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QUESTION 1Explain how hormones are used to control the human menstrual cycle.a. FSH stimulates the development of folliclesb. follicles produce estrogenc. estrogen stimulates the repair of the uterus liningd. estrogen stimulates LH secretione. LH causes/stimulates ovulationf. LH causes/stimulates the development of the corpus luteumg. corpus luteum secretes progesteroneh. progesterone causes/stimulates thickening of the uterus lining    OR    prepares uterine lining for implantation    OR    maintains the endometriumi. progesterone/estrogen inhibits the secretion of LH/FSHj. falling progesterone levels at the end of the cycle allow FSH production/menstruationk. negative/positive feedback «control» described correctlyl. LH/FSH are pituitary hormones[Max 8 Marks]QUESTION 2Explain the roles of specific hormones in the menstrual cycle, including positive and negative feedback mechanisms.a. anterior pituitary secretes FSH which stimulates ovary for follicles to develop b. follicles secrete estrogen c. estrogen stimulates more FSH receptors on follicle cells so respond more to FSH d. increased estrogen results in positive feedback on «anterior» pituitary e. estrogen stimulates LH secretion f. estrogen promotes development of endometrium/uterine lining g. LH levels increase and cause ovulation h. LH results in negative feedback on follicle cells/estrogen production i. LH causes follicle to develop into corpus luteumORfollicle cells produce more progesterone j. progesterone thickens the uterus lining k. high progesterone results in negative feedback on pituitary/prevents FSH/LH secretion l. progesterone levels drop and allow FSH secretion m. falling progesterone leads to menstruation/degradation of uterine liningAward [5 max] if no reference to feedback is made.

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QUESTION 1Explain how hormones are used to control the human menstrual cycle.a. FSH stimulates the development of folliclesb. follicles produce estrogenc. estrogen stimulates the repair of the uterus liningd. estrogen stimulates LH secretione. LH causes/stimulates ovulationf. LH causes/stimulates the development of the corpus luteumg. corpus luteum secretes progesteroneh. progesterone causes/stimulates thickening of the uterus lining    OR    prepares uterine lining for implantation    OR    maintains the endometriumi. progesterone/estrogen inhibits the secretion of LH/FSHj. falling progesterone levels at the end of the cycle allow FSH production/menstruationk. negative/positive feedback «control» described correctlyl. LH/FSH are pituitary hormones[Max 8 Marks]QUESTION 2Explain the roles of specific hormones in the menstrual cycle, including positive and negative feedback mechanisms.a. anterior pituitary secretes FSH which stimulates ovary for follicles to develop b. follicles secrete estrogen c. estrogen stimulates more FSH receptors on follicle cells so respond more to FSH d. increased estrogen results in positive feedback on «anterior» pituitary e. estrogen stimulates LH secretion f. estrogen promotes development of endometrium/uterine lining g. LH levels increase and cause ovulation h. LH results in negative feedback on follicle cells/estrogen production i. LH causes follicle to develop into corpus luteumORfollicle cells produce more progesterone j. progesterone thickens the uterus lining k. high progesterone results in negative feedback on pituitary/prevents FSH/LH secretion l. progesterone levels drop and allow FSH secretion m. falling progesterone leads to menstruation/degradation of uterine liningAward [5 max] if no reference to feedback is made.

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- 4 hormones are involved in the menstruation cycle - FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone.
- FSH and LH are secreted by the pituitary gland while oestrogen and progesterone by the ovaries.
- FSH stimulates the maturation of follicles in the ovary, causing the release of oestrogen.
- this increase in oestrogen stimulates the release of LH, which leads to ovulation, causing the release of the ovum into the fallopian tube
- after the ovum is released, the corpus luteum releases progesterone which both inhibits the production of FSH and maintains the thickness of the endometrium lining to prepare for embryo implantation.
- when no implantation takes place, the corpus luteum disintegrates, causing progesterone levels to fall. This leads to the increase of FSH again and the cycle to continue, causing the shedding of the endometrium lining.

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there are 4 main hormones in the menstrual cycle
FSH and LH produced by the pituitary gland in the brain
Oestrogen and Progesterone produced by the ovaries.

