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Archaeology 101 | Time Team America | PBS

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Julie, Joe, and Chelsea describe some of the differences between academic archaeology and cultural resource management.

In season 1, Julie and Joe discussed the difference between historic and prehistoric archaeology. The term prehistoric has fallen out of favor for its implication that history did not commence until Europeans came into contact with Native people and written records came into existence.

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Archaeology 101 | Time Team America | PBS

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Julie, Joe, and Chelsea describe some of the differences between academic archaeology and cultural resource management. In season 1, Julie and Joe discussed the difference between historic and prehistoric archaeology. The term prehistoric has fallen out of favor for its implication that history did not commence until Europeans came into contact with Native people and written records came into existence.

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Archaeology is the study of the past by looking for the remains and artifacts ( historical things) left by the people who lived long ago. These remains can include old coins, tools, buildings, and garbage. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.

Archaeologists think it is important to understand the past, because so many people use the past to know where they come from.

When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging deep in the ground. When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to the place where the archaeologist's base is, maybe a university or museum. They record everything they found by writing down on paper or entering the information into a computer, so that they can build a picture of everything that is found. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings are often buried to make space for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This is why archaeological fieldwork is expensive and why it takes a long time.

Fields of interest

Archaeologists do not all study the same civilizations, they specialize in different areas of interest. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient Greece, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or one might study World War II. Some archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.

Stonehenge, in England is a famous archaeological site, or place. Other famous sites include Angkor Wat, Machu Picchu, and Great Zimbabwe. In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important sites so that they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.

Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people building often don't have a lot of time. Many times as soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.

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Archaeology is the study of the past by looking for the remains and artifacts ( historical things) left by the people who lived long ago. These remains can include old coins, tools, buildings, and garbage. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.

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Analysis

the process of studying and classifying artifacts, usually conducted in a laboratory after excavation has been completed.

Archaeology / archeology

the scientific study of past human cultures by analyzing the material remains (sites and artifacts) that people left behind.

Archaeological site

a place where human activity occurred and material remains were deposited.

Artifact

any object made, modified, or used by people.

Assemblage

artifacts that are found together and that presumably were used at the same time or for similar or related tasks.

Attribute

a characteristic or property of an object, such as weight, size, or color.

B.P.

years before present; as a convention, 1950 is the year from which B.P. dates are calculated.

Ceramic

pottery, fired clay.

Chronology

an arrangement of events in the order in which they occurred.

Classification

a systematic arrangement in groups or categories according to criteria.

Context

the relationship of artifacts and other cultural remains to each other and the situation in which they are found.

Culture

a set of learned beliefs, values and behaviors--the way of life--shared by the members of a society.

Debitage

the by-products or waste materials left over from the manufacture of stone tools.

Diagnostic artifact

an item that is indicative of a particular time period and/or cultural group.

Excavation

the systematic digging and recording of an archaeological site.

Experimental archaeology

scientific studies designed to discover processes that produced and/or modified artifacts and sites.

Feature

a type of material remain that cannot be removed from a site such as roasting pits, fire hearths, house floors or post molds.

Grid

a network of uniformly spaced squares that divides a site into units; used to measure and record an object's position in space.

In situ

in the original place.

Level

an excavation layer, which may correspond to natural strata. Levels are numbered from the top to bottom of the excavation unit, with the uppermost level being Level 1.

Lithic

stone, or made of stone.

Material remains

artifacts, features and other items such as plant and animal remains that indicate human activity.

Midden

an area used for trash disposal.

Post mold / post hole

a type of feature; a circular stain left in the ground after a wooden post has decayed; usually indicates the former existence of a house or fence.

Pot sherd

a piece of broken pottery.

Prehistoric

the period of time before written records; the absolute date for the prehistoric period varies from place to place.

Projectile point

a general term for stone points that were hafted to darts, spears or arrows; often erroneously called "arrowheads".

Rock art

a general term for pecked, incised, or painted figures on rock.

Site

a place where human activity occurred and material remains were deposited.

Site steward

a volunteer who visits a site and helps protect it form vandalism and looting.

Strata

many layers of earth or levels in an archaeological site (singular stratum).

Stratigraphy

the layering of deposits in archaeological sites. Cultural remains and natural sediments become buried over time, forming strata.

Survey

the systematic examination of the ground surface in search of archaeological sites.

Test pit

a small excavation unit dug to learn what the depth and character of the stratum might be, and to determine more precisely which strata contain artifacts and other material remains.

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wv west virginia culture history goldenseal traditional life folk music dance old time art artist mine historic preservation archaeology mountain craft vandalia gathering state museum independence hall grave creek mound adena general albert allard jenkins camp washington carver

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Analysis the process of studying and classifying artifacts, usually conducted in a laboratory after excavation has been completed. Archaeology / archeology the scientific study of past human cultures by analyzing the material remains (sites and artifacts) that people left behind. Archaeological site a place where human activity occurred and material remains were deposited.

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Archaeology is the study of the past by looking for the remains and artifacts ( historical things) left by the people who lived long ago. These remains can include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.

Archaeologists think it is important to understand the past, because so many people use the past to know where they come from.

Fields of interest

Archaeologists do not all study the same civilizations, they specialize in different areas of interest. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.

Stonehenge, in England, is a famous archaeological site, or place. Other famous sites include the Roman Forum, Angkor Wat, Machu Picchu, and Great Zimbabwe. In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important sites so that they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.

Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. Many times as soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.

An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.

Remote sensing

Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments-passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments:

Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) A lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.

Laser Altimeter A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.

