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This Youtube video, while a little long at 18 minutes, is an in-classroom example of teaching using the learning theory of cognitivism. The teacher in the video goes through what they call the Cognitive Strategy Instruction Model, a helpful outline for anyone looking to apply this theory to teaching. (Kelsey Butterfield)

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This webpage breaks down and explains the different ideas behind cognitivist theory of learning. There is different types of media to help explore the theory of cognitivism, including an interactive concept mapping program. (Jamie Paille)

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The cognitivist theory slowly replaced the Behaviorist learning theory between the 1920's to the 1960's. What prompted psychologists to challenge the behavorist theory was that behaviorism did not...

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Motivational Strategies and Cognitive Learning in Distance Education Courses

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Motivational Strategies and Cognitive Learning in Distance Education Courses

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The following link provides an abstract to an article which can be found online through the Golda Meir Library. This was selected because it discusses distance education, cognitive learning theory, and provides suggestions for instructional designers and educators. (Jessica Currie)

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This study examines the relationships between students' academic levels, the use of motivational regulation strategies, and cognitive learning strategies. A total of 141 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in online distance courses participated in the study. The findings show that students use different motivational regulation strategies and cognitive learning strategies depending on their academic levels. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses using two dependent variables (i.e., surface level learning strategy and deep processing level learning strategy) indicate that a surface level learning strategy (i.e., rehearsal) and deep processing level strategies (i.e., elaboration, organization, and critical thinking) are predicted by different sets of motivational regulation strategies after controlling for academic level and age. The results provide distance educators and instructional designers with practical suggestions on how to support undergraduate and graduate students' motivational needs and further promote their use of cognitive learning strategies in online distance education programs in higher education.

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Relationships between motivational strategies and cognitive learning in distance education courses

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This study examines the relationships between students' academic levels, the use of motivational regulation strategies, and cognitive learning strategies. A total of 141 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in online distance courses participated in the study. The findings show that students use different motivational regulation strategies and cognitive learning strategies depending on their academic levels.

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Cognition - How Your Mind Can Amaze and Betray You: Crash Course Psychology

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Cognition - How Your Mind Can Amaze and Betray You: Crash Course Psychology

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A fascinating video on how cognition works. Great for gaining more basic understanding of the main principles behind cognitivism. (Kelsey Butterfield)

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Cognition - How Your Mind Can Amaze and Betray You: Crash Course Psychology #15

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One of two images that depict how information processing occurs according to the Cognitive Information Processing Theory. (Kelsey Butterfield)

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Image two (Kelsey Butterfield)

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Problems with Cognitivism in the Classroom

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Problems with Cognitivism in the Classroom

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This excerpt reviews some of the major criticism of Cognitivism as a teaching model. It's taken from a course and a text, both taught/written by university professors, who are cited on the webpage. (Anna Juliar)

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Cognitive learning theorists focus on the human mind's active attempts to make sense of the world. The ways we think about situations - along with our beliefs, expectations, and feelings - influence what and how we learn. Cognitivists view knowledge as the outcome of learning and the power of knowledge as the driving element in learning.

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Many of the articles on Cognitivism Theory tell a tale of replacing behaviorism. This blog outlines the differences in the two theories. (Jamie Paille)

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connecting data to information to knowledge

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Behavioral theories

mode of learning: learning as a change in rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior or response, which occurs primarily as a function of environmental factors (teachers therefore should arrange the environment so that students can respond properly to stimuli)

learner profile: less importance to learner differences.

key words: reinforcement history (the extent to which the individual was reinforced in the past for performing the same or similar behavior) and development status (what the individual is capable of doing given his or her present level of development).

memory: neurological connections established as a function of behaviors being associated with external stimuli (forgetting as caused by lack of responding over time).

motivation: motivated behavior is increased, or continued responding is produced, by reinforcement.

transfer: depends on identical elements or similar features between situations.

self regulation: involves setting up one's own contingencies of reinforcement

Cognitive theories

mode of learning: through the formation of mental structures, and the processing of information and beliefs, it is an internal phenomenon (teachers make learning meaningful taking into account the learners' perceptions of themselves and their learning environments).