- In the first stage of the menstrual cycle FSH is released, which stimulates the growth of a single follicle in the ovary. This in turn causes

- Oestrogen to be released from the ovaries, which stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland, and inhibits FSH.

- LH causes ovulation to occur, on day 14 of the menstrual cycle whereby the ovum travels to the fallopian tube and into the uterus.

- This causes the development of the corpus luteum which produces progesterone.

- Progesterone helps in developing and maintaining the endometrium, to be ready if the ovum is fertilised in the uterus, until day 25.

- If the ovum is not fertilised then the corpus luteum will slowly deteriorate which causes the progesterone levels to fall

- this causes the endometrium to be shed from the wall of the uterus until day 28, which then stimulates the release of FSH again.

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The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted from pituitary gland, which stimulates follicle growth and the production of estrogen.
Estrogen is secreted from the ovaries which encourages the development of the endometrium as well as the production of Lectinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. The sudden increase in LH allows ovulation to take place, in which the corpus luteum is created by the rupturing of the follicle.
Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum, thickening the endometrium walls. The production of LH and FSH is inhibited in the presence of progesterone. As the corpus luteum starts to degrade, the progesterone levels drops, causing the endometrium to be released through menstruation.

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there are four different kinds of hormone involved  in menstruation cycle.

both FSH and LH are released from anterior pituitary

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicular growth in ovaries
FSH also stimulates secretion of oestrogen

LH stimulates ovulation when the concentration of LH is at peak level.

oestrogen and progasterone are released inside the ovary.

oestrogen thicken the uterin lining, prepare for fertilised egg lies on the wall.
oestrogen also inhibits releasing of FSH and LH, preventing more ovulation happens.

progasterone mantains the thickness of uterin lining

if the ovum failed to fertilise, progasterone will gradually stop releasing, the uterin lining will eventually sloughed away.

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- Firstly, FSH is secreted by the pituitary glands
- which stimulates one follicle in the ovary causing it to mature
- Then oestrogen is secreted by the corpus luteum
- stimulating the release of LH from the pituitary glands
- this causes ovulation to occur, egg is released to the fallopian tube
- then if no fertilization occurs the level of progesterone drops which leads to menstruation
- as progesterone works to maintain the endometrium lining without it  the lining will shed

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2 hormones are released during the menstruation cycle
FSH, LH and Progesterone
Progesterone is the hormone that maintains uterus lining so as to allow the fertilised egg to attach on. If there is no fertilised egg, the uterus lining will be gone which signifies the end of the 28 day menstruation cycle.

FSH is a hormone will stimulates the follice to produce an egg from the ovary. This called ovulation. When FSH stimulates the follice in the ovary, and form a corpus  leutum.

LH allows the formed egg from the ovary to travel down to the uterus lining where it will attach itself to it.

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1) Both LH and FSH are released from the pituitary gland in the hypothalamus:

2) FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone is released first to stimulate the follicle into maturation.

3) Estrogen: Will be produced in the ovary after the follicle begins to mature and will trigger the release of LH

4) LH: Leutinizing hormone is then released which causes ovulation where the ovum travels to the fallopian tube

5) A corpus luteum forms forms without an ovum and begins releasing progesterone.

6) Progestrone and estrogen are hormones released from the ovaries. When it is released, FSH and LH release stops.

7) Progestrone is released to maintain the lining of the uterus in case the ovum becomes fertilised by the sperm and implants, endometrium thickens.

8) If an egg is implanted into the uterus lining, the placenta will begin to grow and start producing progesterone itself, and the corpus luteum will begin to disintegrate.

9) If an ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum will still disintegrate and the progesterone levels will drop, and the uterus lining will break down.

10) The cycle of FSH and LH release will begin again the cycle will start again.

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Follicle stimulating hormone is released by pituitary gland that stimulates development of follicle into an ovum in ovary.
FSH also stimulates oestrogen release in ovary.

Ostrogen initiates development of endometrium and stimulates secretion of leutinizing hormone by pituitary gland.

Peak in LH concentration makes ovulation to occur.

After ovulation, the remaining follicle surround the ovum develop to form corpus luteum.

