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When you blush the inside of your stomach also blushes:

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When you blush the inside of your stomach also blushes:

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When you blush, the inside of your stomach also blushes/turns red. This response is because of the sympathetic nervous system causing increased blood flow throughout the body. If you are ever embarrassed, your body releases adrenaline which prepares your body for stressful situations. It also makes blood vessels in your body dilate to improve your blood flow and oxygen in case the body has to “flee” from a harmful/dangerous situation. The veins that we have in our face as well as our stomach lining have more blood flowing than normal through them which is why they appear red when you blush.

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The endocrine system is located deep within the abdomen. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce and regulate your metabolism, growth, development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, mood, etc. The word endo within itself means within and crinis meaning to secrete. Overall a gland selects and takes out material from the blood. It then processes them and secretes a finished product for use in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell within the body.

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The endocrine system is made up of: the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females), and testicles (in males)

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Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is located in the brain in between the hypothalamus and pineal gland, right behind the bridge of the nose. It is similarly the size of a pea and is attached to the brain by thin blood vessels and nerve cells. The frontal lobe is the largest part of the pituitary--80% of the gland’s overall weight. It is called the master gland of the endocrine system because it controls many other hormone glands in the body, without it the body would not grow or reproduce properly as well as many other body functions.

Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped organ in your throat that is very important to your health. Thyroid hormones have an impact on a variety of bodily functions such as your heart rate, skin maintenance, growth, regulating temperature, fertility, and digestion.

Parathyroid glands: Parathyroid glands can be located behind the thyroid. It is made up of four mustard colored other glands that stretches across the front of the neck and below the voice box. Parathyroid glands play a big part in the endocrine system. They keep bones strong, the nervous system running, and muscles pumping. PTH regulates how much calcium is in the blood which is one of the only materials that has its own dedicated gland. Even though the parathyroid gland and thyroid are near each other they do not have the same functions.

Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands are located on the top of each kidney. They are composed of two distinct structures-- the medulla and adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex produces hormones that are vital to life such as cortisol (helps regulate metabolism and responds to stress), also aldosterone (helps regulate blood pressure). The adrenal medulla produces hormones such as adrenaline that is not necessary to be produced to live.

Pancreas: The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper left of your abdomen. It plays an essential role of converting food that we eat into fuel for our body’s cells. It also has two main functions. An exocrine function to help digestion and an endocrine function that helps regulate blood sugar.

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The circulatory, nervous, and digestive work hand in hand with the endocrine. The circulatory system is a transport for endocrine information. The nervous system also works with the endocrine, the nervous uses neurons. However, when the endocrine system needs to move chemicals and hormones created they transfer via blood vessels. A lot of glands within your body secrete hormones into the blood. The digestive system is important for metabolism and growth as well to support the endocrine.

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Frog and human endocrine systems are pretty similar-- they both contain organs such as the thymus, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, gonads, and adrenal glands. They transport their hormones/products vital for life the same way we do

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Thyroid disease: Thyroid disorders can range from small and harmless enlarged glands that does not need any treatment nor is life threatening to dangerous symptoms that can be very painful. It can be caused by pituitary malfunctions or nodules that develop in the thyroid gland. It can be cured with surgery or reduced with medications.

Diabetes mellitus: If there was a malfunction in your endocrine system is can cause issues within your other body systems. DM is a disorder of carbohydrate metabolism that makes the body unable to produce or respond to insulin. Therefore unable to maintain proper levels of sugar. You can not get rid of this disease only reduce it with medications and a healthy lifestyle.

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The reproductive system creates the only way humans can be biologically “successful” in their life. To be biologically successful is to give birth to offspring at replacement level so that once you die your genes are passed on and enter a broader gene pool. The greatest function is for the females to produce, transport, and develop the eggs and the male sperm to create viable

offspring to pass on traits into future generations.

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The organs within the reproductive system of both male and female are the Vagina, uterus, cervix, endometrium, fallopian tubes, ovaries, penis, testicles, sperm, epididymis, va deferens.