Field survey

The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed sterile.

Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, UAVs, or even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.

Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.

Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.

Excavation

Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey.Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil ( overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.

The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

Computational and virtual archaeology

Computer graphics are now used to build virtual 3D models of sites, such as the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. Photogrammetry is also used as an analytical tool, and digital topographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a solstice. Agent-based modeling and simulation can be used to better understand past social dynamics and outcomes. Data mining can be applied to large bodies of archaeological 'grey literature'.

Archaeologists around the world use drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps - and in days and weeks instead of months and years.

Drones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone blimp, employing open source software.

Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley."

In September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg (11 lb) were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of Aphrodisias. The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.

Related pages

Images for kids

Archaeologists excavating in Rome

Archaeological excavation of a Stone Age settlement at Glamilders in Långbergsöda village, Saltvik, Åland, in 1906.

Permanent exhibition in a German multi-storey car park, explaining the archaeological discoveries made during the construction of this building

In Spanish: Arqueología para niños

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Examine clues from the past to discover how people lived in ancient times.

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An archaeologist is a scientist. Archaeologists study man-made objects from the distant past to learn more about the development of various civilizations. Archaeologists are not interested in fossils, although they turn up quite a few while looking for artifacts.

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Greek Farmer Accidentally Discovers 3,400-Year-Old Minoan Tomb Hidden Under Olive Grove

Sometime between 1400 and 1200 B.C., two Minoan men were laid to rest in an underground enclosure carved out of the soft limestone native to southeast Crete.

Both were entombed within larnakes-intricately embossed clay coffins popular in Bronze Age Minoan society-and surrounded by colorful funerary vases that hinted at their owners' high status. Eventually, the burial site was sealed with stone masonry and forgotten, leaving the deceased undisturbed for roughly 3,400 years.

When a farmer was parking his truck under some olive trees on his property when the ground beneath him started to give way.

After the farmer moved his vehicle to a safer location, he saw that a four-foot-wide hole had opened up in the ground. When he peered inside, he realized this was no ordinary hole.

The hole in the ground led to a Minoan Bronze Age tomb.

The farmer called in archaeologists from the local heritage ministry to investigate, and they began excavating what turned out to be an ancient Minoan tomb, carved into the soft limestone, which had been lying hidden for millennia.

Two adult Minoan men had been placed in highly-embossed clay coffins called "larnakes" which were common in Bronze Age Minoan culture. These, in turn, were surrounded by funerary vases which suggest that the men were of high status.

The ancient chamber tomb was entirely intact and undamaged by looters.

The tomb was about 13 feet in length and eight feet deep, divided into three chambers that would have been accessed via a vertical tunnel that was sealed with clay after the tomb's occupants were laid to rest.

One larnax was found in the northernmost chamber, with a number of funerary vessels scattered around it.

The chamber at the southern end of the tomb held the other larnax coffin, along with 14 amphorae and a bowl. The tomb was estimated to be about 3,400 years old and was preserved in near-perfect condition, making it a valuable find.

The skeletal remains were found inside two larnakes (singular: "larnax") - a type of small closed coffin used in the Minoan and Greek Bronze Age.

Kristina Killgrove, a bioarchaeologist, wrote for Forbes that the ornamentation on the artifacts found in the tomb suggest that its inhabitants were men of wealth.

The fanciest tombs from the same period, however, had massive domed walls in a "beehive" style, which this tomb doesn't, so they probably weren't among the wealthiest.

The find dates from the Late Minoan Period, sometimes called the Late Palace Period.

In the earlier part of that era, the Minoan civilization was very rich, with impressive ceramics and art, but by the later part of the period, there is an apparent decline in wealth and prestige, according to Killgrove.

It's believed that the civilization was weakened by a combination of natural disasters, including a tsunami triggered by an earthquake, and the eruption of a nearby volcano. This made it easier for foreigners to come in and destroy the palaces.

The ornate pottery vessels found inside the tomb were all in good condition.

Locals don't anticipate the discovery of any more tombs of this type, but the area is known to be the home of a number of antiquities, and a great deal of them have been found by coincidence, as with this find.

The Deputy Mayor of Local Communities, Agrarian, and Tourism of Ierapetra pointed out that the tomb had never been found by thieves, and went on to say that it would probably have remained undiscovered forever, except for the broken irrigation pipe that was responsible for the softened and eroded soil in the farmer's olive grove.

Minoan fresco is commonly known as the 'Prince of the Lilies.'

He went on to say how pleased they were with having the tomb to further enrich their understanding of their ancient culture and history, and that the tomb was proof for those historians who didn't think that there had been Minoans in that part of Crete.

Previously, it had been thought that the Minoans only settled in the lowlands and plains of the island, not in the mountains that surround Ierapetra, although there was an excavation in 2012 that uncovered a Minoan mansion in the same area.

Killgrove will be analyzing the skeletons, to see what further information can be gleaned from them. She said, "As a bioarchaeologist, I routinely pore over the skeletons of ancient populations so that I can learn about their health, diet, and lifestyles." It's also hoped that analysis can contribute more information into the research on Minoan and Mycenaean origins.

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Greek Farmer Accidentally Discovers 3,400-Year-Old Minoan Tomb Hidden Under Olive Grove

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sometime between 1400 and 1200 B.C., two Minoan men were laid to rest in an underground enclosure carved out of the soft limestone native to southeast Crete. Both were entombed within larnakes-intricately embossed clay coffins popular in Bronze Age Minoan society-and surrounded by colorful funerary vases that hinted at their owners' high status.