learner profile: more importance to learner differences. What students do with information-how they attend to, rehearse, transform, code, store, and retrieve it-is critically important. The ways that learners process information determine what, when, and how they learn, as well as what use they will make of the learning.

memory: has a prominent role in cognitivism, learning via encoding or storing knowledge in an organized meaningful fashion. information is retrieved from memory in response to relevant cues that activate the appropriate memory structures.

motivation: one can be motivated and not learn; one can learn without being motivated/ motivation can help to direct attention and influence how information is processed. when reinforcement history conflicts with present beliefs, people are more likely to act based on their beliefs.

transfer: it occurs when learners understand how to apply knowledge in different settings.

self regulation: the key element is choice. For self-regulation to occur, learners must have some choice in their motives or methods for learning, time spent learning, criterion level of learning, the setting where learning occurs

References
Schunk, D.H., 2012. Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. (Sixth Edition), Boston: Pearson

Image available here

This entry was posted in theories of learning and tagged theories of learning. Bookmark the permalink.

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Behavioral theories mode of learning: learning as a change in rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior or response, which occurs primarily as a function of environmental factors (teachers therefore should arrange the environment so that students can respond properly to stimuli) learner profile: less importance to learner differences.

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Metacognition: Definition and Notes on Instruction

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Metacognition: Definition and Notes on Instruction

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This site from the Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt reviews the definition of Metacognition, which stems from Cognitivism, and goes over its practical teaching applications. (Anna Juliar)

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Cite this guide: Chick, N. (2013). Metacognition. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/.

Thinking about One's Thinking | Putting Metacognition into Practice

Thinking about One's Thinking

Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one's thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.

Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985), researchers soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then, these thought processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). In How People Learn, the National Academy of Sciences' synthesis of decades of research on the science of learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the effectiveness of a "'metacognitive' approach to instruction" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p. 18).

Metacognitive practices increase students' abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Scardamalia et al., 1984; Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of awareness above the subject matter: they also think about the tasks and contexts of different learning situations and themselves as learners in these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002) asserts that "Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them" (p. 222), notice the students must "know about" these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David (2009) explain, there must be a " conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]" (p. 179).

Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses as learners, writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the limit of one's knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend the ability. Those who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to "actively monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular tasks and performances" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67).

The absence of metacognition connects to the research by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger, and Kruger on "Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence" (2003). They found that "people tend to be blissfully unaware of their incompetence," lacking "insight about deficiencies in their intellectual and social skills." They identified this pattern across domains-from test-taking, writing grammatically, thinking logically, to recognizing humor, to hunters' knowledge about firearms and medical lab technicians' knowledge of medical terminology and problem-solving skills (p. 83-84). In short, "if people lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to know when their answers, or anyone else's, are right or wrong" (p. 85). This research suggests that increased metacognitive abilities-to learn specific (and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice them-is needed in many contexts.

Putting Metacognition into Practice

In " Promoting Student Metacognition," Tanner (2012) offers a handful of specific activities for biology classes, but they can be adapted to any discipline. She first describes four assignments for explicit instruction (p. 116):

Preassessments-Encouraging Students to Examine Their Current Thinking: "What do I already know about this topic that could guide my learning?"

The Muddiest Point-Giving Students Practice in Identifying Confusions: "What was most confusing to me about the material explored in class today?"

Retrospective Postassessments-Pushing Students to Recognize Conceptual Change: "Before this course, I thought evolution was... Now I think that evolution is ...." or "How is my thinking changing (or not changing) over time?"

Reflective Journals-Providing a Forum in Which Students Monitor Their Own Thinking: "What about my exam preparation worked well that I should remember to do next time? What did not work so well that I should not do next time or that I should change?"