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Vagina- a channel made of muscle that extends from the start of the womb to the genitals. This is the external part the uterus

Cervix- This is the lower part of the uterus that is made up of muscles that allows for the flow of menstrual blood to go from the uterus to the vagina

Endometrium- This is the most inner layer into the ovar, the function of it is that it lines the uterus which provides adhesion

Uterus-  The uterus is also called the womb, this is a muscular structure shaped in a way liked a an upside down pear. The neck of the womb is called the cervix

Fallopian Tubes- These two tubes that come from each side of the womb open near the ovary. These tubes carry the females egg to the ovary

Ovaries- These are two small oval shaped glands that contain the eggs. The female sex hormones are also created within the ovaries

The male reproductive organs:

Penis- This is a tissue that fills with blood during arousal. Within the penis is sperm and a different kinds of fluids that from the reproductive organs. The sperm exits through the  urethra

Testicles- This is a gland within the sack called the scrotum. The sperm and other hormones are made by the testicles

Epididymis- A small tube, one coming from each testes. The epididymis stores the sperm.

Vas deferens- This is a larger tube that comes from the epididymis, the sperm travels to the urethra

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The lymphatic system does not work alone, it also works with the immune and circulatory. The lymphatic system aids the immune by helping destroy pathogens as well as filtering wastes so the lymph can return to the circulatory system safely. They work together to remove excess fluids, wastes, debris, dead blood cells, pathogens, and cancer cells. The lymphatic system also works with the circulatory system to deliver products such as: nutrients, oxygen, and hormones from the blood to the cells that need it to make up tissues of the body.

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The reproductive system of a frog in comparison to a human is quite different but they have some of the the same reproductive organs. Male frogs fertilize the female, which results in the female leaving eggs in the water. A human male fertilizes the egg of a female with his sperm, the female then carries the unborn child for 9 months then gives birth. The similarities between the two systems is that both males of testicles and both females have ovaries. Both species also produce the same sex hormone males, testosterone and females, estrogen.

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Prostate Cancer: This is cancer of the prostate, the treatment varies from person to person. Depending on the stage then chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery is necessary to remove the cancer from the prostate

Ovarian Cancer: This kind of cancer has not a great prognosis, the cancer within the ovaries is difficult to treat and will be quite aggressive if not caught early. This cancer will stop the production of eggs.

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The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help the body get rid of the toxins, waste, and other unnecessary products within it. The primary function is to to produce and transport lymph, which is a fluid containing white blood cells that fight infections throughout the body. Three main functions include: removal of excess fluids, absorption of fatty acids, and as said before, transport and create lymph.

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Organs within the lymphatic system include: The thymus, the spleen, the tonsils, and the appendix.

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Thymus: The thymus is located in the thoracic cavity just under the the neck. Two lobes make up the organ and it is composed of lymphoid tissue. Each lobe contains a medulla that is surrounded by a cortex. In the cortex immature lymphocytes go there to become “T” cells, but their maturation is completed in the medulla.

Spleen: The spleen’s location is in the upper left of the abdomen, tucked under the ribs. It’s main function is to filter blood. It gets rid of old/damaged red blood cells. It also can detect viruses and and bacteria which triggers the release of lymphocytes.

Tonsils: The tonsils are masses that can be found in the back of the throat and nasal cavity, that are made up of lymphoid tissue. Their main purpose is to help fight infections which makes them also a part of the immune system.

Appendix: The appendix can be found attached to the large intestine, in the lower right section of the abdomen, it is a pouch made up of lymphatic tissue. Even though it is made up of lymphatic tissue it doesn’t really have much function in the lymphatic system other than releasing releasing mucus into the large intestine.

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The lymphatic system does not work alone, it also works with the immune and circulatory. The lymphatic system aids the immune by helping destroy pathogens as well as filtering wastes so the lymph can return to the circulatory system safely. They work together to remove excess fluids, wastes, debris, dead blood cells, pathogens, and cancer cells. The lymphatic system also works with the circulatory system to deliver products such as: nutrients, oxygen, and hormones from the blood to the cells that need it to make up tissues of the body.