Corpus luteum secrete progesterone which maintain the thickening endometrium, preparing it for implantation.

Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH secretion.

Drop in progesterone concentration due to disintegration of corpus luteum will cause endometrium to shed in case of absence of fertilisation.

FSH and LH is no longer inhibited and menstrual cycle will start again

Successful fertilisation and implantation will cause HCG to be secreted from implanted embryo that stimulates more progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum(by preventing it from disintegrating) and from the placenta, maintaining the endometrium.

Reflection: HCG is more towards pregnancy.

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The Follicle Stimulating Hormone stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries and the secretion of oestrogen. It's origin is from the pituitary gland (brain)

The Luteinzing Hormone is the hormone released from the pituitary gland and results in the formation of the corpus luteum. It is released during ovulation for an ovum to be released from the ovaries. (Day 14 of cycle)

The Hormone (Progesterone) allows for the thickening of endometrium cycle. It is secreted by the corpus Lutetium. It is also involved in negative feedback whereby during fertilisation, it can inhibit the FSH and LH from being released.

The Hormone Oestrogen, on day 12 (midway through the cycle) is responsible for the stimulation of the anterior pituitary gland which releases LH through positive feedback.

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-During menstruation, FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), is released by the brain
-This stimulates the production of follicle cells.
-The presence of these follicle cells would then stimulate oestrogen production by the ovary.
-High oestrogen concentration would stimulate the production of LH (leutanizing hormone) while simultaneously inhibiting the production of FSH to prevent it from producing more follicle cells
-LH would finally stimulate ovulation, the production of ovule, by rupturing the follicle cells.
-These ruptured follicle cells would then form corpus luteum which would produce progesterone and oestrogen
-These two hormones. progesterone and oestrogen, would act on the uterus to thicken the endometrial lining
-They also inhibit the production of FSH and LH

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There are several hormones involved in the menstruation cycle; they are the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), oestrogen, luteinising hormone (LH) and progesterone. FSH and LH are secreted by pituitary gland in the brain and act on the ovaries while oestrogen and progesterone are released from ovaries and act on the uterus.

Menstrual Cycle
(typically 28 days long)
-Follicular Phase
-Ovulation
-Luteal Phase
-Menstruation

FSH
-Released by the pituitary gland
-Stimulate follicle growth in the ovary
-Secretes oestrogen

Oestrogen
-Released by ovaries
-Thickens the endometrium
-Inhibits FSH
-Stimulates LH

LH
-released by pituitary gland
-stimulates ovulation (when LH is highest)
-stimulates formation of corpus luteum

Progesterone
-Released by ovaries
-Thickens endometrium in preparation for implantation
- Inhibit LH and FSH

- If no fertilisation occurs, corpus luteum degrades progesterone decreases
- Endometrium cannot be maintained
- FSH can be produced
-If fertilisation occur, corpus luteum would not degrade

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- Menstrual cycle has 3 different phases and 4 hormones involved
- Follicle stimulate hormone (FSH) and Leutinizing Hormone (LH) is released by the pituitary gland
- FSH stimulates the ovary to form follicles, which release oestrogen
- Oestrogen stimulates the growth of the uterine lining (Endometrium)
- The release of LH is also stimulated by the oestrogen
- LH causes an ovary to be released by stimulating the follicles
- The follicle then forms into a corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and oestrogen
- Both hormones maintain the growth of the endometrium and inhibit the release of FSH and LH
- After a while, the corpus luteum disintegrates and causes progesterone and oestrogen levels to drop
- The endometrium is also lost through menstrual bleeding
- The pituitary gland can start to produce FSH and LH once again, restarting the menstrual cycle

Positive Feedback Loop
- Increase in oestrogen stimulating LH and pituitary gland
- The stimulation of the

Negative Feedback Loop
- Increase in progesterone inhibits FSH and LH

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- 4 hormones involved with the menstrual cycle (FSH, LH, progesterone, oestrogen)
- During the beginning of menstrual cycle, FSH increases which stimulate the production of follicles.
-The production of follicles result in the release of oestrogen, which help the release of LH.
- LH is responsible for ovulation, the production of LH will reach the highest on the 14th day of the menstrual cycle, which triggers ovulation and the female is ready for fertilisation.
-After the 14th day, there will be a fall in LH and formation of corpus  luteum. The corpus luteum releases progesterone. Progesterone will thicken the lining of uterus, which prepare the uterus for the embedding of fertilised egg.
- if fertilsation did not occur, the level of progesterone will drop and the lining of the uterus will start to fall off. This trigger the level of FSH to rise again, which restart the menstual cycle.