Next are recommendations for developing a "classroom culture grounded in metacognition" (p. 116-118):

Giving Students License to Identify Confusions within the Classroom Culture: ask students what they find confusing, acknowledge the difficulties

Integrating Reflection into Credited Course Work: integrate short reflection (oral or written) that ask students what they found challenging or what questions arose during an assignment/exam/project

Metacognitive Modeling by the Instructor for Students: model the thinking processes involved in your field and sought in your course by being explicit about "how you start, how you decide what to do first and then next, how you check your work, how you know when you are done" (p. 118)

To facilitate these activities, she also offers three useful tables:

Questions for students to ask themselves as they plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking within four learning contexts-in class, assignments, quizzes/exams, and the course as a whole (p. 115)

Prompts for integrating metacognition into discussions of pairs during clicker activities, assignments, and quiz or exam preparation (p. 117)

Questions to help faculty metacognitively assess their own teaching (p. 119)

Weimer's " Deep Learning vs. Surface Learning: Getting Students to Understand the Difference " (2012) offers additional recommendations for developing students' metacognitive awareness and improvement of their study skills:

"[I]t is terribly important that in explicit and concerted ways we make students aware of themselves as learners. We must regularly ask, not only 'What are you learning?' but 'How are you learning?' We must confront them with the effectiveness (more often ineffectiveness) of their approaches. We must offer alternatives and then challenge students to test the efficacy of those approaches." (emphasis added)

She points to a tool developed by Stanger-Hall (2012, p. 297) for her students to identify their study strategies, which she divided into " cognitively passive" ("I previewed the reading before class," "I came to class," "I read the assigned text," "I highlighted the text," et al) and " cognitively active study behaviors" ("I asked myself: 'How does it work?' and 'Why does it work this way?'" "I wrote my own study questions," "I fit all the facts into a bigger picture," "I closed my notes and tested how much I remembered," et al). The specific focus of Stanger-Hall's study is tangential to this discussion, ¹ but imagine giving students lists like hers adapted to your course and then, after a major assignment, having students discuss which ones worked and which types of behaviors led to higher grades. Even further, follow Lovett's advice (2013) by assigning "exam wrappers," which include students reflecting on their previous exam-preparation strategies, assessing those strategies and then looking ahead to the next exam, and writing an action plan for a revised approach to studying. A common assignment in English composition courses is the self-assessment essay in which students apply course criteria to articulate their strengths and weaknesses within single papers or over the course of the semester. These activities can be adapted to assignments other than exams or essays, such as projects, speeches, discussions, and the like.

As these examples illustrate, for students to become more metacognitive, they must be taught the concept and its language explicitly (Pintrich, 2002; Tanner, 2012), though not in a content-delivery model (simply a reading or a lecture) and not in one lesson. Instead, the explicit instruction should be "designed according to a knowledge construction approach," or students need to recognize, assess, and connect new skills to old ones, "and it needs to take place over an extended period of time" (Zohar & David, p. 187). This kind of explicit instruction will help students expand or replace existing learning strategies with new and more effective ones, give students a way to talk about learning and thinking, compare strategies with their classmates' and make more informed choices, and render learning "less opaque to students, rather than being something that happens mysteriously or that some students 'get' and learn and others struggle and don't learn" (Pintrich, 2002, p. 223).

Metacognition instruction should also be embedded with the content and activities about which students are thinking. Why? Metacognition is "not generic" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 19) but instead is most effective when it is adapted to reflect the specific learning contexts of a specific topic, course, or discipline (Zohar & David, 2009). In explicitly connecting a learning context to its relevant processes, learners will be more able to adapt strategies to new contexts, rather than assume that learning is the same everywhere and every time. For instance, students' abilities to read disciplinary texts in discipline-appropriate ways would also benefit from metacognitive practice. A literature professor may read a passage of a novel aloud in class, while also talking about what she's thinking as she reads: how she makes sense of specific words and phrases, what connections she makes, how she approaches difficult passages, etc. This kind of modeling is a good practice in metacognition instruction, as suggested by Tanner above. Concepción's " Reading Philosophy with Background Knowledge and Metacognition " (2004) includes his detailed "How to Read Philosophy" handout (pp. 358-367), which includes the following components:

What to Expect (when reading philosophy)

The Ultimate Goal (of reading philosophy)

Basic Good Reading Behaviors

Important Background Information, or discipline- and course-specific reading practices, such as "reading for enlightenment" rather than information, and "problem-based classes" rather than historical or figure-based classes

A Three-Part Reading Process (pre-reading, understanding, and evaluating)

Flagging, or annotating the reading

Linear vs. Dialogical Writing (Philosophical writing is rarely straightforward but instead "a monologue that contains a dialogue" [p. 365].)