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Frog’s lymphatic systems are similar to ours in a way where their lymph capillaries form a network in all of the organs, except in the nervous system. At the end of their lymph capillaries they have small swollen knobs which help connect lymph tissue to tissue. I did not find many other similarities other than their also relates to their circulatory system.

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A disease associated with the lymphatic system is lymphangitis. Lymphangitis is the inflammation of the walls of the lymphatic vessels. It is caused when a bacteria or virus enters the lymphatic walls. It can enter through a cut or wound and can also grow from a current infection. Another disease is lymphedema. Lymphedema is the swelling in an arm or leg. It is caused by a lymphatic build up part of the immune and circulatory systems. It is most commonly caused by a lymph node removal or damage due to cancer treatment.

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The main function of the digestive system is digestion and absorption. Digestion is the physical process of breaking down food into small particles/molecules which are then absorbed into/by the body.The digestive tract is a continuous tube with two openings: the mouth and the anus. Food that passes through the internal cavity does not technically enter the body until it is absorbed through the walls of the tract and passed into the blood or lymphatic systems.

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The organs associated with the digestive system are the: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.

Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

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Mouth: The mouth is the source of how food gets inside of your body. Digestion starts here, it starts with the first bite of food taken by your mouth. Chewing breaks the food down into bites that can be swallowed and therefor digested easier. Saliva mixes with the food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can use.

Pharynx: The pharynx is also known as the throat, it is located just above the esophagus. It is the portion of the digestive tract that receives the food from your mouth. It’s main purpose is to serve as a pathway from the mouth to the esophagus.

Esophagus: The esophagus is a long and thin tube that connects to the pharynx (throat), “hidden” behind the trachea. It serves as a pathway for food and air that has been swallowed/inhaled which leads to the stomach.

Stomach: The stomach is a very important part of the digestive system, located on the left side of the upper abdomen. The stomach secretes the enzymes to digest food. There are ridges on the muscle called rugae that line the stomach. The muscles in the stomach contract to periodically churn the food to enhance digestion. The pyloric sphincter allows food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

Small intestine: The small intestine is very important in the system. 90% of digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine and the other 10% happens in the stomach and large intestine. The main function of the small intestine is absorption of nutrients and minerals from food. It is a long tube running from the stomach to the anus, located inferior to the stomach and takes up the majority of the space in the abdominal cavity.

Large intestine: The large intestine is also known as the large bowel or colon, it is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system. It starts at the right

iliac region and continues from the small intestine around the abdomen. Undigested food enters the large intestine from your small intestine. It then reabsorbs water that is used in digestion and expels the undigested food. This process causes food waste products to harden and form faeces, which is later excreted.

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Some systems that the digestive system interacts with is the circulatory as well as the endocrine. The digestive system works very closely with the circulatory system to obtain/receive absorbed nutrients distributed throughout your body. The circulatory system also carries signals from your endocrine system that help control the speed of digestion. The digestive system also parallels with the excretory system (kidneys + urination). The digestive system collects. digests, and removes undigested solids, the excretory system filters compounds from your bloodstream and secretes them as urine. They are both closely connected in controlling the amount of water within your body.

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Both human and frog digestion begins with food entering the mouth. Humans and frogs both have teeth, however teeth in the frog are almost useless. The tongue is important in both humans and the frog. The frog's tongue however is mostly folded toward the back of the throat. From the mouth of both creatures food passes into the stomach through the esophagus. From there it moves to the small intestine where most digestion takes place. Liquid wastes from the kidneys go through the ureter through the urinary tract. Solid wastes and liquids excrete from the large intestine through the cloaca. Differing from human where solid waste goes through the anus.