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- There are two hormones being released from the pitutary gland in the brain: FSH and LH
- Whereas oestrogen and progesteron is produced from the ovaries.
- The development of follicle cells in the ovary, stimulates the release of oestrogen.
- FSH also causes the formation of follicles in the ovary.
- And when oestrogen is released, it stimulates the release of LH.
- LH is responsible for the release of the ovum from the ovary. (stimulates ovulation)
- When the corpus lutheum forms, it releases oestrogen and  progesterone which helps to maintain the endometrium (which prepares for fertilisation)
- The release of these hormones will inhibit the release of FSH which is due to negative feedback.
- When fertilisation does not occur, the corpus lutheum disintegrates (which leads to shedding) and the oestrogen and progesterone level will fall.

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a) pancreatic cells monitor the blood glucose concentrations;b) alpha and beta cells are in the islets of Langerhans;c) negative feedback mechanisms;d) send hormones (through bloodstream) to target organs;e)if too high, β cells (in pancreas) produce insulin;f) insulin stimulates liver/muscle cells to take up glucose;g) glucose is converted into glycogen (stimulated by insulin); (do not award this marking point where it is stated that insulin directly converts glucose)h) lowering blood glucose level;i) other cells are stimulated to absorb glucose and use it in cell respiration;j) if glucose levels too low, α cells (in pancreas) produce glucagon;k) glucagon stimulates liver/muscle cells to break down glycogen; (do not award this marking point where it is stated that glucagon directly breaks down glycogen)l) and release glucose into the blood;m) raising the blood glucose level;

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a) pancreatic cells monitor the blood glucose concentrations;b) alpha and beta cells are in the islets of Langerhans;c) negative feedback mechanisms;d) send hormones (through bloodstream) to target organs;e)if too high, β cells (in pancreas) produce insulin;f) insulin stimulates liver/muscle cells to take up glucose;g) glucose is converted into glycogen (stimulated by insulin); (do not award this marking point where it is stated that insulin directly converts glucose)h) lowering blood glucose level;i) other cells are stimulated to absorb glucose and use it in cell respiration;j) if glucose levels too low, α cells (in pancreas) produce glucagon;k) glucagon stimulates liver/muscle cells to break down glycogen; (do not award this marking point where it is stated that glucagon directly breaks down glycogen)l) and release glucose into the blood;m) raising the blood glucose level;

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When the blood glucose level is too high, insulin is produced by beta cells from the pancreas into the bloodstream. Insulin would then convert excess glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver. This would result in the blood glucose level to fall back to normal

On the other hand, when the blood glucose level is too low, alpha cells would produce glucagon from the pancreas into the bloodstream which would convert stored glycogen in the liver into glucose in the bloodstream. This would increase the blood glucose level back to normal.

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-Hormones released by the pancreas regulates blood control levels in the blood
B cells in the pancreas produce insulin, insulin is a hormone that stimulates cells to converts glucose to glycogen

-a cells synthesise and secrete glucagon to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen to glucose when blood levels get too low.

-sometimes B cells get damaged and is unable to produce insulin, thus the inability to control blood glucose levels

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When the blood glucose levels are high, insulin is released by the B-cells in the pancreas to decrease the blood glucose levels down to normal. Glucagon is stimulated, promoting the uptake of glucose in the liver and adipose tissue.
However, in the event of low blood glucose levels, glucagon is released by the alpha cells of the pancreas. This stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver, releasing a glucose in the process, increasing the blood glucose levels back to nor

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The blood glucose levels are regulated by the horomones released by the pancreas
B-cells in the pancrea produces the insulin needed to control the blood glucose levels in the blood.
Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose .
The glucose is stored in the liver as fat cells.
However, if the blood glucose level is too low, a-cells in the pancreas produces glucagon.
Glucagon  stimulates the liver to break down the fat cells that are stored in it into glucose. Allowing the control of blood glucose.