What would such a handout look like for your discipline?

Students can even be metacognitively prepared (and then prepare themselves) for the overarching learning experiences expected in specific contexts. Salvatori and Donahue's The Elements (and Pleasures) of Difficulty (2004) encourages students to embrace difficult texts (and tasks) as part of deep learning, rather than an obstacle. Their "difficulty paper" assignment helps students reflect on and articulate the nature of the difficulty and work through their responses to it (p. 9). Similarly, in courses with sensitive subject matter, a different kind of learning occurs, one that involves complex emotional responses. In " Learning from Their Own Learning: How Metacognitive and Meta-affective Reflections Enhance Learning in Race-Related Courses" (Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, 2009), students were informed about the common reactions to learning about racial inequality (Helms, 1995; Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 1997; see student handout, Chick, Karis, & Kernahan, p. 23-24) and then regularly wrote about their cognitive and affective responses to specific racialized situations. The students with the most developed metacognitive and meta-affective practices at the end of the semester were able to "clear the obstacles and move away from" oversimplified thinking about race and racism "to places of greater questioning, acknowledging the complexities of identity, and redefining the world in racial terms" (p. 14).

Ultimately, metacognition requires students to "externalize mental events" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67), such as what it means to learn, awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses with specific skills or in a given learning context, plan what's required to accomplish a specific learning goal or activity, identifying and correcting errors, and preparing ahead for learning processes.

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1 Students who were tested with short answer in addition to multiple-choice questions on their exams reported more cognitively active behaviors than those tested with just multiple-choice questions, and these active behaviors led to improved performance on the final exam.
References

Adams, Maurianne, Bell, Lee Ann, and Griffin, Pat. (1997). Teaching for diversity and social justice: A sourcebook. New York: Routledge.

Bransford, John D., Brown Ann L., and Cocking Rodney R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Baker, Linda, and Brown, Ann L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In Paul David Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Rebecca Barr, & Peter Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of research in reading: Volume III (pp. 353-395). New York: Longman.

Brown, Ann L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce, and William F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, and education (pp. 453-482). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chick, Nancy, Karis, Terri, and Kernahan, Cyndi. (2009). Learning from their own learning: how metacognitive and meta-affective reflections enhance learning in race-related courses . International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 3(1). 1-28.

Flavell, John H. (1985). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hatano, Giyoo and Inagaki, Kayoko. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In Harold Stevenson, Azuma, Horishi, and Hakuta, Kinji (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan, New York: W.H. Freeman.

Lovett, Marsha C. (2013). Make exams worth more than the grade. In Matthew Kaplan, Naomi Silver, Danielle LaVague-Manty, and Deborah Meizlish (Eds.), Using reflection and metacognition to improve student learning: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Salvatori, Mariolina Rizzi, and Donahue, Patricia. (2004). The Elements (and pleasures) of difficulty. New York: Pearson-Longman.

Schoenfeld, Alan H. (1991). On mathematics as sense making: An informal attack on the fortunate divorce of formal and informal mathematics. In James F. Voss, David N. Perkins, and Judith W. Segal (Eds.), Informal reasoning and education (pp. 311-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Weimer, Maryellen. (2012, November 19). Deep learning vs. surface learning: Getting students to understand the difference. Retrieved from the Teaching Professor Blog from http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog/deep-learning-vs-surface-learning-getting-students-to-understand-the-difference/.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Nancy Chick Print Version Cite this guide: Chick, N. (2013). Metacognition. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/metacognition/. Thinking about One's Thinking | Putting Metacognition into Practice Thinking about One's Thinking Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess...

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Metacognition: Definition and Notes for Students/Learners

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Metacognition: Definition and Notes for Students/Learners

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This site from the Learning Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill reviews Metacognition from a student/learner perspective. Its focus is on higher education students, but many strategies can be applied to adult learners in general. (Anna Juliar)

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Metacognitive Study Strategies – Learning Center

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Do you spend a lot of time studying but feel like your hard work doesn’t help your performance on exams? You may not realize that your study techniques, which may have worked in high school, don’t necessarily translate to how … Continued

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Cognitive Load Theory: A Definition for Teachers

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Cognitive Load Theory: A Definition for Teachers

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An informative and highly readable online article providing an overview of Cognitive Load Theory, another outgrowth of Cognitivism, and its application in instruction. It also includes a graphic representation of the theory. (Anna Juliar)

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by Terry Heick

Preface: I'm (very clearly) not a neurologist. While I often have dedicated a lot of thought and research into things I write, sometimes I write about things in order to understand them-or understand them better. This is one of those times. Caveat emptor.

