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Brainology

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Brainology: 15 Intriguing Facts About Your Brain [Infographic]

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Advertisement It’s easy to get lost in all the tools, apps and optimizations that mobile gadgets and new technology offer. We talk so much about the utilization

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The Science of Thinking

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Lara Boyd - TEDX Brain plasticity

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After watching this, your brain will not be the same | Lara Boyd | TEDxVancouver

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MANDELA EFFECT

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Would you trust a memory if it felt as real as all your others? And other people confirmed they remember it, too? What if the memory turned out to be false?

This scenario, which might sound like something out of the Twilight Zone, was named the 'Mandela effect' by the self-described 'paranormal consultant' Fiona Broome after she discovered that other people shared her (false) memory of South African civil rights leader Nelson Mandela dying in prison in the 1980s. Is a shared false memory really due to a 'glitch in the Matrix,' or is there some other explanation for what could be happening?

Broome attributes the disparity to the many-worlds or 'multiverse' interpretation of quantum mechanics. When not directly observed, electrons and other subatomic particles diffract like waves, only to behave like particles when a measurement is made. Essentially, it's as if these particles exist in multiple places simultaneously until directly observed. Nobel laureate physicist Erwin Schrödinger famously characterized this strange concept with the 'Schrödinger's cat' thought experiment. If a cat were placed in a box with a radioactive decay detector rigged to break a flask of poison when activated, a decaying particle existing as a wave would yield two simultaneous macroscale realities - one where the cat is alive and one where the cat is dead. Although, upon observation, one would only see the cat as either dead or alive, some quantum physicists such as the late Hugh Everett III - originator of the many-worlds interpretation - have speculated that both realities exist ... but in separate, parallel universes.

It's important to keep in mind that the many-worlds interpretation was developed to explain the results of physics experiments and not the Mandela effect. Nonetheless, Broome believes that her shared memory isn't actually false, and that she and others who remember a different past were actually in a parallel reality with a different timeline that somehow got crossed with our current one. More recently people, on Reddit and other websites have identified other instances of the Mandela effect, including shared memories that the children's book series 'The Berenstain Bears' used to be spelled '' and that there was a movie in the 1990s starring Sinbad as a genie called Regardless of what really happened, there's no denying that shared false memories exist.

Can neuroscience provide an alternative hypothesis for what's really going on, without evoking quantum physics?

There are several concepts that can illuminate why something so strange could be a shared experience. First it's important to remember that a memory is made up of a network of neurons in the brain that store the memory. The physical location of a memory in the brain is often called an ' or 'memory trace.' During consolidation, the memory trace is transferred from temporary storage sites mediating initial acquisition, such as the Structure in temporal lobe that has many functions but is es... hippocampus More for facts and events, to permanent storage sites in the prefrontal cortex.

Prior learning creates a framework for similar memories to be stored in close proximity to each other. This framework is known as a ' A study earlier in 2016 on semantic memory in humans used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that similar words are stored in adjacent regions of the brain. Researchers used this data to create a 'semantic map' of language in the human cortex. Another recent study confirmed that shared memory traces are spatially consistent in their organization. This evidence supports the idea that schemas allow learned information to be organized by similar content.

Although we might think of memories as being strengthened when recalled, the truth is actually more complex. Recalling a memory reactivates the neurons composing the memory trace. This causes the neurons to become labile and able to form new connections, which then become stabile again in a process called 'reconsolidation.' Reconsolidation can reinforce repeated learning over time by strengthening connections and allowing the formation of new associations. However, reconsolidation can also render a memory trace vulnerable to losing its fidelity.

At some point in their education, most Americans learn that Alexander Hamilton was a founding father but not a U.S. president. However, when a study on false memory investigated who most Americans identify as U.S. presidents, the subjects were more likely to incorrectly name Hamilton as a president than several actual former presidents. This is likely because neurons encoding information about Hamilton were frequently activated at the same time as neurons encoding information about former presidents. Because neurons that "fire together wire together," gradually a connection between "past presidents" and "Alexander Hamilton" could become strong enough that you would incorrectly remember Hamilton as a former president himself.

