros de agua por día.

El total de beneficiarios directos por este piloto supera las 900 personas y junto con acceder a agua de calidad para su consumo, se pudo desarrollar, juntamente con los aliados locales, un modelo de gestión comunitaria del agua en cada uno de los territorios, en donde las mismas comunidades desarrollaron un nivel de organización que permitió mantener los equipos y el acceso al agua una vez finalizado el Proyecto.

Este acompañamiento social es clave para complementar la innovación tecnológica y asegurar su sostenibilidad. Esto es un elemento fundamental que caracteriza la innovación con sentido.

Como pasa a menudo cuando se habla de innovación, todavía hay mucho trabajo por hacer. Es clave que los esfuerzos en innovación y desarrollo vayan hacia la simplificación de la tecnología. Esto, entre otras cosas, debería reducir el costo de la misma, "democratizar" la solución y simplificar la operación y mantenimiento.

El modelo de negocios que se adoptara a futuro tendrá implicaciones importantes para la difusión de la solución, dependiendo si se buscará reforzar la captura y análisis de data, si se busca aumentar la capacidad de agua por día para atender con mayor cobertura (y menos necesidad de mantención simplificada) o si se enfocara en empresas con desafíos de potabilización.

Aun reconociendo estos desafíos futuros, lo que se ha hecho tiene valor. Es importante. Es innovador. Usando las palabras de Alfredo Zolezzi, fundador y director de innovación del Centro de Innovación Avanzada (AIC Technologies): "Todo el mundo habla de innovación, todos escriben, pero pocos hacen innovación. Tenemos grandes tecnologías, pero somos indiferentes a nuestros problemas. ¿En qué momento perdimos el rumbo? La vida de los pobres no ha cambiado, nosotros nos hemos acostumbrados a vivir esa realidad, sin sentir ese dolor. El proceso tecnológico no ha ido de la mano con las necesidades de la gente".

Todavía hay mucho por hacer. ¡Manos a la obra!
Para conocer más sobre gestión de proyectos de agua y saneamiento descargue estas publicaciones: Control y gestión de la integridad en el sector del agua y el saneamiento a través de los sistemas de evaluación del desempeño La caja de herramientas para la gestión de la integridad del sector de agua: Un instrumento de gestión del cambio: Resultados y lecciones aprendidas Impulsando eficiencia y transparencia en entidades prestadoras de servicios de agua y saneamiento

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Tecnología con acción social: innovación y agua más limpia en Chile - Volvamos a la fuente

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900 personas en zonas rurales de Chile reciben agua limpia gracias a un programa de descontaminación del agua a través de tecnologías limpias.

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Descripción

En el marco de la crisis sanitaria por el Coronavirus (COVID-19), el Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo publicó una serie de protocolos de prevención y funcionamiento para los siguientes rubros:

Supermercados.

Servicios en empresas de correos y despacho a domicilio.

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Obtenga más información.

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Chileatiende - Protocolos sanitarios para el funcionamiento de empresas por Coronavirus

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En el marco de la crisis sanitaria por el Coronavirus (COVID-19), el Ministerio de Economía, Fomento y Turismo publicó una serie de protocolos de prevención y funcionamiento para los siguientes rubros: Supermercados. Servicios en empresas de correos y despacho a domicilio. Establecimientos de comer...

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Water is a basic necessity, and an important resource for sustaining life. The decline in water quality endangers the health of humans as well as the ecosystem. Clean drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation play an important part in maintaining health.

Contaminated water causes many water-borne infections like diarrhoea, and also serves as a carrier for vectors such as mosquitoes spreading epidemics. Open defecation means no sanitation. It fouls the environment, and spreads diseases. According to WHO-UNICEF report (2010), India has the highest rate of open defecation. Access to safe drinking water and good sanitation are vital for family well-being. It results in control of enteric diseases, and boosts child health. A healthy child has better learning and retaining ability. Girls avoid going to school where there are no proper sanitation measures.

Sanitation makes a positive contribution in family literacy. According to a UNICEF study, for every 10 per cent increase in female literacy, a country's economy can grow by 0.3 per cent. Thus, sanitation contributes to social and economic development of the society. Improved sanitation also helps the environment.

Clean drinking water and good sanitation would not prevent infections without practicing good hygiene. A simple habit of washing hands goes a long way towards preventing diseases. The stored water supply may also serve as a source of infection in the absence of hygiene.

In India, rapid urbanisation and the increasing population has placed a major strain on the existing infrastructure. It has affected the capacity of the government to provide clean drinking water, and effective sanitation measures. Though the government has tried to overcome this problem through urban development programmes like Clean India Campaign, the total costs required for successful operations continue to mar their efforts. Hence, the contributions of corporations, and other organisations is a welcome change.

TERI University, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in association with Coca-Cola launched the 'Strengthening Water and Sanitation in Urban Settings" initiative in short called "The WASH Program" in Kolkata. Wash stands for 'Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.'

The program will support a WASH-related risk analysis of health impacts in the slums of Kolkata, and Chennai.

The risk analysis will help develop, and implement participatory inventory strategies in low-income settlements, and help towards adopting measures aimed at reducing WASH-related risks.

It will aim at building capacities of students and decision-makers, thereby promoting sustained development.

This is one-of-a-kind association which has never been done before that will lead to the healthy development of low-income settlements in the area. Through WASH governance strengthening activities, it aims to reach 50,000 beneficiaries in low-income settlements and over 300 professionals. It will also reach out to 2,500 students through 20 municipal schools across India through school WASH programs. To achieve optimum benefits of water, hygiene and sanitation measures, it is important to create public awareness of the link between poor sanitation and hygiene, and the diseases. The WASH program with its different levels of activities would be effective in this regard.

Dr. Kiran Acharya is a dental surgeon, writer, and an unconventional philosopher.

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Need of Water and Sanitation Program in India

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Water is a basic necessity, and an important resource for sustaining life. The decline in water quality endangers the health of humans as well as the ecosystem. Clean drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation play an important part in maintaining health.

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Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions and the prevention of diarrhoea

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Primary prevention of diarrhoea through water, sanitation and hygiene interventions is based on reducing the faecal-oral transmission of pathogens, and includes the provision of an improved water supply, water safety planning, household water treatment and safe storage, improved sanitation facilities, and hygiene education.

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Sanitation and hygiene are critical to health, survival, and development. Many countries are challenged in providing adequate sanitation for their entire populations, leaving people at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases. Throughout the world, an estimated 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation (more than 32% of the world's population) 1, 2. Basic sanitation is described as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of human waste (feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.

The world did not achieve the United Nations' Millennium Development Goal (MDG) sanitation target (i.e., to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to basic sanitation by 2015). Now, the United Nations' Sustainable Development goal (SDG) is for everyone to have "adequate and equitable" sanitation by 2030 3.

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centers for disease control and prevention

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Sanitation and hygiene are critical to health, survival, and development. Many countries are challenged in providing adequate sanitation for their entire populations, leaving people at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases. Throughout the world, an estimated 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation (more than 32% of the world's population) 1, 2 .

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How does air pollution affect the humans, and what are the causes?

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How can we help ourselves and other countries to promote good water sanitation and hygiene.

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How can we help promote good water sanitation and hygiene as a nation?

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how is Chile being affected by air pollution?

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What are ways we can help promote good water sanitation and hygiene in our local community?

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"By the early 1990s Santiago had levels of air pollution comparable to megacities such as São Paulo and Mexico City, despite having barely one third of the population of these cities."

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Abstract

Keywords: air pollution, climate change, water, Chile

Introduction

In 2013 the World Bank reclassified Chile from an upper middle-income country to a high-income country, based on having a gross national product (GNP) per capita level exceeding $12,600. The World Bank does not take economic inequality into account in determining a country's status; Chile's 2011 Gini index, an index of inequality (higher indicating more inequality) was 51, among the highest in Latin America, and 10 points higher than the Gini index for the US in 2010. In 2010 Chile became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), a grouping of 36 developed countries; among these countries, which include Turkey and Mexico, Chile has the highest Gini index.