Generally, the Cognitive Load Theory is a theory about learning built on the premise that since the brain can only do so many things at once, we should be intentional about what we ask it to do.

It was developed in 1998 by psychologist John Sweller, and the School of Education at New South Wales University released a paper in August of 2017 that delved into theory. The paper has a great overview-and even stronger list of citations-of the theory. They also, obviously, define and explain it:

'Cognitive load theory is based on a number of widely accepted theories about how human brains process and store information (Gerjets, Scheiter & Cierniak 2009, p. 44). These assumptions include: that human memory can be divided into working memory and long-term memory; that information is stored in the long-term memory in the form of schemas; and that processing new information results in 'cognitive load' on working memory which can affect learning outcomes (Anderson 1977; Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968; Baddeley 1983).'

Put another way, the Cognitive Load Theory saysthat because short-term memory is limited, learning experiences should be designed to reduce working memory 'load' in order to promote schema acquisition.

Since both can't be done well at the same time, teachers can be specific about not just what is being learned (e.g., content knowledge versus procedural knowledge) and the sequence of the learning (e.g., learn about a 'thing,' then how that 'thing' works, then how to use that 'thing' critically and creatively) it is, but also the nature of what's being learned (e.g., domain-specific knowledge and definitions versus design thinking through knowledge and definitions).

For example, if you asked a student to critically examine various economic systems (higher-order thinking) while also defining and 'making sense of' what an 'economic system' was and how they worked, you'd be overloading short-term memory. Because the student doesn't yet 'understand' economic systems, they would need to consistently access their short-term memory while processing-while 'learning.' The concept of 'economic systems' is not yet in their long-term memory, so as they 'create knowledge' (moving new 'information' into existing or emerging schema), their short-term memory becomes cluttered because it is the primary 'ground zero' for the learning.

The student could likely still learn under these circumstances, but the instructional design in this scenario is non-optimal-the student would literally be fighting the way their brain works in order to learn.

Or so says the Cognitive Load Theory anyway.

Of course, a teacher doesn't want students fighting an uphill battle just to acquire new knowledge. We want students to grapple with complexity, but that's very different than defying neurology.
Another (Slightly Longer) Definition For Cognitive Load Theory
Wikipedia has one of the best (though slightly longer) definitions for the Cognitive Load Theory I've seen.

'Cognitive load theory provides a general framework and has broad implications for instructional design, by allowing instructional designers to control the conditions of learning within an environment or, more generally, within most instructional materials. Specifically, it provides...guidelines that help instructional designers decrease extraneous cognitive load during learning and...refocus the learner's attention toward germane materials, thereby increasing germane (schema-related) cognitive load.'
The Theory In Sweller's Own Words: A Psychologist's Definition
In 1988, Sweller himself wrote that:

'Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. The theory assumes a limited capacity working memory that includes partially independent subcomponents to deal with auditory/verbal material and visual/2- or 3-dimensional information as well as an effectively unlimited long-term memory, holding schemas that vary in their degree of automation. These structures and functions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel instructional procedures based on the assumption that working memory load should be reduced and schema construction encouraged."

See also Is The Cognitive Load Theory The Most Important Thing Every Teacher Should Know?

Ultimately, the Cognitive Load Theory also suggests that 'knowing things' is necessary to think critically about those things-or at least is most efficient when that is the case.

This further suggests that two of the primary information processing 'activities' here (knowledge acquisition and problem-solving) should be considered separately, oftentimes focusing first on schema, then on problem-solving with and through that schema.

Sweller continues, "It is suggested that a major reason for the ineffectiveness of problem-solving as a learning device, is that the cognitive processes required by the two activities overlap insufficiently, and that conventional problem-solving in the form of means-ends analysis requires a relatively large amount of cognitive processing capacity which is consequently unavailable for schema acquisition."