The above study could also help explain why groups of people share false memories. For example, take the mystery of Shazaam. In the 1990's there was a kids movie called Kazaam starring Shaquille O'Neal as a genie. Many people also falsely remember that there was another film, perhaps a rip-off of Kazaam, called Shazaam, that starred the comedian Sinbad as a genie. Although Shazaam never really existed, there are hundreds of people online who claim to remember it.

There are probably several main reasons for the Mandela effect. The first is that a large number of general associations increase the probability that a false memory could emerge. Twin films with similar concepts being released at around the same time were common in the '90s. Sinbad released a different movie in the same year as Kazaam called First Kid, which was a comedy where he helped a kid accomplish his goals. He also released a movie called Houseguest which had a cover image of his head coming out of a mailbox, perhaps abstractly resembling a genie emerging from a lamp. Sinbad is an Arabic name, and the story of "Sinbad the Sailor" features encounters with genies. Sinbad's bald head and goatee resemble a typical genie portrayed in the media. Sinbad also dressed up like a genie for a movie marathon he hosted in the 90's, which almost certainly contributed to the "memory" of Sinbad playing a genie.

Besides similar associations laying the groundwork for a false memory to form, the other main factors in this instance are "confabulation" and "suggestibility." The Redditor EpicJourneyMan recounts an extremely detailed account of Shazaam from when he was working in a video store in the 1990s. In his post he describes buying two copies of the movie and having to watch it several times to verify that it was damaged after renters complained. He then proceeds to describe the movie plot in great detail. If Shazaam never existed, how does he have such a detailed memory of the movie?

This is most likely an instance of confabulation, or the brain's attempt to fill in missing memory gaps by adding fabricated facts and experiences. Unlike lying, confabulation is not intended to deceive and the person confabulating fully believes that the 'remembered' details are real. Confabulation is associated with a wide array of neurological disorders, including stroke, brain injury, Alzheimer's, Korsakoff's Syndrome, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, but it can also happen in healthy subjects (as anyone with a memory of 'President Hamilton' can attest). Instances of confabulation in healthy people increase with age and are thought to be due to age-related changes to the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. These brain regions are important for memory encoding and retrieval, and fMRI studies over the past decade suggest that decreased functioning in these regions underlies false memory. It has also been observed that confabulation most often emerges from memories of events that happened rep eatedly to create a false memory of a specific instance in a unique spatio-temporal context. In other words, someone who regularly ordered kids videos and watched them to find damaged tape is more likely to confabulate a specific memory of a time when this occurred.

A third phenomenon that could explain the viral popularity of the Mandela effect is suggestibility, the tendency to believe what others suggest to be true. When misinformation is introduced it can actually compromise the fidelity of an existing memory. This is exactly why in a court of law an attorney can object to 'leading questions' that suggest a specific answer. In other words, the leading question "Do you remember the 1990s film Shazaam that starred Sinbad as a genie?" not only suggests that such a film actually exists, but could even incept a false memory of having viewed it.

Although it may be tempting to believe that the Mandela effect is evidence that parallel realities exist or that our universe is a glitchy simulation, a true scientist must test his or her alternative hypothesis by trying to disprove it. In light of known cognitive phenomena that can give rise to shared false memories, it's highly unlikely that some of us are actually from an alternative past universe that crossed timelines with the present one. Nonetheless, the Mandela effect is still a fascinating case study in the quirks of human memory. For those who love thinking about how the mind works, it is perhaps even an example of the truth being stranger than fiction.

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Written by Caitlin Aamodt. Images by Kayleen Schreiber.
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References:
Chen, J., Leong, Y. C., Honey, C. J., Yong, C. H., Norman, K. A., & Hasson, U. (2017). Shared memories reveal shared structure in neural activity across individuals. Nature Neuroscience, 20(1), 115-125.

Devitt, A. L., & Schacter, D. L. (2016). False memories with age: Neural and cognitive underpinnings. Neuropsychologia, 91, 346-359.

Ghosh, V. E., & Gilboa, A. (2014). What is a memory schema? A historical perspective on current neuroscience literature. Neuropsychologia, 53, 104-114.

Huth, A. G., de Heer, W. A., Griffiths, T. L., Theunissen, F. E., & Gallant, J. L. (2016). Natural speech reveals the semantic maps that tile human cerebral cortex. Nature, 532(7600), 453-458.

Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12(4), 361-366.

Maess, B., Mamashli, F., Obleser, J., Helle, L., & Friederici, A. D. (2016). Prediction signatures in the brain: Semantic pre-activation during language comprehension. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10.

McKenzie, S., & Eichenbaum, H. (2011). Consolidation and reconsolidation: two lives of memories?. , 71(2), 224-233.

Roediger III, H. L., & DeSoto, K. A. (2016). Recognizing the Presidents: Was Alexander Hamilton President?. Psychological science, 27(5), 644-650.

Sakaguchi, M., & Hayashi, Y. (2012). Catching the engram: strategies to examine the memory trace. Molecular brain, 5(1), 32.

Serra, M., La Corte, V., Migliaccio, R., Brazzarola, M., Zannoni, I., Pradat-Diehl, P., & Dalla Barba, G. (2014). Confabulators mistake multiplicity for uniqueness. Cortex, 58, 239-247.

Zaragoza, M. S., Belli, R. F., & Payment, K. E. (2007). Misinformation effects and the suggestibility of eyewitness memory. Do justice and let the sky fall: Elizabeth Loftus and her contributions to science, law, and academic freedom, 35-63.

EpicJourneyMan (2016) "The Sinbad Genie Movie - complete analysis" .

Kramer, M. (2013) "The Physics Behind Schrödinger's Cat Paradox" National Geographic.

Perpetua, M. (2014) "Did You Know There's A Term For When You're Totally Positive Something Happened Even Though It Didn't?" .

Tait, A. (2016) "The movie that doesn't exist and the Redditors who think it does" New Statesman.

(2015) "The Berenst(E)ain Bears Conspiracy Theory That Has Convinced the Internet There Are Parallel Universes" .

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Can Neuroscience Explain the Mandela Effect? - Knowing Neurons

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Would you trust a memory if it felt as real as all your others? And other people confirmed they remember it, too? What if the memory turned out to be false?

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MANDELA EFFECT

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"LUKE, I am your father."

If you asked someone to quote any line from the Star Wars series, that's the main one you'd hear in response. Hell, it's one of the most iconic lines in film history.

But here's an earth-shattering fact: that line was never uttered in any of the movies. The quote is actually, " No, I am your father."

Feel free to frantically Google that for a moment. We'll wait.

Have you ever innately believed something so much that - when told otherwise - you couldn't bring yourself to accept the alternative version, even if it was proven?

There's a whole bunch of quotes, symbols, titles and historical events like these which have prompted the same bizarre, holy-crap-I'm-now-questioning-the-entire-universe response.

In recent years it's been deemed the "Mandela Effect", and a growing cult of believers on the internet have taken the phenomenon a step further.
WHAT IS THE 'MANDELA EFFECT'?
In 2010, a paranormal enthusiast named Fiona Broome claimed she remembered the news coverage of Nelson Mandela's tragic death in a South African prison during the 1980s.

When she shared this thought with a group of people, many of them said they remembered this event taking place, or learnt about it in school.

Only that never happened. Mandela was alive at the time they apparently vividly recalled this. He died in December 2013, three years after Broome first voiced her theory, while suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection at his home in Houghton, Johannesburg.

But Broome's justification is even more out-there than her initial thoughts - she argues these "shared memories" that have no present evidence of ever occurring could be due to the existence of parallel universes that intertwine and collide.

While this theory may sound ridiculous, she's gained a solid online cult following, writing articles, books and giving speeches on related subjects.

Let's cut to some eerie examples people have brought up online.

Growing up, you probably watched the Looney Toons on a Saturday morning right? Bugs Bunny? Daffy Duck?

Many people could probably recall a scene or two, and visualise the "LOONEY TOONS" logo perfectly in their head:

Plot twist: it's actually spelt "Looney Tunes". And always has been. It never changed, there's zero evidence to suggest it was spelt any other way, and yet people vehemently believe it's written as the former.

Same story with the Ford logo. Look carefully - did the 'F' always have this little tail on the end?

Yep. It's always had that damn pig's tail. Since 1912, when Ford was first established, the "F" has had that damn pig's tail. But something about it may look ... out of place.