Although a good indicator of overall disparity, the Gini index does not reflect inequalities within regions. In terms of economic activity, the north is dominated by mining. The center (the capital city of Santiago, main ports and agrarian valleys) concentrates political and financial power, as well as agricultural and industrial activity. Cattle, forestry and fishing occur mainly in the south. Population and production are both concentrated in Santiago (49.3% GDP) and Antofagasta, the main mining region in the north (10.4% of GDP) respectively). Poverty (defined as <$7,085/year income for a family of four), varies among regions from 4% in Antofagasta, up to 28% in the IX Region of Araucanía where the population of Mapuche ethnic origin is mostly settled (). Furthermore, inequality varies distinctly within the country; data from 2003 showed that county-level Gini coefficients (then 55 for the whole country) varied widely across the country, from 41 to 62.

In relation to most countries in Latin America, Chile has had a long history of democracy, prior to the military coup in 1973. The period since 1939 laid the foundations for a successful industrial development under the state patronage, so that by mid-century the state owned or had interests in over a hundred of strategic enterprises such as transport, energy and water. Later, the exacerbation of historical political struggles for more structural changes ended in the 1973 military coup, which interrupted the democratic trail and drastically changed the state-oriented policy to an extreme open market-oriented system. Though the military regime was characterized by strong business development, it sharpened the extreme poverty and vulnerability of the poor. The return to democracy in 1990 began with 42% of the population under poverty, and with public social protection systems dismantled.

Between 1990 and 2015 Chile has experienced an unprecedented growth and has managed to lower poverty to 14.4% (2013) however, this growth was mostly based on raw materials. The OECD, in a 2009 report, highlighted the impact of the accelerated growth on natural resources and the environmental burden generated by mining, agricultural and forest over-exploitation, as well as overcrowding in Santiago, which was pointed to as one of most polluted the cities in the world.

Here we describe the state of environmental health in Chile, which may be seen as a model for the future of other Latin American countries as they become more developed. After the re-establishment of democracy and a period rapid economic growth, but with environmental concerns somewhat on the back burner, now is a good time to assess this the overall picture of environmental health in Chile, and consider how to move forward. We focus on air and water pollution, and on climate change, which are among the most important environmental issues in Chile.

The article reflects the findings of a workshop held in Santiago, Chile in October 2013, "Planning for a Global Environmental Health Hub Based in Chile," which brought together researchers from around the country, as well as government personnel working in environmental health. The workshop was funded by the U.S. NIH Fogarty International Program, as part of a new initiative to support a multi-national network of regional hubs for Global Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences (GEOHealth). For details of the workshop see http://geohealthchile.blogspot.com/p/environmental-and-occupational-health.html. Chile, with a strong group of environmental health researchers, and a nucleus of technicians in government agencies devoted to environmental health, was considered as a possible area for a future GeoHealth Hub; our team was awarded a Fogarty Planning Grant for a GeoHealth Hub in Chile. However, when Chile was re-classified as a rich country in 2013, it became ineligible for Fogarty funding. We now plan that Chile will play an important role of south-south collaboration in environmental health training for a new GeoHealth Hub to be centered in Peru.

I. Air pollution: past and challenges

In the past 40 years, air quality in Chile became an issue of high concern given the growing proportion of population exposed to high levels. Santiago, the capital city with almost seven million inhabitants (40% of the country's population), is located in a valley surrounded by mountains from the coastal and Andean ranges. Every winter this topography, along with an inverse temperature layer, limited rains, and minimal airstream, results in a low dispersion rate, insufficient to cope with the progressively higher concentration of pollutants emitted.

Air quality monitoring in the metropolitan area of Santiago was initiated as early as 1974 and standards for criteria pollutants were established in 1978. However, regulatory plans began only in 1990, after the military dictatorship lost power. Key interventions of those plans aimed at reducing overall emissions, or were directed at specific pollutants such as leaded gasoline and sulfur in diesel fuel. PM ₁₀ and PM 2.5 data, which were regularly collected only starting in 1989, showed significant reductions of pollutants in Santiago in the early years after policies reducing emissions were enacted (). However, current PM 2.5 levels in Santiago still surpass the 20 μg/m ³ Chilean standard for PM 2.5 established in 2012, as well as WHOs 10 μg/m ³ annual standard.

The interventions to reduce air pollution in Santiago, while significant, were not sufficient to offset the growth of the city, particularly the increase of mobile sources and the increased use of wood for heating (due to its lower cost compared with gas or electric energy). The public and private vehicular fleet in Santiago has doubled since 2001, to the current 1,700,000 vehicles, accounting for 40% of the country's fleet. After decades of monitoring and decontamination plans, Santiago in 2011 was still among the top five capitals in Latin America countries with the highest annual mean PM 2.5 (Lima, 38 μg/m ³; Guatemala city, 33 μg/m ³; Tegucigalpa, 32 μg/m ³, Bogota, 27 μg/m ³, and Santiago, 26 μg/m ³).

In 2004 air monitoring expanded to other regions of the country, mainly due to the mandatory monitoring required for potentially polluting private companies. Currently the network of air quality monitoring has 130 private and 58 public stations nationwide that monitor PM ₁₀, PM 2.5, CO, SO ₂, NOx and ozone. Five percent of the monitors are in Santiago.

There are three air pollution areas of concern in Chile: 1): a north-central zone, with mining and thermal power production that generate particulate matter, as well as heavy metals and sulfur dioxide; 2) a highly populated urban area (including Santiago) of industrial development and large vehicle fleet emitting particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and ozone; 3) and a cold-weather central-south area with heavy use of wood for domestic use. As seen in the introduction, the southern area has the largest proportions of poor families determining their higher vulnerability.

There are very high levels of contaminants in some areas outside of Santiago. Four Chilean cities have been reported by WHO as being among the top five Latin-American cities with highest PM 2.5 levels in 2011 (Rancagua 54 μg/m ³; Chillán 53 μg/m ³; Temuco 48 μg/m ³ and Talca 44 μg/m ³), although these rankings might partly reflect that there is more extensive regional air sampling in Chile compared to other countries. In the southern city of Coyhaique, daily air PM ₁₀ surpasses 350 μg/m³ in wintertime, far exceeding the Chilean daily standards for PM ₁₀ (150 μg/m³). This and other southern cities, where burning wood is common for heating, register more than 30 "emergency" days (with daily values for PM ₁₀ higher than 330 μg/m³). This finding has forced the environmental authority to declare decontamination plans for these areas, that over 10 years should bring down the three-year moving average level of the specific contaminant below the annual standard.

Research on the health effects of air pollution is still relatively sparse. Most of this research had been time series studies on registered emergency visits, hospitalization and mortality associated with air pollutants. In the exposure sphere, some studies have measured personal exposure to particulate matter, others have proposed models to predict the levels of pollutants, or have identified the source apportionment of outdoor particulate matter. Only a few publications have aimed at evaluating the economic significance of contaminants reduction, and there are only a few publications dealing with indoor air pollution and its health effects. As expected, studies concentrate primarily on the Santiago Metropolitan Region, with a some notable exceptions.

These studies have reported relative risks (RRs) in Santiago for respiratory mortality in the elderly of 1.05-1.10 for each 100 μg/m ³ PM ₁₀, while in Temuco the RRs were higher, suggesting that particles could be more dangerous due to chemical composition. In terms of morbidity, increases of 100 μg/m ³ of PM ₁₀ were associated with elevated risks of acute respiratory infection (RR 1.16, IC95% 1.14-1.18) and hospital admissions (RR 1.14, IC95% 1.09-1.18) in those >65 year of age. Another study conducted in Temuco between August 2009 and June 2011 assessed the daily concentration of ultrafine particles (UFP), i.e. ≤100nm, and its relationship to daily outpatient visits for respiratory causes in health centers. The authors reported UFP values between 1.62 and 25.81 μg/m ³ and significant risk in people older than 65 years for each 4.73 μg/m ³ (interquartile range) increase (RR=1.15; 95% CI 1.059-1.25). Chemical speciation of fine particles has been studied, showing that PM 2.5 with high content of zinc, chromium, copper, sodium, and sulfur was more strongly associated with mortality than PM 2.5 mass. Overall, these reported RRs are consistent with those found in developed industrialized countries, but it has been important to document these effects in Chile in terms of influencing public policy.

