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The Latin subgroups that resided in Mexico, now a part of the U.S, were put through missionary schools. These missionary schools represent a cultural and linguistic genocide of the indigenous people. Spanish priests would enforce Catholic doctrines on these people and would teach them handicrafts and skilled labor to make them colonial workers and abandon their hunting skills.

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The South Carolina Slave Code of 1740 prohibited African American slaves from learning to read and write. Other parts of the South, like Virginia, also established laws that prohibited the academic education of slaves. Slaves were only allowed to learn to read the Christian bible.

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George Washington tried to assimilate Native Americans into the American culture through a policy and process called "civilization." Through this policy, tribal members would receive domestic animals to make them cultivators and in return states like Georgia could keep part of the lands of the indigenous tribes. To read more you can click on the link above.

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Near the beginning of his first term as President, George Washington declared that a just Native American policy was one of his highest priorities, explaining that "The Government of the United States are determined that their Administration of Indian Affairs shall be directed entirely by the great principles of Justice and humanity." The Washington administration's initial policy toward Native Americans was enunciated in June of 1789. Secretary of War Henry Knox explained that the Continental Congress had needlessly provoked Native Americans following the Revolution by insisting on American possession of all territory east of the Mississippi River. Congress had previously argued that by supporting the British during the war Native Americans had forfeited any claim to territory on the western frontier of American settlement. However, this perspective ignored the fact that only a portion of tribes had actually supported the British.

In 1787, the Confederation Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance, opening the Ohio Valley to new American settlement. Members of the Western Lakes Confederacy reacted by utilizing armed resistance to protect their land. These events increased the urgency for Washington to develop a formal method for managing Indian affairs. In referring to the constitutional grant of treaty-making powers to the chief executive-with the "advice and consent" of the Senate-Washington declared that a similar practice should also apply to agreements with Native Americans. The Senate acceded to the President's wishes and accepted treaties as the basis for conducting Indian relations.

In response, Congress proceeded to approve a treaty with seven northern tribes (the Shawnee, Miami, Ottawa, Chippewa, Iroquois, Sauk, and Fox). This agreement, however, lacked meaningful protection of tribal land. To the northern tribes this ineffectual treaty and the constant intrusion into their lands by droves of settlers meant that the American government had little control over its own citizens. Members of the northern tribes believed it was necessary to deploy force to prevent further incursions.

Washington's desire to protect American citizens led to an American military response. In 1790 and 1791, Washington dispatched armies to confront Native forces, and in both instances the Americans were soundly defeated. Responding to these two embarrassing setbacks, Congress authorized a five-thousand man regular army to quell resistance. Led by General "Mad Anthony" Wayne, the Legion inflicted a crushing defeat on the Indian confederation in the Summer of 1794. This decisive battle and the ensuing Treaty of Greenville brought a tentative peace to the northwest in 1795.

Simultaneously, as momentous events in the north unfolded, Washington also faced challenges from the four southern tribes. For the Cherokees and the more distant Choctaws and Chickasaws, Washington sought messages of assurance, friendship, and plans for trade. The formidable Creeks were the fourth southern tribe. Washington regarded the Creek with considerable apprehension because of their disagreement with the state of Georgia's interpretation of three treaties that had been negotiated by that state during the 1780s. These treaties included significant cessions of land from the Creeks to Georgia that the tribe did not recognize.

The Creeks' leader was Alexander McGillivray, a mixed-race chief who spoke fluent English and was a shrewd negotiator. Twenty-eight Creek chiefs led by McGillivray accepted Washington's invitation to travel to New York in the summer of 1790 to negotiate a new treaty. The result was the Treaty of New York which restored to the Creeks some of the lands ceded in the treaties with Georgia, and provided generous annuities for the rest of the land. It also established a policy and process of assimilation called "civilization," aiming to attach tribes to permanent land settlements. Under the policy tribal members would be given "useful domestic animals and implements of husbandry" to encourage them to become "herdsman and cultivators" instead of "remaining in a state as hunters."