When Broome started publicising this weird memory-tricking phenomenon online, a cult of believers formed and grew, trying to work out which experiences they were so sure of were apparently falsehoods.

One of the most prominent examples is that of the Berenstain Bears, a children's book series created in the 1960s.

Believers familiar with the books claim it was spelt Berenst e in Bears, despite the fact that the creator's son himself said it was always the former.

People went as far as to scour through the internet for proof, find alternative spellings in old newspaper clippings (most likely just typos) and post them as evidence of colliding realities at play.

No misprinted versions of the books have ever been created, let alone distributed, but people still insist they can visualise the logo with the "e".

Another common example is of "Tank Man", one of the most iconic symbols of the Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989.

Many theorists claim the protester who stood in front of the tanks was run over by them. They insist they were taught this in school, saw it in textbooks, watched the footage and can still visualise it perfectly according to their memory.

Yet the man was never run over. While it's unknown whether he went into hiding or was executed by authorities in the aftermath of the protest, he was definitely not run over by the tanks themselves.

There are plenty more examples that have people scratching their heads.

Kit Kat doesn't have a dash in its logo. Never has and never will.

Curious George has never had a tail.

Oh, and what about this popular sugary breakfast cereal below? Which version is real, and which is Photoshopped?

The version on the left is fake.

And in Silence Of The Lambs, Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins) never actually says "Hello, Clarice," even though it's one of the movie's most "iconic" lines.
SO WHAT'S THE EXPLANATION?
Some of the examples above have a more logical explanation.

For example, "Luke, I am your father," is frequently quoted in popular culture. Even if you haven't watched the Star Wars series, you still know that quote.

It's been pointed out that people would have substituted "No" with "Luke" in order to keep the context in place when quoting it. If you just went around saying, "No, I am your father," you'd potentially sound like a bloody weirdo, or a runaway guest from The Maury Povich Show.

Similarly, a misconception that the United States has 52 states has been likened to the Mandela Effect. This more likely stems from the mistaken belief that Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia are additional states.

When it comes to symbols, like the "F" in "Ford" or the Fruit Loops logo, the most likely explanation is that our brains don't always register tinier details in everyday objects.

Therefore, we can't remember when said detail is pointed out to us, and we assume it must have never existed in the first place.

In 1978, a famous psychologist named Elizabeth Loftus conducted "The Misinformation Effect", a study which found one's recollection of memories can be distorted by subsequent information.

Loftus said: "The misinformation effect refers to the impairment in memory for the past that arises after exposure to misleading information."

In other words, if someone says or implies that something looks a certain way, there's a natural tendency to believe them if you've never paid close attention to it.

In some cases, the misleading information can actually overwrite one's original memory, if it's presented in a way that makes it seem more plausible.

Well, that or Broome is correct, and we're all part of a complex colliding time travel loop.

Be afraid of that. Be very afraid.

Follow @GavinDFernando

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Does this picture look a bit off to you?

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"LUKE, I am your father." If you asked someone to quote any line from the Star Wars series, that's the main one you'd hear in response. Hell, it's one of the most iconic lines in film history. But here's an earth-shattering fact: that line was never uttered in any of the movies.

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MANDELA EFFECT

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Have you ever been convinced that something is a particular way only to discover you've remembered it all wrong? If so, it sounds like you've experienced the phenomenon known as the Mandela Effect.

This form of collective misremembering of common events or details first emerged in 2010, when countless people on the internet falsely remembered Nelson Mandela was dead. It was widely believed he had died in prison during the 1980s. In reality, Mandela was actually freed in 1990 and passed away in 2013 - despite some people's claims they remember clips of his funeral on TV.

Paranormal consultant Fiona Broome coined the term "Mandela Effect" to explain this collective misremembering, and then other examples started popping up all over the internet. For instance, it was wrongly recalled that C-3PO from Star Wars was gold, actually one of his legs is silver. Likewise, people often wrongly believe that the Queen in Snow White says, "Mirror, mirror on the wall". The correct phrase is "magic mirror on the wall".

Broome explains the Mandela Effect via pseudoscientific theories. She claims that differences arise from movement between parallel realities (the multiverse). This is based on the theory that within each universe alternative versions of events and objects exist.