II. Water: past and challenges

In a short time span, water provision and treatment in Chile has changed substantially, from state management with widely subsidized prices, to private sector management. Private companies were granted water rights provide water, sewage, and waste treatment, and are allowed a profit of 7% by law.

By the beginning of the 1970s, concurrent with the high rates of urban expansion, Chilean cities reached 75% coverage of potable water and 40% coverage of sanitation. Thereafter, under the military dictatorship (1973-1990), urban coverage of potable water reached more than 95%. Yet, it should be noted that the official figures did not consider the high degree of disconnection of users for non-payment, which was estimated at 30%, given the low wages and unemployment at the time. This situation led to a system of targeted subsidies for the poor.

With the return to democracy in 1990, the water sector was modernized. By the end of the decade the drinking water systems, still under state management, had achieved high efficiency but with significantly higher tariffs for consumers. This happened in a context of unprecedented economic growth but with high socioeconomic inequality (those in the top 10% of income had 45% of national income in 2000), thus requiring increased subsidies to the poorest.

Following proposals from international agencies, the government sold water and infrastructure rights to private enterprises in the late 1990s. The justification, still under debate, focused on the inability of the state to make investments in wastewater treatment, which at the time was virtually nonexistent. The cholera epidemic at the beginning of the 1990s was a potent warning, perhaps more for its impact on exports than for its health significance, since the epidemic was promptly stopped with focused interventions.

shows the evolution of urban coverage of supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment. At the beginning of the 1990s only 2.8% of the urban population lacked access to potable water, but a significant number had no access to sewerage and there was virtually no wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment was implemented and reached the current coverage close to 98%, but only after users funded the cost.

The high availability of potable water and adequate sanitation in urban areas, coupled with targeted interventions in children's health, helped lower infant mortality from 119.5 per 1000 live births (one of the highest in Latin America) in the 1960s to 16.0 in the 1990s and 7.4 in 2012, one of the lowest rates in the continent. Two indicators of improved sanitation, typhoid fever and hepatitis rates, fell sharply in the wake of targeted interventions to curb the epidemic of cholera in the country in the early 1990s (). Although there was one peak of hepatitis in 2002-2003, since then there has been a steady decline. The Hepatitis A vaccine, although available for the wealthy under the private health system (covering 13% of the population in 2011), has not been available to a wider public except for a few targeted campaigns, so it is unlikely that the large fall in hepatitis rates was due to vaccination.

Another challenge has been the long-standing problem of arsenic in water, which has affected communities in northern Chile, especially the city of Antofagasta, located in the desert. Between 1958 and 1971, this city had very high water arsenic levels, averaging 0.86 mg/L. Strong complaints forced the installation of a first abatement plant in 1970, resulting in a lowering to 0.12 mg/L, still high compared to the WHO 1963 standard of 0.05 mg/L. The current Chilean standard was set as 0.01 mg/L in 2005, although allowing temporary levels as high as up to 0.03 for ten years. Health effects of arsenic in the highly exposed populations in the north of Chile have been widely documented, with excesses of lung cancer, bladder cancer, and heart disease, which decreased as arsenic concentrations decreased.

Overall, Chile appears to have been successful with regard to its water treatment. However, water coverage is still limited in some rural areas. Rural water is supplied through cooperatives, which register 99% coverage in more populated areas but only 7% in semi-populated and 2% in low-populated areas. In addition, some rural communities also lack sewerage; and in specific northern regions, rural areas are also still exposed to high arsenic content in water.

The state role remains relatively weak in water regulation; it is focused on commercial aspects such as setting rates, granting concessions, and supervising that services are delivered. On the other hand, surveillance of water quality relies on companies self-monitoring with the support of accredited private laboratories, but with rather loose control from the state. Each company (currently 60 nationwide), report compliance (yes/no) of each regulated item in one sample per month.

Compliance is high for mandatory parameters such as total coliforms, turbidity and residual free chlorine for urban water companies. But other data may be incomplete. For example in December 2013, only 54% of monthly reports (386/720) included arsenic measurement and 2% (8/386) surpassed the current maximum allowance of arsenic in potable water, with levels between 0.01 and 0.03 mg/L. Other parameters that occasionally do not meet national regulations are nitrates (88.2% compliance) and sulfates (64.3% compliance), even under considerably more lax standards (respectively 50 mg/L and 500 mg/L) than, for example, the U.S. EPA requirements (10 and 250 mg/L respectively). Nitrates should be an agent of concern, particularly in agricultural regions, as they can be an indicator of contamination by fertilizers, or organic wastes.

Furthermore, failures in the current system have occurred. In 2010 and 2013, important norovirus outbreaks occurred in two cities, affecting at least 40,000 persons. In one case, treated wastewater which was still contaminated was used for vegetable irrigation, and entered the food chain, which led to questioning the efficacy of regulations. In the other case, the origin of the outbreak was attributed to direct contamination of drinking water, showing failures of surveillance in basic parameters of fecal contamination. Both cases affected cities in northern Chile where water is scarce, a situation that according to the scenarios of climate change will get worse (see below).

Chilean water standards have been slow to change, compared to international standards that have become stricter over time. Compared to the current WHO standards, Chilean regulation includes 23 less agents (especially pesticides); and among those which are included, the WHO reference value is between 0.5 and 20 times more stringent than the Chilean national standard. It seems likely that Chilean standards have been slow to change due to several factors, including insufficient government attention to environmental problems, the opposition of private water companies, and a lack of public pressure.

III. Climate change: past and future

There are unambiguous indications of a planetary-scale climate change, as reflected in the warming of the troposphere and upper ocean, decrease in snow and ice coverage, rise in sea level, and an overall global trend towards drying in dry regions and wetting in wet regions. The magnitude and rate of these changes are unprecedented and largely attributed to the human-driven increase in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, as well as massive changes in land-use.

Climate change at a regional scale (e.g., subtropical South America) is more complicated than at the global scale, because of more variability in year-to-year and decade-to-decade fluctuations of atmospheric and oceanographic conditions. A 2011 report from Chile to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provides a good background on climate change on Chile. Here we seek to provide a summary and update of this information, as well as to discuss potential health effects of climate change in Chile.

In the case of central and northern Chile, there has been a warming trend of about +0.15°C per decade in the inland valleys and Andean foothills (e.g., Santiago) observed over the last few decades, in sharp contrast with a cooling trend of similar magnitude along the coast and offshore (e.g., Antofagasta) (). Much weaker temperature trends are observed to the south of Santiago (below 35°S). Superimposed on these trends one can observe the impact of ENSO on the temperature record: there is a coastal warming during El Niño years and La Niña years feature an overall cooling.

Also prominent in is a climate shift that took place in the mid-1970s both at the coast and inland: the decade after the shift has a mean temperature ∼0.5°C warmer than the mean temperature before. It is thought that such climate shift has a natural origin and exhibits an ENSO-like structure.

Precipitation records reveal a drying trend in south-central Chile (most pronounced between 37-44°S) during the last four decades. No significant trends are detected in central Chile or farther north where the impact of the ENSO-cycle is particularly prominent. As an example, the annual precipitation in Santiago (average 280 mm) varied from 710 mm in 1997 (El Niño year) to 90 mm in 1998 (La Niña year).

Projections for the climate during the rest of 21st century are based on numerical models of the coupled atmosphere-ocean systems, run at global scale (Global Circulations Models: GCM) or regional scale (Regional Circulations Models: RCM). In the current generation of model integrations performed in support of AR5 (the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report), the so-called representative concentration pathways (RCPs) consider a wide range of options of population growth and socioeconomic development, each of them leading to distinct greenhouse gas concentrations in the future. Which RCP will actually occur is unknown, yet has major consequences for the magnitude and timing of the climate change that will be felt in Chile. As an example, the global mean temperature is projected to increase between 0.5°C (under RCP2.6) and 4.0°C (under RCP8.5) towards the end of the century relative to current values.