In August 1790 the Creek chiefs formally approved the Treaty of New York. The Creek chiefs agreed to place themselves under the protection of the United States. In return, the United States confirmed the sanctity of the Creek land lying within the boundaries defined by the treaty. However, the Treaty of New York failed to achieve its goals, as the federal government could not stem the relentless incursion of American settlers onto "protected" Indian lands. In a letter to Washington, Knox agonized over the possibility of Indian extermination. He observed that in the most populous areas of the United States, some tribes had already been decimated. "If the same causes continue," he explained, "the same effects will happen and in a short period the idea of an Indian on this side of the Mississippi will only be found in the page of the historian."

Washington and Knox sought to provide safe havens for Native tribes while also assimilating them into American society. Washington and Knox believed that if they failed to at least make an effort to secure Indian land, their chances of convincing Native Americans to take up Euro-American lifestyles and economies would be undermined. As the two reluctantly came to recognize, however, it was the settlers pouring into the western frontier that controlled the national agenda regarding Native Americans and their land. By 1796 even Washington had concluded that holding back the avalanche of settlers had become nearly impossible, writing that "I believe scarcely anything short of a Chinese wall, or a line troops, will restrain Land jobbers, and the encroachment of settlers upon the Indian territory."

Richard Harless
George Mason University

Notes: 1.From George Washington to the Commissioners to the Southern Indians, 29 August 1789, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-03-02-0326. [Original source: The Papers of George Washington, Presidential Series, vol. 3, 15 June 1789-5 September 1789, ed. Dorothy Twohig. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1989, pp. 551.]

2. Charles J. Kappler, Indians Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, Treaties (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), 2:28.

3. "Henry Knox to George Washington, 7 July 1789," The Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series, eds. W. W. Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, 2:139.

4. "From George Washington to Timothy Pickering, 1 July 1796," Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-20-02-0239. [Original source: The Papers of George Washington, Presidential Series, vol. 20, 1 April-21 September 1796, ed. David R. Hoth and William M. Ferraro. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2019, pp. 349-350.]

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Near the beginning of his first term as President, George Washington declared that Native American policy was one of his highest priorities.

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The Nationality Act of 1790 stated that only "free white persons" were eligible to naturalize as American citizens. This act led to an ineligibility for Asian immigrants to access citizenship in the years to come.

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In New York City, members of the New York Manumission Society opened the first African Free School so that children of African American slaves and free people of color could take their place as equals to white American citizens by attending schools. This school was a single-room schoolhouse for about 40 students and it gave African Americans greater access to formal schooling. However, white teachers usually offered curricula deemed appropriate for slaves

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Nat Turner was an enslaved man who led a rebellion that resulted in the death of 55 whites in Virginia. White people ultimately took their revenge and they established oppressive legislation that prevented African Americans from learning to read as they believed that Turner's ability to read the pamphlets about slavery led him to revolt. A consequence of this revolt was the anti-literacy laws of 1839 in Virginia.

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A law in the U.S was created to enforce that, “no school shall be entitled to the benefits of this act unless the English language is principally taught therein." Since the English language grew to be the dominant language this created extreme segregation for the Latinx students. Aside from this in the 19th century Latinx students were attending poorly funded public schools as the U.S. got the impression that education was not valued by Latinx immigrants.

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When the American politicians realized they could not kill all the indigenous people through genocide they began to assimilate them to the American culture in Indian Residential (Boarding) skills. Children of indigenous people were separated from their parents and were taught to be "white Christian Americans." The compulsory Act of 1887 provided funds for these boarding skills. Children suffered a lot of abuse and mistreatment in these schools.

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Joseph and Mary Tape, a middle-class Chinese American couple, attempted to enroll their daughter, Mamie, at an all-white Spring Valley Primary School. Principal Jennie Hurley refused to admit their daughter simply because she was of Chinese origin. Mamie's parents filed a lawsuit against the San Francisco board of education and got her daughter the right to attend an all white school. Despite the victory the high anti-Chinese sentiment resulted in San Francisco building a new segregated "Oriental School."

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In the early 1900's Latinx people were considered to be white. Yet in the 1930's Latinx children attended segregated schools for Mexicans in California. In 1947, Sylvia Mendez was denied entry into a "whites only" public school. Her family filed a lawsuit against the Westminster School District of Orange County. Mendez won this court case and the court ruled that it was unlawful to discriminate against Mexican descent children since they were a part of the white race.