Broome also draws comparisons between existence and the holodeck of the USS Enterprise from Star Trek. The holodeck was a virtual reality system, which created recreational experiences. By her explanation, memory errors are software glitches. This is explained as being similar to the film The Matrix.

Other theories propose that the Mandela Effect evidences changes in history caused by time travellers. Then there are the claims that distortions result from spiritual attacks linked to Satan, black magic or witchcraft. But although appealing to many, these theories are not scientifically testable.
Where's the science?
Psychologists explain the Mandela Effect via memory and social effects - particularly false memory. This involves mistakenly recalling events or experiences that have not occurred, or distortion of existing memories. The unconscious manufacture of fabricated or misinterpreted memories is called confabulation. In everyday life confabulation is relatively common.

False memories occur in a number of ways. For instance, the Deese-Roediger and McDermott paradigm demonstrates how learning a list of words that contain closely related items - such as "bed" and "pillow" - produces false recognition of related, but non presented words - such as "sleep".

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Memory inaccuracy can also arise from what's known as "source monitoring errors". These are instances where people fail to distinguish between real and imagined events. US professor of psychology, Jim Coan, demonstrated how easily this can happen using the " Lost in the Mall " procedure.

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The 'Mandela Effect' And How Your Mind Is Playing Tricks on You

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Have you ever been convinced that something is a particular way only to discover you've remembered it all wrong? If so, it sounds like you've experienced the phenomenon known as the Mandela Effect. This form of collective misremembering of common events or details first emerged in 2010, when countless people on the internet falsely remembered Nelson Mandela was dead.

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Anatomy and Physiology of Nervous System Part Brain

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Faster than the fastest computer, your amazing brain controls every move you make. Your brain tells your muscles when and how to move. It lets you feel emotions, laugh and cry. It allows you to learn new things and get out of the way of danger. Your brain keeps working even when you're asleep. It sends the signals that make your heart beat, your lungs draw in breath and your eyelids blink.

The three pound wrinkly mass in your head might not look like much, but it's a powerful master control panel. One scientist called it "the most complex thing we have yet discovered in our universe." Inside your brain are billions of microscopic cells called neurons. Neurons send electrical and chemical messages to your body.

Fun Facts about the Brain for Kids

The neurons in your brain make enough electricity to generate a low-watt light bulb.

Your neurons are joined by tiny pathways or roads. When you do something a lot - like ride your bike - the pathways in your brain that send messages about bike riding are strengthened. This is sort of like a walking path that you walk on every day.

If you don't do something very often, the pathways become weak. Imagine an old pathway filled with grass and weeds. Practice really does make perfect because it strengthens neural pathways. If you're not good at math, start practicing. Chances are, you'll get better.

Your brain sends more messages everyday than all the phones in the world. Now that's a lot of texting!

Messages can fly from the nerves in your body to your brain at more than 150 mph. Whew!

Exercising can make you smarter. When you exercise, blood flow to the brain is increased. Your brain also releases hormones that can help you learn. So, get moving to get smarter.

Brain Vocabulary

Learn More All About Your Amazing Brain

Watch this cool video all about your amazing brain:

A video about the structure of your brain and how it works.

Brain Q&A

Question: Do certain parts of the brain have different jobs?

Answer: The cerebrum is the biggest part of your brain. It controls your thoughts and your movements. The cerebellum controls your movement and balance. The hippocampus is like a giant file cabinet that stores your memories. The amygdala controls your feelings and the brain stem is in charge of automatic body movements like breathing.

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Question: What does right brain and left brain mean?

Answer: The cerebrum has two halves. The right brain controls the left side of the body, while the left brain controls the right side.

Enjoyed the Easy Science for Kids Website all about Your Amazing Brain info? Take the FREE & fun Your Amazing Brain quiz and download FREE Your Amazing Brain worksheet for kids. For lengthy info click here.

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Faster than the fastest computer, your amazing brain controls every move you make. Your brain tells your muscles when and how to move. It lets you feel emotions, laugh and cry. It allows you to learn new things and get out of the way of danger. Your brain keeps working even when you're asleep.

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How Teenagers' Brains Are Actually Wired Differently

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Small chart showing how the nervous system is divided.