Along continental Chile, different GCMs and RCMs produce projections differing in magnitude, but not in direction. Generally, the projected trends are similar to those observed in the last few decades. Considering a continuation of the heavy emission scenario sustained during the rest of century, there is an overall predicted warming in north-central Chile that is modest along the coast (+1°C above current values) and increases inland to reach a maximum over the Andes (up to +4°C) (), as well as a drying trend in central-south Chile that can reduce annual precipitation to 70-80% of the current values (i.e., a rainfall deficit between 20-30%; see ).

These projections suggest that some impacts on public health may be expected over the long term (see below). This situation is exemplified by the drought that has afflicted central Chile since 2009, likely due to a persistent La Niña-like condition in the central Pacific. Whether or not this drought continues for the next five years depends on the internal variability of the atmosphere-ocean system. Currently, there is little ability to predict this kind of inter-annual/inter-decadal variability. Likewise, significant year-to-year fluctuations in temperature and precipitation will continue to characterize our climate in the near and far future. These ENSO-related anomalies can produce short-lived but intense climate extremes, with the potential to trigger vector-borne diseases and affect other health outcomes.

While there is a large body of scientific literature on the effect of climate change on the incidence of vector borne diseases, potential impacts in Chile have not been described.

Chagas disease, transmitted by Triatoma infestans affects 1.5% of rural population, and is endemic north of the capital city. Warmer climate has been associated to vector spread of the Chagas vector, including decreased mortality, increased fertility, higher proportion infected and wider breadth of range. In Chile, unexpected wild foci have been detected in uninhabited rural setting, suggesting that this new non-domestic rural setting for T. infestans may be related to warming ensuing an ENSO episode. Aedes aegypti, the vector of dengue, was last reported in 1961 in continental Chile but in 2000 new populations were detected in Chile's Easter Island, followed by a severe outbreak in 2002. It reappeared in 2006 and intermittently up to now, giving rise to fear that it could reach the mainland. Finally, the rodent-borne Hanta virus disease is endemic in Chile since 1995. Increased rainfalls result in increased plant productivity, which in turn give rise to higher rodent populations ultimately followed by increases in human cases. This dynamic has been studied in relation to rains during El Niño. More extreme precipitation events accompanying climate change may increase rodent population and Hanta virus cases.

Regarding the effects of climate change on air and water quality, some educated guesses can be made. In south-central Chile, wintertime air pollution episodes are mostly produced by particulate matter that are associated with cool, stable and dry atmospheric conditions. On the other hand, models consistently predict a warming-drying trend for this region. Given the already semi-arid climate of central Chile, the drying trend is likely the most important driver in this region, leading to an increase in wintertime air-pollution episodes in cities like Santiago because of the dramatic reduction of rainfall episodes that tend to clean the troposphere. The warming trend may be the more important driver in the humid southern Chile, and the most probable outcome is a reduction of air pollution episodes in cities like Temuco, by reducing the number of very cold nights, when particulate matter is trapped in the lower troposphere. Summertime air pollution events are largely produced by increase in lower-tropospheric ozone, whose rate of production increases with air temperature. Thus, the projected warming trend is conducive to an increase in this type of episode.

The projected increase in air temperature will also modify the annual cycle of stream flow. Currently, the peak flow occurs around December in Andean valleys of central Chile, but less precipitation and warmer temperatures could lead to a more rapid snowmelt and earlier peak flow, thus causing an extended and more intense dry season.

Less water in the rivers will have a negative impact especially for agriculture, which currently uses 73% of the available water in Chile. The impact would differ in the geographical regions. Decreased quality and quantity of crops may be expected in the north, affected by severe drought, hot temperature in the inland, and decreased availability of water. Agricultural areas may be pushed to the south, changing the type of crops as seen lately in southern Araucania (Chile's poorest region) and Los Lagos Regions, where corn and potatoes production increased up to 200% due to favorable balance of rainfall and maximum-minimum daily temperature range. Other anticipated effects include rises of meat prices due to less viability of cattle production, and migration of agricultural workers to southern areas or to the cities. Possible adaptation strategies include genetically improved crops, more efficient use of irrigation systems, and sustainable management of groundwater.

Research on health effects of climate change should incorporate the impact of extreme hydro-climatic events as the one seen recently (March 2015) in the north, where an unexpected rainfall exceeded the 18mm annual average, causing floods of water and mud, killing thirty people and posing serious health risks to the survivors. The most affected are the poor in the north, an area where inequality is very high, who live in areas most likely to be affected by the risks of water scarcity and contamination, and flooding.

Children are of special concern for possible health effects of climate change, since they are more vulnerable to these threats. An area of future research should be the differential health impacts of climate change in Chile on children.

Discussion

This overview of the current state of the environment and environmental health research in Chile illustrates the limitations of the "neoliberal" model of development in recent years, i.e., free markets with little state intervention. In the case of water there have been notable successes in terms of basic sanitation and availability of safe drinking water. But state control remains spotty and private water companies may not regulate themselves sufficiently, as the recent outbreaks of norovirus suggest.

The case of air pollution is another example where Chile has met with some success, but there are still persistently high pollutants in parts of the country. In spite of arduous efforts over 25 years to lower PM 2.5 levels, Chile has failed to reach national air pollution standards for PM 2.5 (20 μg/m3) in the capital, while other cities are contaminated at even higher levels due to mobile sources, large fossil fuel power plants, and primitive use of wood in homes of central-south Chile. These flaws are likely to be typical of environmental progress in many Latin American countries emerging from poverty: initial successes followed by stagnation.

The threat of climate change adds urgency. As many of the same sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) affect both climate change and air pollution, most experts believe that these issues should be addressed in a coordinated manner. Climate change is also likely to result in water shortages in southern Chile, again requiring coordination with agencies regulating water, to address this problem.

In 2010 Chile joined the OECD, a group of high-income countries, and recently was officially classified as a high-income country by the World Bank. However, economic inequality is far higher than other OECD countries. In our view, Chile should take advantage of its new status to readjust its institutions regarding the environment, in order for them to work in a transparent, coordinated and cooperative manner. Profound structural changes will be required in Chile to reach the higher environmental standards of OECD countries.

Research on environmental health to date in Chile has been largely insufficient, and has lacked a multi-disciplinary approach. Lack of funds from the state, lack or difficult access to private and even public data, and unreliable laboratory capabilities pose significant limitations to environmental health research. Chile has one of the leading economies in Latin America, and a growing body of researchers in environmental health. With this strong foundation, the government and the research community of Chile can and should identify and implement necessary changes to move beyond the current somewhat stagnant environmental health situation. It is likely that other emerging economies in Latin America are or soon will be coming to a similar juncture. If Chile can find a way to move forward, perhaps it can be a model not only for economic progress but also for progress in environmental health.

Acknowledgments

To Julio Monreal by his helpful discussion and comments in the water section. To Fernando Muñoz and Ivan Brstilo who provided information regarding the hepatitis A vaccine in Chile. To speakers and attendees of Geo-Hub workshop held in October 2013, for their valuable contributions to the discussion of the issues analyzed in this manuscript.

Funding: This study was supported by NIH Research Grant #D43TW005746-02

Footnotes

Competing interest: The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Role of authors in writing the manuscript: PP, KS, conception, overall writing/editing, review of the manuscript and approval of the final version. KL, LN conception and design of the manuscript, critical review and approval of the final version. VI, RG, SC, MC, SB, WF, writing of specific sections of the manuscript, and approval of the final version.

References

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Chile confronts its environmental health future after 25 years of accelerated growth

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Chile has recently been reclassified by the World Bank from an upper middle income country to a higher income country. There has been great progress in the last 20-30 years in relation to air and water pollution in Chile. Yet after 25 years of ...

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centers for disease control and prevention

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Assessing Access to Water & Sanitation | Global Water, Sanitation and Hygiene | Healthy Water | CDC

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Education and information about global water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), including assessing access to safe drinking water and sanitation, improved drinking water sources, unimproved drinking water sources, and both improved and unimproved sanitation facilities.

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The effect of poor water and sanitation can have far-reaching and ill-fated effects for those who are required to use unsanitary toilet facilities and drink, bathe, cook with and use contaminated water.