Reflection
- insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in pancreas to the small intestine
- stimulates glycogen synthesis by the liver

- glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to the small intestine

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When the blood glucose level in the body is high
- insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in pancreas to the small intestine
- stimulates glycogen synthesis by the liver
- which promotes glucose uptake by the liver and cells
- and increase the rate of the breakdown of glucose

When the blood glucose level in body is low
- glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to the small intestine
- stimulates the breakdown of glucagon by the liver
- which promotes the release of glucose by the liver and cells
- and decrease the rate of the breakdown of glucose

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the concentration of glucose in blood is controlled by two types of hormones,insulin and Glucagon.

both hormones are released from pancreas.

insulin is produced by β cell, glucagon is produced by α cell.

when the concentration of glucose is high in blood, pancreas releases insulin to the blood stream, which convert glucose into glycogen by stimulating liver uptake glucose.

the glycogen is stored inside liver.

when the concentration of glucose is low in blood, pancreas releases glucagon to the blood stream, which convert glycogen into glucose by stimulating liver break down glycogen.

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- Blood Glucose level is controlled by 2 specific hormones, Insulin and Glucagon, released by the pancreas
- they are antagonistic hormones

- Both insulin and glucagon are produced in the pancreas in response to glucose levels in the blood, via a negative feedback mechanism

- When glucose levels are high, Insulin is produced by Beta Cells and secreted into the blood stream - Convert glucose into glycogen in the liver, for long term storage.

- When glucose levels are low, Glucagon is produced by Alpha cells and secreted into the bloodstream
- Converts glycogen from the liver into glucose  in the bloodstream.

- this maintains the glucose levels of the blood at a moderate level, which is known as homeostasis.
-

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Blood glucose concentration is regulated by a negative feedback system.
When hypothalmus detect high blood glucose concentration, islet of langerhan in pancreas will secrete insulin that targets liver.
Insulin will trigger to absorb more glucose form the blood and convert them to glycogen for storage decreasing the blood glucose concentration.
A negative feedback is sent to hypothalamus which stops the insulin production in pancreas.
When blood glucose concentration is low, the hypothalmus will detect and inlet of langerhan will secrete glucagon.
Glucagon targets liver and triggers the conversion of glycogen to glucose in liver and the glucose will be released to blood stream.
blood glucose concentration increases, a negative feedback is sent to the hypothalamus. Glucagon production stops in pancreas.

Reflection:
alpha cell produces glucagon, beta cell produces insulin.

insulin also triggers other muscle cells to increase respiration rate to remove glucose from the blood.

Hypothalamus is not monitoring the blood glucose concentration pancreatic cell monitors the blood glucose concentration

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The blood glucose can be controlled by hormnones in the body including insulin and glucagon.
When there is high level of glucose in the blood, cells can be damaged due to hypertonicity and when it is too low there is not enough ATP being supplied in the body and cause inefficient energy.
When the blood glucose level is too high, insulin is secreated to the blood from the beta cells (e) in the pancreas, it will convert glucose into glycogen (g) in the liver and the blood glucose level will decrease.
When the blood glucose level is too low, the hormone glucagon is excreted by the alpha cells (i) in pancreas to convert glycogen back to glucose in the liver and release it into the blood.

Reflection:
no negative feedback, mechanism

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- Pancreas contains beta cells and alpha cells
- Alpha cells and beta cells produce the hormones, glucagon and insulin, respectively
- Insulin stimulates adipose tissues to uptake glucose, and the liver to store the glucose as glycogen
- Released by the beta cells when the blood glucose level is high
- This causes the blood glucose level to decrease due to the lack of glucose
- Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose
- Released by the alpha cells when the blood glucose level is low
- This causes the blood glucose level to increase due to the influx of glucose

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Glucose is required by the body for production of ATP via cell respiration. Blood glucose concentration is controlled via negative feedback of the body.