Put another way, the reason problem-solving and domain knowledge aren't directly proportional is because of how the human brain works. Problem-solving takes up crucial 'brain bandwidth,' reducing what's 'left' to 'learn new things.'

Of course, this has significant implications for how teachers might design lessons, units, and assessments, and for how curriculum developers use instructional design elements that brain-based learning.
A Few Thoughts About The Theory
The paper from NSW offers a slightly confusing 'cognitive load-friendly' strategy:

'Cognitive load theory supports explicit models of instruction, because such models tend to accord with how human brains learn most effectively (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark 2006). Explicit instruction involves teachers clearly showing students what to do and how to do it, rather than having students discover or construct information for themselves (see Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation 2014, pp. 8-12).

I'm honestly not sure what to take away from this bit-maybe that the nature of explicit instruction is 'Cognitive Load Theory'-friendly because students are less frequently overloading short-term memory...maybe because the teacher is reducing 'load' by modeling and explaining and being extremely clear and explicit? In which case, the brain is free to 'learn' the specified learning objective?

That sounds great, but by being so narrow and 'clear,' it leaves very little room for personalization unless the teacher:

1. Was crystal clear-from the academic standard to the curriculum map to the unit to the lesson objective-what was was being learned and the cognitive level it was being learned at. For example, any academic standard that require the student to evaluate the bias in an author's position, for example, would itself need to be parsed to separate

2. Had fresh and accurate assessment date evaluating the prior knowledge each student came to that lesson with

3. Designed some way to accommodate a wide variety of existing understandings so that the 'load' was reduced per student rather than per standard or content topic

And there's zero chance of that happening consistently-which suggests education be looked at with fresh and honest eyes of how the brain works, and everything else-from curriculum to classrooms-be designed in response.
Conclusion
Anyhow, there you are. A definition for and brief discussion of the Cognitive Load Theory. There are scores and scores of 'theories' worth looking at, but this one stood out to me because it doesn't mean exactly what it sounds like it means, and in a neat and tidy way, kind of frames how all teaching and learning most naturally happen: in small movements, building in small increments of progress until something close to mastery emerges and learners can see what the value of the 'learned thing' is, and what the true utility of that knowledge might be.
What Is The Cognitive Load Theory? A Definition For Teachers

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What Is The Cognitive Load Theory? A Definition For Teachers -

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What Is The Cognitive Load Theory? A Definition For Teachers by Terry Heick Preface: I'm (very clearly) not a neurologist. While I often have dedicated a lot of thought and research into things I write, sometimes I write about things in order to understand them-or understand them better.

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This brief informational has tips for applying Jean Piaget in the classroom setting with ages 0-15. It is geared more towards the younger learning years, that we all know are so important! (Jamie Paille)

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Funderstanding: Education, Curriculum and Learning Resources - Just another WordPress site

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Every experience and interaction has an impact on development in early childhood. Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget recognized this when he studied and researched his own theories of cognitive development.

Some of his research led to the belief that every interaction establishes cognitive structure in children. This is especially important in the classroom environment.

Jean Piaget's theories impact learning in many different ways, but keeping in mind the curriculum you are teaching, as well as how you are teaching it, directly applies to the essentials of child development. For the stages of child development and the primary influential factors, visit this Funderstanding article.

Observation and Education

Jean Piaget developed his methods of understanding children by directly observing them while they were working. Many of his thoughts have led to increased educational theory.

He also analyzed behavior.

"His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so," according to Learning and Teaching Information.

Jean Piaget made note of certain stages of development that allowed children to learn better.

"He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of understanding things in certain ways," Learning and Teaching Information said.

Structured Development

Jean Piaget's theories of development centered on structure. The concept of structure introduced four stages of development, according to Teacher Education:

1. Sensorimotor stage - 0-2 years: imitation, memory and thought begin to be utilized

2. Preoperational stage- 2-7 years: language development and recognizing symbolic form

3. Concrete operational stage- 7-11 years: able to solve hands-on problems logically

4. Formal operational stage- 11-15 years : able to solve abstract problems in a logical fashion

Applying Jean Piaget in the Classroom

To apply Jean Piaget's theories in the classroom, the University of Arkansas suggests these six steps to structure preoperational development:

1. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.