In first world, western countries we take having clean, sanitary water for granted - we simply turn on a tap and have access to almost unlimited clean drinking water. The same with toilet and bathroom facilities. There are not too many people that live in Australia that need to think about the health impact on their community when it comes to toilet and water sanitation.

Why are good sanitation practices so important?

Many water-borne pathogens and infections are spread via contaminated water and contribute to issues like diarrhoea and cholera which have a lethal effect on people - particularly the very young and very old. For example, diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children under five, which is mostly preventable by clean water and sanitation ( source).

By simply educating communities about proper sanitation procedures and implementing simple, safe water sanitation solutions like composting toilets, water tanks and solar power can have the following influences:-

Reduction in water-borne pathogens

Reduction in illnesses like diarrhea and cholera

Better groundwater protection

Reduction of possible spread of parasites & pathogens like

Whipworm (Trichuris trichiura)

Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoies)

Dysentery (Entamoeba histolytic)

Promotion of a healthier, happier community

By giving people the right education and products to promote healthy sanitation practices, the quality of life for millions of people can be vastly improved - that's why the Ecoflo-WASH organisation is committed to working with Governments, Non-Government Organisations and other bodies to help provide products that literally change the lives of people in regions where poor sanitation is a daily burden.

What are the main causes of poor sanitation?

The biggest cause of poor sanitation globally is simply lack of education. Even the simple act of washing hands regularly can have a huge impact on the overall health of a community. There are many causes of poor sanitation, let's explore a few of these.

Open defecation
This is an area we focus on as Ecoflo-WASH has the capacity to help communities with composting toilets that will alleviate many of the issues surrounding open defecation. Put simply, open defecation fouls surrounding environments and is a major cause for the spread of preventable diseases.

Unsafe drinking water
Unsafe, untreated and contaminated drinking water is estimated to cause more than 500,000 diarrhoeal deaths each year. Many of these could be prevented with simple sanitary practices and clean drinking water. Diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and polio are rife in areas where clean drinking water isn't available.

High density living
In areas where informal or temporary / semi permanent settlements crop up, the high density nature of these areas along with less access to sanitation programs and products means there's a high likelihood of sewage and waste not being dealt with properly.

Lack of education
This is a relatively easy issue to combat as education starts typically in the form of school programs teaching children the importance of healthy habits when it comes to sanitation, waste control, clean drinking water and washing their hands.

The effects of poor sanitation can cause a large range of issues from health and well-being related through to economic and societal issues. The health issues alone make this a worthwhile cause to tackle for anyone that can involve themselves in helping those less fortunate than ourselves.

Health risks are often exacerbated by poor sanitation and hygiene practices and many preventable health problems and diseases can be avoided with a little education and the right environment and products (clean water, soap, water filters, composting toilets, grey water systems, etc).

Increased health issues
There are many water borne diseases and pathogens that are harmful to humans that thrive in unsanitary conditions that are brought about by untreated water and issues related to open defecation. In some countries the cost of treating water borne diseases like malaria, diarrhoea, and worm infections can represent up to a third of household incomes. This can be avoided with some safe hygiene practices, access to clean water and water sanitation solutions like composting toilets.

Increase in diseases
Diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and polio can all be and are transmitted by contaminated water. Communities where there's a high density of people combined with poor sanitary conditions means these horrific diseases can race through communities causing ill-health, ongoing health problems and death in severe cases.

Decrease in schooling
Many children can't attend school because of diseases and issues relating to poor sanitation. By simply not having the right toilet facilities at schools girls are less likely to be able to attend which impacts the broader community for many years into the future.

Downturn in economic opportunity
Communities that suffer ill health and poor sanitation related issues are more likely to spend less time working because of health related issue and be required to spend more money on healthcare related to this. The investment of proper sanitation helps to create economic returns, can create jobs and contributes to the overall economy of the community.

Here are Ecoflo-WASH we believe that everyone should have the right to clean drinking water and proper sanitation. We work closely with Governments, Non-Government Organisations and other charities, bodies and companies to help coordinate, procure and install proper waste water sanitation solutions for the communities and villages that need it most.

Recently we've helped the island of Rambusto in Papua New Guinea (with the assistance of Friends of Rambutso ) by installing a composting toilet available to the entire community. This stopped open defecation on the island along with helping the community learn about proper hygiene practices that can stop many preventable diseases.

You can view some more of our case studies here. If you're interested in working with Ecoflo-WASH on a community project, please contact us and we would be happy to speak with about how our water and sanitation expertise may be able to assist.

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The effects of poor water sanitation on communities - Ecoflo-WASH

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Poor water sanitation can affect everyone in a small or large community alike. Find out the causes and potential dangers of poor water sanitation and what can be done about it.

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Inadequate sanitation is estimated to cause 432 000 diarrhoeal deaths annually and is a major factor in several neglected tropical diseases, including intestinal worms, schistosomiasis, and trachoma. Poor sanitation also contributes to malnutrition.

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Poor sanitation is linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio and exacerbates stunting. Poor sanitation reduces human well-being, social and economic development due to impacts such as anxiety, risk of sexual assault, and lost educational opportunities.

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Clean drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation play an important part in maintaining health. ... Contaminated water causes many water-borne infections like diarrhea, and also serves as a carrier for vectors such as mosquitoes spreading epidemics

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Water is a basic necessity, and an important resource for sustaining life. The decline in water quality endangers the health of humans as well as the ecosystem. Clean drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation play an important part in maintaining health.

Contaminated water causes many water-borne infections like diarrhoea, and also serves as a carrier for vectors such as mosquitoes spreading epidemics. Open defecation means no sanitation. It fouls the environment, and spreads diseases. According to WHO-UNICEF report (2010), India has the highest rate of open defecation. Access to safe drinking water and good sanitation are vital for family well-being. It results in control of enteric diseases, and boosts child health. A healthy child has better learning and retaining ability. Girls avoid going to school where there are no proper sanitation measures.

Sanitation makes a positive contribution in family literacy. According to a UNICEF study, for every 10 per cent increase in female literacy, a country's economy can grow by 0.3 per cent. Thus, sanitation contributes to social and economic development of the society. Improved sanitation also helps the environment.

Clean drinking water and good sanitation would not prevent infections without practicing good hygiene. A simple habit of washing hands goes a long way towards preventing diseases. The stored water supply may also serve as a source of infection in the absence of hygiene.

In India, rapid urbanisation and the increasing population has placed a major strain on the existing infrastructure. It has affected the capacity of the government to provide clean drinking water, and effective sanitation measures. Though the government has tried to overcome this problem through urban development programmes like Clean India Campaign, the total costs required for successful operations continue to mar their efforts. Hence, the contributions of corporations, and other organisations is a welcome change.

TERI University, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in association with Coca-Cola launched the 'Strengthening Water and Sanitation in Urban Settings" initiative in short called "The WASH Program" in Kolkata. Wash stands for 'Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.'

The program will support a WASH-related risk analysis of health impacts in the slums of Kolkata, and Chennai.

The risk analysis will help develop, and implement participatory inventory strategies in low-income settlements, and help towards adopting measures aimed at reducing WASH-related risks.

It will aim at building capacities of students and decision-makers, thereby promoting sustained development.

This is one-of-a-kind association which has never been done before that will lead to the healthy development of low-income settlements in the area. Through WASH governance strengthening activities, it aims to reach 50,000 beneficiaries in low-income settlements and over 300 professionals. It will also reach out to 2,500 students through 20 municipal schools across India through school WASH programs. To achieve optimum benefits of water, hygiene and sanitation measures, it is important to create public awareness of the link between poor sanitation and hygiene, and the diseases. The WASH program with its different levels of activities would be effective in this regard.

Dr. Kiran Acharya is a dental surgeon, writer, and an unconventional philosopher.

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Need of Water and Sanitation Program in India

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Water is a basic necessity, and an important resource for sustaining life. The decline in water quality endangers the health of humans as well as the ecosystem. Clean drinking water, hygiene, and sanitation play an important part in maintaining health.