High blood glucose
-Insulin released from beta cells from pancreas into bloodstream
-Liver converts glucose to glycogen
-Glucose absorption by muscle cells
-Glucose concentration decrease to normal range in the body

Low blood glucose
-Glucagon released from alpha cells from pancreas into bloodstream
-Liver breaks down stored glycogen in the body into glucose
-Glucose concentration increase to normal range in the body

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1)Blood glucose is the concentration of glucose present in the blood plasma
2) high blood glucose and low blood glucose may be risky to the metabolic activities in the body
2)The blood glucose is controlled by insulin and glucagon which are both present in the liver, produced in the pancreas
3) When blood glucose levels are high, insulin will be released from Beta cells in the pancreas which will decrease the blood concentration
4) Glucose uptake by the adipose tissue will be greater, thus more glucose will be used up
5) When blood glucose levels are too low, glucagon will be released from alpha cells in the pancreas which will increase the blood glucose conc.
6) It will do this by reducing the breakdown of glucose in the liver and also allows a greater release of glucose from the liver
7) This is known as homeostasis and maintaining a stabilised glucose concentration in the body
8) Negative feedback is used by the body to sense peaks or drops in glucose levels to alert the alpha and beta cells to activate accordingly

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- Blood glucose refers to the concentration of glucose in the blood and is regulated by 2 hormones called insulin and glucagon.
- Insulin is derived from beta cells while glucagon from alpha cells and are secreted by the pancreas.

- When glucose concentrations in the blood is high, insulin is secreted into the bloodstream. It promotes the uptake of glucose by binding to insulin receptors on body cells, converting glucose into glycogen (g) for storage in the liver, reducing the overall blood glucose level.

- When glucose concentrations in the blood is low, glucagon is secreted (j), raising blood glucose levels (m) by hydrolysing (k) stored glucagon in the liver into glucose which then enters the bloodstream (l)

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Blood glucose levels are regulated by the endocrine glands in the pancreas (through negative feedback).

High levels of glucose in the body can damage cells (hypertonicity).

The two hormones required for the regulation of blood glucose concentration are antagonistic (insulin and glucagon).

Both these hormones are released from the Islets of Langerhans that are in the pancreas and work on the target organ of the liver.

The pancreatic islet cells determine whether the blood glucose concentration is too high.

Hence, the beta cells secrete the hormone insulin.

The insulin hormone causes the liver and muscle cells to store the extra glucose in the body as glycogen (for example if you eat a very high sugary meal)

This is through glycogenesis which promotes the uptake of glucose by the adipose cells and liver, or the breakdown of glucose through cell respiration.

The pancreatic islet cells also determine whether the blood glucose concentration is too low.

The glucagon hormone is secreted by the alpha cells which stimulate the breakdown of glycogen by the liver (glycogenolysis) which promotes the release of glucose by the liver and the adipose tissues. It can also reduce the rate of glucose breakdown through cellular respiration.

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- The glucose level in our body is controlled using negative feedback by the pancreas.
- When the blood sugar is high (after a meal), the pancreas will release a hormone called insulin.
- Insulin is used to convert glucose into gylcogen due to the excess of glucose in the body.
- Glucagon is only secreted when there is a low glucose concentration in the body.
- Insulin is released by the Beta cells whereas glucagon is released by the alpha cell from the pancreas.

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1. There are many follicles in the ovaries. FSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain which stimulates the growth of a follicle to form a mature Graffian follicle
2. This Graffian follicle then stimulates the secretion of the oestrogen (positive feedback).
3. Oestrogen is produced and secreted by the pituitary gland, thickening the endometrium and inhibiting FSH to prevent further maturation of other follicles (negative feedback).
4. Oestrogen then stimulates the secretion of LH which results in ovulation (positive feedback).
5. LH stimulates the growth of corpus luteum which further stimulates the secretion of oestrogen and progesterone.
6. As the concentration of oestrogen increases, it inhibits LH (negative feedback) to prevent the development and release of another ovum.
7. Progesterone also inhibits both LH and FSH as to prevent the other follicles to become mature.
8. Both secretion of oestrogen and progesterone promotes the thickening of the endometrium, preparing for egg implantation.
9. If fertilisation and implantation do not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and the level of oestrogen and progesterone drops, leading to the sloughing of the endometrium, causing menstruation.