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Homer Plessy refused to sit in a car for black people and was arrested for choosing to sit on a vacant seat in a whites-only car. Plessy filed a petition against the judge saying the law violated the 14th amendment. The U.S Supreme Court ruled against Plessy and decided that the racial segregation laws in place did not violate the amendment. The court claimed that as long as each facility was equal it could be separated by race. This court case brought about the "separate but equal" clause that ultimately led to the establishment of the Jim Crow Laws.

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Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark that
helped end segregation in public schools. The US Supreme Court decided in 1954 that state and local governments are not allowed to force black and white children to attend different schools. The results of this court case resulted in the loss of thousands of black and brown teachers. The integration of classrooms was not easy and the public education system of the U.S still found a way to keep black children out of white schools. The busing system was complicated and black children were receiving their education from white teachers.

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In 1972, the Indian Education Act established the need to become culturally aware of indigenous culture and their history. The U.S education system could no longer deny indigenous people the right to learn the history of their people, and their language. This act reaffirmed the Federal government’s responsibility to teach American Indian Education from pre-school to higher education.

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In 2006, the Native American Language Preservation Act was passed saying Native American languages should be used in Immersion schools. This Act brought about fundings for new programs for indigenous tribes to teach their language and culture to prevent the complete loss of their heritage.

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The Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) was announced by President Barak Obama in 2012. DACA has helped ease the burdens of undocumented students and has made pursing higher education more of a reality and less of a dream. More than three-quarters of DACA recipients are Latinx students. Latinx students are not only enrolling in college, they are also getting degrees because DACA gives them access to in-state tuition and access to a job after graduation.

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Share On Social!

President Donald Trump's administration recently rescinded the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), an American immigration policy signed by President Barack Obama five years ago.

DACA allows unauthorized immigrants who arrived in the United States as children to work, go to school, and get a driver's license without fear of deportation.

The clock is now ticking for a Congressional fix for people who qualify for DACA.

If not, recipients could lose their status starting March 5, 2018.

Who are DACA recipients?

Since the program started in June 2012, most DACA recipients are in Latino-centric states: California (222,795) followed by Texas (124,000) and Illinois (42,376).

Unauthorized immigrants from Mexico make up more than three-quarters of all DACA recipients.

More than 75% of the recipients are employed with an average wage of $17 an hour, according to the National Immigration Law Center. Nearly 790,000 young unauthorized immigrants have received work permits and deportation relief through the federal government according to the latest federal data, Pew Research reports.

How DACA impacts recipients

There's an undeniable relationship between attaining quality education and living a healthier life.

Latinos are both enrolling in college and getting degrees.

The vast majority of DACA beneficiaries are college students or graduates with a median age of 22.

DACA also improves mental health. A 2017 Science study found that DACA improved mental health outcomes for the children of DACA-eligible mothers. A 2017 Lancet Public Health study found that DACA-eligible individuals had better mental health outcomes as a result of their DACA-eligibility.

However, if Congress does not move to protect DACA recipients, nearly 300,000 people could lose their status and be at risk for deportation in 2018-and more than 320,000 between January and August 2019.

This could potentially separate families, create health and education disparities, and increase stress and worsen mental health for recipients, Newsweek reports.

"The threat of deportation alone would likely have a negative impact on families," according to FiveThirtyEight's Anna Maria Barry-Jester. "Immigration-related stress and anxiety have been shown to have negative health effects ... Generally, researchers believe the stress that stems from the fear of having a parent deported has far-reaching, negative effects on the health of children."

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Tick Tock: The Impact of DACA on Latinos

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Share On Social! President Donald Trump's administration recently rescinded the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), an American immigration policy signed by President Barack Obama five years ago. DACA allows unauthorized immigrants who arrived in the United States as children to work, go to school, and get a driver's license without fear of deportation.

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The last school to be desegregated in America was Cleveland High School in Cleveland, Mississippi.

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On July 2021, Illinois became the first state to require the teaching of Asian American history in public schools.  Illinois Governor J.B. Pritzker signed this historic legislation into law at a time where the Asian Americans became the target of hate crimes. He signed this law to help combat the false stereotypes and to fight ignorance through education.

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Group Members:
Shayla Millard

Johana Balbuena

Leah Kalish

Violet Buffalo