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Primary prevention of diarrhoea through water, sanitation and hygiene interventions is based on reducing the faecal-oral transmission of pathogens, and includes the provision of an improved water supply, water safety planning, household water treatment and safe storage, improved sanitation facilities, and hygiene education. Improved water supplies refer to technologies such as piped household water connections, public taps, standpipes, or protected dug wells, springs or rainwater collection. Improved sanitation facilities may include flush/pour flush toilets to a confined system, improved latrines (e.g. ventilated, with slab), or composting toilets (2). Water safety planning considers the management of water from the source to tap (6). Water treatment may be carried out at source or in the home, and safe water storage takes place in containers, preventing recontamination of water in the household (7). Hygiene education can address a number of practices, including hand washing after toilet use and before the preparation of food (8).

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Lack of access to safe, clean drinking-water and basic sanitation, as well as poor hygiene cause nearly 90% of all deaths from diarrhoea, mainly in children (1). While 87% of the world's population now have access to improved water sources, 39% still lack access to improved sanitation (2). Moreover, in developing countries 1.1 billion people still defecate in the open, and hand washing with soap is practised, on average, only after 17% of toilet uses (2,3).

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Diarrhoea most often results from the ingestion of pathogens from faeces that have not been disposed of properly, or from the lack of hygiene. A person is classified as having diarrhoea when she or he experiences more than three liquid stools per day (4). During acute diarrhoea, absorption of macronutrients tends to be high, but when diarrhoea continues for 14 days or more, malabsorption can become severe. Repeated episodes of diarrhoea lead to great loss of nutrients and fluids, causing overall weakness and dehydration. Additional electrolyte imbalance can increase mortality risk, while in terms of morbidity, there is growing evidence for long-term burden, such as impaired growth and cognitive function (5).

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Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions and the prevention of diarrhoea

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Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions and the prevention of diarrhoea

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Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions and the prevention of diarrhoea

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Primary prevention of diarrhoea through water, sanitation and hygiene interventions is based on reducing the faecal-oral transmission of pathogens, and includes the provision of an improved water supply, water safety planning, household water treatment and safe storage, improved sanitation facilities, and hygiene education.

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How can we provide sanitation and disinfection to schools and public areas without the disinfectant being harmful to humans when ingested or breathed?

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How can we provide sanitation and disinfection to schools and public areas without the disinfectant being harmful to humans when ingested or breathed?

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How can we help provide good sanitation and hygiene to people who need it around the world?

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How can we help provide good sanitation and hygiene to people who need it around the world?

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How can we make people take action to decrease the air pollution in Santiago?

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Facts and figures on ocean acidification

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Facts and figures on ocean acidification

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The ocean absorbs approximately 26% of the CO₂ added to the atmosphere from human activities each year.

Ocean acidity has increased by 30% since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. This increase is 100 times faster than any change in acidity experienced by marine organisms for at least the last 20 million years.

Business as usual scenarios for CO₂ emissions could make the ocean up to 150% more acidic by 2100.

If the concentration of atmospheric CO₂ continues to increase at the current rate, the ocean will become corrosive to the shells of many marine organisms by the end of this century. How or if marine organisms may adapt is not known.

Ocean acidification may threaten plankton, which forms the base of the marine food chain; it is key to the survival of larger fish.

Ocean acidification may render most regions of the ocean inhospitable to coral reefs, affecting tourism, food security, shoreline protection, and biodiversity.

The ocean absorbs CO₂ from human activities at a rate of 22 million tons per day.

The ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere is being degraded by ocean acidification, which could worsen its impact on climate change.

With the carbon market price range of US $20 to $200 per tonne of carbon, ocean uptake of CO₂ represents an annual subsidy to the global economy of US$40 - 400 billion, or 0.1–1% of the Gross World Product.

Further research and collective action is needed to fully understand and mitigate the impacts of ocean acidification.

The Blueprint for ocean and coastal sustainability includes proposals to implement urgent actions to mitigate and adapt to ocean acidification.

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Global Warming.

Climate Change.

Acid Rain.

Smog effect.

Deterioration of fields.

Extinction of animal species.

Respiratory health problems.

Deterioration in building materials.

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29th April 2019

The constant pollution of the air has very negative effects on nature and on human health. Those long-term and medium-term effects have become problems that are difficult to solve.

In this article, we are listing the main 10 negative effects that air pollution is causing worldwide:

Global Warming

Probably global warming is one of the most worrying effects for scientists and environmentalists. Global warming is a direct consequence of the greenhouse effect, which is produced by the high emission of CO₂ and methane into the atmosphere. Most of these emissions are produced by the industry, so this can be remedied by social responsibility and action by companies and factories.

Climate Change

Climate Change is another consequence of global warming. When the temperature of the planet increases, there is a disturbance in the usual climatic cycles, accelerating the changes of these cycles in an evident way.

Due to climate change, the mass of the poles is melting, and this is leading to flooding and the rising of sea levels.

Acid Rain

The gases emitted by industries, power plants, boilers, heating and transport are very toxic. Those gases include sulphur dioxide (SO ₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) issued into the atmosphere that come from fossil fuels burning. When those substances accumulate in the atmosphere and react with water, they form dilute solutions of nitric and sulphuric acid, and when those concentrations become rain, both the environment and surfaces suffer.

Smog effect

The smog effect or beret effect happens when there is a kind of dark fog concentrated over the cities and fields. That fog is a load of pollutants and can be of 2 types: sulphurous smog and photochemical smog, both dangerous and harmful to health. Both types of smog are a consequence of industrial and urban action. However, sulphurous smog has its origin mainly in the use of coal in many industrial processes. That has been reduced in the most advanced countries - nevertheless, there are still many developing countries that do not have treatment protocols for pollutants.

Deterioration of fields

Acid rain, climate change and smog all damage the Earth surface. Contaminated water and gases seep into the earth, changing the composition of soils. That directly affects agriculture, changing crop cycles and the composition of the food we all eat.

Extinction of animal species

As the ice masses of the poles melt and sea levels rise, many animal species, whose survival depends on oceans and rivers, are threatened. Currents change, ocean temperatures change and migratory cycles change, and many animals are forced to seek food in environments unknown to them. Deforestation and poor soil quality also mean the disappearance of ecosystems and habitats. And definitively, an imbalance in the behavior of many wild species.

Respiratory health problems

It is probably one of the most obvious and worrying effects for human beings. Pollutants can cause respiratory illnesses and allergies ranging from coughs to asthma, cancer or emphysema.

Inhalation of toxic agents directly affects the lungs and other organs that make up the respiratory system. Also, poor oxygenation can lead to cardiovascular problems.

Deterioration in building materials

Air pollutants also deteriorate and change the constitution of building materials, so many buildings and infrastructure are weakened, eroded or destroyed at an accelerated rate over time.

Chemical Sensitivity

People develop intolerances and allergies to many agents present in the atmosphere and to other external agents that can go through due to the holes in the ozone layer. This is because there is a high concentration of chlorofluorocarbons that alter the thickness of the ozone layer.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are released using aerosols, industrial refrigerants, solvents and other very harmful chemicals.

Skin Damage

Many of the chemical intolerances directly affect people's skin. However, one of the worst damage is skin cancer. That disease in many cases develops from the direct incidence of ultraviolet light rays on the skin.

The ozone layer acts as a filter for those rays. If the ozone layer is thinner, the effectiveness of the filter decreases, letting rays pass, which are very harmful to humans.

All those important effects can increase if their causes are not rapidly acted upon. Most of them are the result of very intense, polluting and uncontrolled industrial activity.

Companies around the world have the responsibility to manage, treat and control the pollutants they emit into the atmosphere. Our health and avoiding the destruction of the environment depend on their response.

At Tecam Group we offer smart technological solutions for the control and elimination of industrial pollutants, focusing above all on emissions of exhaust air. Contact us to find out more about custom-made environmental solutions for your company.

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10 Serious Effects of Air Pollution on the Environment

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29th April 2019 The constant pollution of the air has very negative effects on nature and on human health. Those long-term and medium-term effects have become problems that are difficult to solve.

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Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve.