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A couple diseases associated with the digestive system is: celiac disease, and crohn’s disease. Celiac disease is a serious sensitivity to gluten which is a protein most found in wheat, rye, and barley. In this instance, when you eat gluten your immune system attacks and damages your small intestine and villi. Crohn’s disease is a part of digestive conditions called inflammatory bowel disease. It mostly affects the terminal ileum which connects the end of the small intestine to the colon. It causes excruciating pain and can be deadly.

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The body takes nutrients from food and converts it into energy. After the body takes what it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel/blood. The main function of the urinary system is to eliminate liquid waste called urea. It also keeps chemicals such as: potassium, sodium, and water in balance.

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The urinary system is composed of: two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder, two sphincter muscles, nerves in the bladder, and a urethra

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Kidneys: The pair of purplish “beans” are located below the ribs and toward the middle of the back. Their function is to remove waste (liquid) from the blood in the form of urine. They also keep a balance state of salts and other substances, and produce erythropoietin (the hormone associated with the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow). They remove the urea through small tubes called the nephrons. They each contain a ball of small blood capillaries and a tube called the renal tube. Urea with other products form the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules in the kidney.

Ureters: As you can see in the diagram, the ureters are connected to the kidney in the lower base. The ureters are narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. There are muscles in the ureter that continually contract and relax that forces the urine downward. (if urine is is backed up or allowed to stand still a kidney infection can develope)

Bladder: The bladder is a triangular shaped hollow organ located in the lower abdomen. The bladder is held in place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The walls of the bladder relax and expand to store urine and then contract and flatten to empty the urine through the urethra.

Sphincter muscles: The sphincter muscles are circular muscles that are located around the opening of the bladder. They help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band.

Nerves in the bladder:  Nerves in the bladder are pretty self explanatory. The nerves are located within the bladder and they alert a person when it is time to urinate.

- Urethra: The urethra is a tube located in the bladder that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to contract/tighten causing the urine to leave the bladder. Simultaneously, the brain signals  sphincter muscles to relax to allow urine to exit the bladder through the urethra. When all signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

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(frog)

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The urinary (or excretory system) definitely does not work alone. Others systems that assist it are: the endocrine, nervous, muscular, and circulatory. The adrenal glands are also a part of the endocrine system along with the urinary. The glands secrete a chemical substance that allow the kidneys to effectively regulate fluids within the body. The process is directly related to blood pressure and the circulatory system. The urinary process is closely related to the circulatory by the process of cleansing the blood of waste, removing excess fluid, and as well as keeping specific fluids/substances in balance. The nervous and muscular system take part in the urinary tract by controlling the muscles and nerves that are sent by your brain to take certain actions and alert such as when your body needs to urinate as well as making sure nothing leaks (muscles).

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It can be hard to compare the frog and human urinary system, however they do have distinct similarities. Both humans and frogs have urinary systems that include kidneys and a bladder. Frogs however are amphibians and amphibians also have a cloaca as we learned in our dissection first semester. The cloaca collects both solid AND liquid wastes and pushes them out together. Different from our urinary system that is responsible for just fluids.

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There are many diseases/issues associated with the urinary system, but the two we will be focusing in on is chronic kidney disease, and diabetes insipidus. Chronic kidney disease means that your kidneys are far damaged and are unable to do their job. With your kidneys down, blood is not filtered as it should, and a build up of wastes start to form. It his a big harm to your health and can lead to other issues such as diabetes and high blood pressure (most common). The kidney damage can develop over years and many don’t realize/show symptoms until their disease has advanced. Blood and urine tests are the only way to know if you have kidney disease. There are no treatments that can 100% cure this disease, but medicines and regulated blood pressure can help deplete symptoms. Diabetes insipidus could also be put as frequent urination. You can become extremely thirsty which causes you to drink more and more liquids which causes you to urinate. This cycle can keep you up in the night or even cause you to wet the bed. DI is different than regular diabetes, however symptoms can be similar: the need to urinate in large volumes, and excessive thirst. DI is usually caused by a problem with your pituitary gland and kidneys. Treatments depend of the severity of each case but medications prescribed by doctors can usually help.