2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.

3. Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else's point of view.

4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.

5. Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills like reading comprehension.

6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.

More on Jean Piaget

Check this if you want to learn how teachers and parents can apply Piaget's principles. To learn more about Jean Piaget's work, check out this Funderstanding page.

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Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development in the Classroom - Funderstanding: Education, Curriculum and Learning Resources

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Kelly McLendon goes over the theories and methods of Jean Piaget, its implications for cognitive development, and steps on how to apply them in the classroom.

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This Youtube video briefly explains what cognitive learning is and how to apply it to teaching (Jessica Currie)

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This website explains how Kolb developed an experiential model which views successful learning as a cycle of activities. (Emily Gail Wawer)

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Kolb[1] developed an experiential model which views successful learning as a cycle of four principal activities: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualisation, Active Experimentation.

Here is an example of how you might run a Kolb-type workshop in the classroom:

First stage - Concrete Experience (CE)

Provide hands-on tasks which are open-ended: this provides room for later interpretation. Try to avoid "closed" tasks where learners are led to an answer.

IL example: Examine two contrasting sources of information for use in an assignment. Make notes about their suitability, looking for positive and negative aspects.

Second stage - Reflection (RO)

Ask students to observe and quantify what they experienced. Discussion groups and teacher facilitation can be useful, or students can log reflections in a journal.

IL example: Discuss in pairs/groups; teacher may guide some of the discussion.

Third stage - Abstract Conceptualisation (AC)

Students are given space to conceptualise and design new approaches.

IL Example: Students design a rubric for testing the validity of sources using the observations in stage two.

Fourth stage - Active Experimentation (AE)

Students use the rubric actively to evaluate a source. They may then reflect through discussion or in a journal on any difficulties and amend the rubric.

The next section covers Bloom's taxonomy.

References for this page

[1] Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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Kolb [1] developed an experiential model which views successful learning as a cycle of four principal activities: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualisation, Active Experimentation. Here is an example of how you might run a Kolb-type workshop in the classroom: First stage - Concrete Experience (CE) Provide hands-on tasks which are open-ended: this provides room for later interpretation.

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Teaching Web Evaluation with Cognitive Theory

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Teaching Web Evaluation with Cognitive Theory

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This article explains how instruction librarians, by familiarizing themselves with the cognitive development research, were able to effectively revamp Web evaluation instruction to improve student learning! (Emily Gail Wawer)

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Teaching Web Evaluation by Benjes-Small, Archer, Tucker, Vassady, Resor, 2013.

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This quick read briefly discusses the industrial design behind cognitivism, stages of development, the stages of which people process information, motivation, and a quick note on criticism. (Jessica Currie)

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14 minute read

C ognitivism is based on the idea that information is actively processed in the mind of a learner and that changes in behaviour happen as a result of searching for the relationships that exist between the various kinds of information learned. To a cognitivist, learning is a process of "gathering together relevant pieces of information together until they begin to form a complete picture" (Bates, 2016, p39). As in a jigsaw, each individual piece has relatively little meaning until connected with enough other pieces for a picture to emerge.

Cognitivism grew in part from the mounting dissatisfaction many had with the perceived inadequacies of behaviorism, which many believed was too focused on achieving specific outcomes while ignoring what was going on in the learner's head. It was also developed in response to the emerging need to "develop people capable of deeper understanding and reasoned thinking" (Bates, 2016, p40).

John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that education should not be divorced from life in general, and that changes in behaviour happen when a learner is able to relate the behaviour to their experiences. He argued that behaviour modification should be viewed in the context of both the individual and their environment - not separated from it.

He coined the phrase intelligent action as a foundation for education, and described the three attitudes that form it:

open-mindedness: freedom from pre-conceived notions or prejudices

absorbed interest: wholehearted engagement in learning

mature approach: accepting responsibility for consequences of actions taken in learning

He advocated that education should be learner-centred, encouraging them to take a personal interest in the subject. Learning experiences should include opportunities for independent learning & social involvement, and respect the viewpoints of each learner.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. He believed that people construct knowledge rather than receive it, and this general idea is at the heart of most cognitive theories.