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Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing shells may begin to dissolve. ... The impacts of ocean acidification are not uniform across all species.

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Ocean acidification has the potential to change marine ecosystems and impact many ocean-related benefits to society such as coastal protection or provision of food and income.

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Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The main cause of ocean acidification is the burning of fossil fuels. In other words, Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere.

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Fernanda Camus:
How do humans affect the environment based on air pollution?

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Overpopulation is an undesirable condition where the number of the existing human population exceeds the actual carrying capacity of Earth. Overpopulation is caused by a number of factors. Reduced mortality rate, better medical facilities, depletion of precious resources are few of the causes which result in overpopulation. It is possible for a sparsely populated area to become densely populated if it is not able to sustain life.

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Overpopulation Definition

Overpopulation refers to a population which exceeds its sustainable size within a particular environment or habitat. Overpopulation results from an increased birth rate, decreased death rate, the immigration to a new ecological niche with fewer predators, or the sudden decline in available resources. Therefore, overpopulation describes a situation in which a population in a given ecosystem limit the resources available for survival.

Overpopulation Effects

Overpopulation can have several effects on the environment, as well as other species within an ecological system. Indeed, human overpopulation has resulted in technological advances which have increased human lifespan and fertility, and consequently placed pressure on global resources. Such effects are such that the planet is currently in a novel geological epoch called the Anthropocene. In general, overpopulation results in an ecological disruption as resources are depleted. This disruption can lead to the decline of other populations which compete for the same resources. Typically, such effects result in the cycling between periods of population growth and periods of population decline until it can reach homeostasis within a particular ecological niche. Some examples of naturally regulated population growth are rodents, rabbits, and various insect populations (e.g., army worms and locusts).

In situations of overpopulation caused by the introduction of a foreign species for which they have no natural predators, they can become an invasive species. An example is the inadvertent introduction of zebra mussels to the North American water systems. Since zebra mussels are natively from the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, they have no natural predators in the foreign ecosystems of North America and parts of Europe. As such, zebra mussels quickly became an invasive species, clogging water treatment pipes, affecting power plants, and impacting the local freshwater fish populations. It is estimated that the overpopulation of zebra mussels has cost approximately $5 billion USD since their introduction. The image below illustrates an infestation of zebra mussels on a North American lock due to the overpopulation of zebra mussels in the North American waterways. Other economic effects of overpopulation include those caused by crop destruction, as seen with the overpopulation of rabbits in Australia. While the overpopulation of rabbits destroyed farmers crops, leading to poor yields, the continent also experienced a loss of native plant species, as well as the removal of precious topsoil due to erosion.

Another effect of the overpopulation of one species, is the increased population growth of the natural predators of such species. This effect is generally considered to be positive, as the predator population serves to control the overpopulated prey species. Such effects also serve to drive evolutionary changes as the prey species evolves to avoid increased predation.

Solutions for Overpopulation

Historically, there have been several situations for which overpopulated species could not be managed naturally. In these instances, issues with overpopulation have been overcome using a variety of methods. One of the most common causes of overpopulation is the introduction of foreign species to a new ecological niche for which they have no natural predators. A famous example is the introduction of rabbits to Australia in the 19th century, where they had no natural predators. In an attempt to control the overpopulation of rabbits in Australia, several different methods were employed. Poison, hunting, a rabbit-proof gate, and the introduction of predators (e.g., ferrets and cats) were some methods used in an attempt to control the rabbit population. However, after these methods failed, scientists released the myxoma virus into the rabbit population. Myxoma virus is a rabbit-specific virus that successfully reduced the rabbit population by approximately 500 million.

Causes of Overpopulation

The overpopulation of a species can result from a variety of factors. The most common include:

1. The introduction of a foreign species for which it has no natural predators. Often, such species become invasive, as seen in the above examples of zebra mussels and the introduction of rabbits in Australia.

2. An increased birth rate will result in population growth, which can lead to the overpopulation of a species if such growth exceeds the resources within a particular geographic area.

3. Decreased mortality rates can result in the overpopulation of a species if the increased lifespan of a species results in limiting the available resources within an ecological niche.

4. A reduction in available resources can result in overpopulation if the amount of available resources cannot sustain the population within that region. Some examples include desert environments or times of drought which make crops and other sources of food scarce.

Quiz

1. Which of the following is NOT a cause of overpopulation:
A. Increased mortality rate
B. Increased birth rate
C. Decreased mortality rate
D. Absence of predators

2. Zebra mussels in North America and rabbits in Australia are examples of what effect of overpopulation?
A. Decreased food availability
B. Increased population growth of natural predators
C. Invasive species
D. None of the above

References

Petersen B. (1972). Reproductive efficiency and overpopulation. Population Review. 16(1): 60-63.

Ratcliffe F. (1955). Review of Myxomatosis in Australia, 1950-1955. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science. 21(3): 130-133.

Strayer D, Caraco N, Cole J, Findlay S, and Pace M. (1999). Transformation of Freshwater Ecosystems by Bivalves: A case study of zebra mussels in the Hudson River. BioScience. 49(1): 19-28.

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Overpopulation - Definition, Effects, Causes and Solutions | Biology

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Overpopulation refers to a population which exceeds its sustainable size within a particular environment or habitat. Overpopulation results from an increased birth rate, decreased death rate, the immigration to a new ecological niche with fewer predators, or the sudden decline in available resources.

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"Being exposed to the rain  can make  a wild range of health effects toward the living beings, from being exposed to air pollution." the diseases that can cause are,
"Heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory disorders like emphysema are some long-term health consequences of air pollution."

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This lists the logos of programs or partners of NG Education which have provided or contributed the content on this page. Powered by

Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary

Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings. Pollutants in the air take many forms. They can be gases, solid particles, or liquid droplets.

Sources of Air Pollution

Pollution enters the Earth's atmosphere in many different ways. Most air pollution is created by people, taking the form of emissions from factories, cars, planes, or aerosol cans. Second-hand cigarette smoke is also considered air pollution. These man-made sources of pollution are called anthropogenic sources.

Some types of air pollution, such as smoke from wildfires or ash from volcanoes, occur naturally. These are called natural sources.

Air pollution is most common in large cities where emissions from many different sources are concentrated. Sometimes, mountains or tall buildings prevent air pollution from spreading out. This air pollution often appears as a cloud making the air murky. It is called smog. The word "smog" comes from combining the words "smoke" and "fog."

Large cities in poor and developing nations tend to have more air pollution than cities in developed nations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), some of the worlds most polluted cities are Karachi, Pakistan; New Delhi, India; Beijing, China; Lima, Peru; and Cairo, Egypt. However, many developed nations also have air pollution problems. Los Angeles, California, is nicknamed Smog City.

Indoor Air Pollution

Air pollution is usually thought of as smoke from large factories or exhaust from vehicles. But there are many types of indoor air pollution as well.

Heating a house by burning substances such as kerosene, wood, and coal can contaminate the air inside the house. Ash and smoke make breathing difficult, and they can stick to walls, food, and clothing.

Naturally-occurring radon gas, a cancer-causing material, can also build up in homes. Radon is released through the surface of the Earth. Inexpensive systems installed by professionals can reduce radon levels.

Some construction materials, including insulation, are also dangerous to people's health. In addition, ventilation, or air movement, in homes and rooms can lead to the spread of toxic mold. A single colony of mold may exist in a damp, cool place in a house, such as between walls. The mold's spores enter the air and spread throughout the house. People can become sick from breathing in the spores.

Effects On Humans

People experience a wide range of health effects from being exposed to air pollution. Effects can be broken down into short-term effects and long-term effects.

Short-term effects, which are temporary, include illnesses such as pneumonia or bronchitis. They also include discomfort such as irritation to the nose, throat, eyes, or skin. Air pollution can also cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Bad smells made by factories, garbage, or sewer systems are considered air pollution, too. These odors are less serious but still unpleasant.

Long-term effects of air pollution can last for years or for an entire lifetime. They can even lead to a person's death. Long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema. Air pollution can also cause long-term damage to people's nerves, brain, kidneys, liver, and other organs. Some scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects. Nearly 2.5 million people die worldwide each year from the effects of outdoor or indoor air pollution.

People react differently to different types of air pollution. Young children and older adults, whose immune systems tend to be weaker, are often more sensitive to pollution. Conditions such as asthma, heart disease, and lung disease can be made worse by exposure to air pollution. The length of exposure and amount and type of pollutants are also factors.

Effects On The Environment

Like people, animals, and plants, entire ecosystems can suffer effects from air pollution. Haze, like smog, is a visible type of air pollution that obscures shapes and colors. Hazy air pollution can even muffle sounds.

Air pollution particles eventually fall back to Earth. Air pollution can directly contaminate the surface of bodies of water and soil. This can kill crops or reduce their yield. It can kill young trees and other plants.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles in the air, can create acid rain when they mix with water and oxygen in the atmosphere. These air pollutants come mostly from coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles. When acid rain falls to Earth, it damages plants by changing soil composition; degrades water quality in rivers, lakes and streams; damages crops; and can cause buildings and monuments to decay.

Like humans, animals can suffer health effects from exposure to air pollution. Birth defects, diseases, and lower reproductive rates have all been attributed to air pollution.

Global Warming

Global warming is an environmental phenomenon caused by natural and anthropogenic air pollution. It refers to rising air and ocean temperatures around the world. This temperature rise is at least partially caused by an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat energy in the Earths atmosphere. (Usually, more of Earths heat escapes into space.)

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that has had the biggest effect on global warming. Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, and natural gas). Humans have come to rely on fossil fuels to power cars and planes, heat homes, and run factories. Doing these things pollutes the air with carbon dioxide.

Other greenhouse gases emitted by natural and artificial sources also include methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. Methane is a major emission from coal plants and agricultural processes. Nitrous oxide is a common emission from industrial factories, agriculture, and the burning of fossil fuels in cars. Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons, are emitted by industry. Fluorinated gases are often used instead of gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been outlawed in many places because they deplete the ozone layer.

Worldwide, many countries have taken steps to reduce or limit greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. The Kyoto Protocol, first adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, is an agreement between 183 countries that they will work to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions. The United States has not signed that treaty.

Regulation

In addition to the international Kyoto Protocol, most developed nations have adopted laws to regulate emissions and reduce air pollution. In the United States, debate is under way about a system called cap and trade to limit emissions. This system would cap, or place a limit, on the amount of pollution a company is allowed. Companies that exceeded their cap would have to pay. Companies that polluted less than their cap could trade or sell their remaining pollution allowance to other companies. Cap and trade would essentially pay companies to limit pollution.

In 2006 the World Health Organization issued new Air Quality Guidelines. The WHOs guidelines are tougher than most individual countries existing guidelines. The WHO guidelines aim to reduce air pollution-related deaths by 15 percent a year.

Reduction

Anybody can take steps to reduce air pollution. Millions of people every day make simple changes in their lives to do this. Taking public transportation instead of driving a car, or riding a bike instead of traveling in carbon dioxide-emitting vehicles are a couple of ways to reduce air pollution. Avoiding aerosol cans, recycling yard trimmings instead of burning them, and not smoking cigarettes are others.

Credits

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Writers

Kim Rutledge
Tara Ramroop
Diane Boudreau
Melissa McDaniel
Santani Teng
Erin Sprout
Hilary Costa
Hilary Hall
Jeff Hunt

Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society
Tim Gunther

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing
Kara West

Educator Reviewer

Nancy Wynne

Producer

Caryl-Sue, National Geographic Society

Sources

Dunn, Margery G. (Editor). (1989, 1993). "Exploring Your World: The Adventure of Geography." Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Last Updated

April 4, 2011

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Nancy Wynne

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This lists the logos of programs or partners of NG Education which have provided or contributed the content on this page. Powered by Encyclopedic Entry Vocabulary Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings.

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Basic sanitation consists of a couple main points; having somewhere to dispose of human waste, and having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.

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Sanitation and hygiene are critical to health, survival, and development. Many countries are challenged in providing adequate sanitation for their entire populations, leaving people at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases. Throughout the world, an estimated 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation (more than 32% of the world's population) 1, 2. Basic sanitation is described as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of human waste (feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater treatment and disposal.

The world did not achieve the United Nations' Millennium Development Goal (MDG) sanitation target (i.e., to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to basic sanitation by 2015). Now, the United Nations' Sustainable Development goal (SDG) is for everyone to have "adequate and equitable" sanitation by 2030 3.

Page last reviewed:

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centers for disease control and prevention

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Sanitation and hygiene are critical to health, survival, and development. Many countries are challenged in providing adequate sanitation for their entire populations, leaving people at risk for water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases. Throughout the world, an estimated 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation (more than 32% of the world's population) 1, 2 .

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Air pollution is caused by solid and liquid particles and certain gases that are suspended in the air. These particles and gases can come from car and truck exhaust, factories, dust, pollen, mold spores, volcanoes and wildfires.

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Air pollution happens when solid and liquid particles-called aerosols -and certain gases end up in our air. These particles and gases can be bad for the planet and for our health, so keeping track of them is important.

Where do aerosols come from?

Any particle that gets picked up into the air or is formed from chemical reactions in the air can be an aerosol. Many aerosols enter the atmosphere when we burn fossil fuels-such as coal and petroleum-and wood. These particles can come from many sources, including car exhaust, factories and even wildfires. Some of the particles and gases come directly from these sources, but others form through chemical reactions in the air.

Aerosols can come from other places, too, such as ash from an erupting volcano. Dust, pollen from plants and mold spores are also examples of aerosols.

What else causes air pollution?

Certain gases in the atmosphere can cause air pollution. For example, in cities, a gas called ozone is a major cause of air pollution. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas that can be both good and bad for our environment. It all depends where it is in Earth's atmosphere.

Ozone high up in our atmosphere is a good thing. It helps block harmful energy from the Sun, called radiation. But, when ozone is closer to the ground, it can be really bad for our health. Ground level ozone is created when sunlight reacts with certain chemicals that come from sources of burning fossil fuels, such as factories or car exhaust.

When particles in the air combine with ozone, they create smog. Smog is a type of air pollution that looks like smoky fog and makes it difficult to see.

How does air pollution affect Earth's climate?

Aerosols can impact how the Sun's light hits Earth. For example, some aerosols reflect sunlight while others absorb sunlight. It depends on the color of the particle.

Dark surfaces-whether it's a black t-shirt or a dark particle in the atmosphere-absorb the Sun's heat. Lighter-colored surfaces reflect heat from the Sun.

A white t-shirt reflects the Sun on a hot day, making you feel cooler. In the same way, light-colored particles that reflect the Sun's light and heat away from Earth can make the global temperature cooler. Dark-colored particles that absorb the Sun's light can make the global temperature warmer.

How does air pollution affect our health?

Breathing in polluted air can be very bad for our health. Long-term exposure to air pollution has been associated with diseases of the heart and lungs, cancers and other health problems. That's why it's important for us to monitor air pollution.

How is NASA monitoring air pollution?

NASA uses satellites orbiting Earth to keep an eye on air pollution. In fact, air quality forecasters use information about aerosols from NASA's Aqua, Terra and Suomi-NPP satellites.

NASA also is developing a new instrument called the Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols, or MAIA, to fly aboard a future spacecraft mission. MAIA will help scientists understand the size, makeup and quantity of aerosols in our air. Eventually, scientists will be able to compare this information with health records. This can help us better understand the relationship between aerosol pollution and human health.

Related NASA Missions

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Air pollution is caused by solid or liquid particles and certain gases suspended in the air. These particles and gases can come from car and truck exhaust, factories, dust, pollen, mold spores, volcanoes and wildfires.

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Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals from factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog. Some air pollutants are poisonous.

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MedlinePlus links to health information from the National Institutes of Health and other federal government agencies. MedlinePlus also links to health information from non-government Web sites. See our disclaimer about external links and our quality guidelines.

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MedlinePlus links to health information from the National Institutes of Health and other federal government agencies. MedlinePlus also links to health information from non-government Web sites. See our disclaimer about external links and our quality guidelines.