"He suggests that the construction of knowledge is based on the individual's experiences which, in turn, are influenced by their emotional, biological and mental stage of development."

- Bates (2016, p48)

He argued that there are four stages of development:

Age range

Stage

Description

0-2

sensorimotor

Learning takes place through touch and feel.

2-7

pre-operational

The ability to arrange objects logically starts to develop, they begin to use language to make sense of reality. Increased linguistic skills open the way for greater socialisation and communication with others.

7-12

concrete operational

The ability to think logically about objects and events starts to become more structured, although only on concrete objects and events.

12+

formal operational

Abstract thinking and verbal reasoning start to develop and children reach affective and intellectual maturity. They begin to appreciate others' points of view as well as their own. "Although children [are] still in a position of having relatively little knowledge, their thought processes [are] as well developed as they [are] ever likely to be" (Pritchard, 2014. p20).

Bates (2016) summarises Piaget's main ideas as follows:

People react differently to learning according to their stage of cognitive development

Teachers should take an active, mentoring role towards their learners

Learners should be encouraged to learn from their peers

Learners should be allowed to learn from their mistakes

The focus should be on the process of learning as well as the outcome

Teachers should respect each learner's interests, abilities and limits

The basic principle underlying Piaget's theory is the principle of equilibration: "all cognitive development progresses towards increasingly complex and stable levels of organisation" (UC Berkeley, p6). This happens through a twofold process of:

assimilation: the process whereby new knowledge is incoporated into existing mental structures

accommodation: the process whereby mental structures are altered to cope with the new experience that has affected or altered existing models (Pritchard, 2014. p21)

In this way, external experiences have an impact on what is already known, either by reinforcing or contradicting existing knowledge.

William G. Perry (1913-1998) was a researcher at Harvard who focused on the cognitive development of college-age students. His generalised study gave a more detailed account of development in post-adolescents than Piaget's work had, as well as developing a more fluid, less static view of the transition from one developmental stage to the next.

Perry rejected the notion of stages (as described by Piaget, Freud etc) as being too static, instead introducing the concept of positionality. He laid greater emphasis on the idea that learners approach knowledge from a variety of standpoints, arguing that gender, race, culture and socioeconomic class influence our approach to learning just as much as our stage of cognitive development.

"We interpret the world from a different position and each person may occupy several positions simultaneously with respect to different subjects and experiences. The developmental process is a constantly changing series of transitions between different positions."
- UC Berkeley, 2016. p7.

Positionality

Perry illustrates the idea of different kinds of position like this:

... a lecturer announces that today he will consider three theories explanatory of ________.

Student A has always taken it for granted that knowledge consists of correct answers, that there is one right answer per problem, and that teachers explain these answers for students to learn. He therefore listens for the lecturer to state which theory to learn.

Student B makes the same general assumptions, but with an elaboration to the effect that teachers sometimes present problems and procedures, rather than answers, "so that we can learn to find the right answer on our own..."

Student C assumes that an answer can be called "right" only in the light of its context, and that contexts or "frames of reference" differ...

Whatever the lecturer then proceeds to do, these three students will make meaning of the experience in different ways which will involve different assessments of their own choices and responsibilities.

- Perry, 1999, p2.

Perry identifies nine basic positions, of which the three main examples are duality, multiplicity and commitment:

Duality is the most basic position. The world, knowledge and morality are assumed to have a dualistic structure: right or wrong, true or false, good or bad. Students see teachers as authority figures who impart right answers, and "the truth". The role of students is to receive those answers and demonstrate that they have learned them. Most students have passed beyond this stage by the time they arrive in university, and those who haven't quickly do so due to the pluralistic culture of modern universities.

Multiplicity is the next major position. The world, knowledge and morality are accepted as relativistic in the sense that truth is seen as relative to a frame of reference rather than absolute. Learners see that things can only be said to be right or wrong within a specific context. Teachers are seen as expert guides rather than authority figures imparting "the truth". Peers are accepted as legitimate sources of learning. This position involves a much more extensive restructuring of the learner's existing knowledge.

Commitment is the final major position. Commitments that learners have developed together with their recognition that knowledge is relative leads to the realisation both that each person partly determines his or own fate, and the recognition that commitments and identity are constantly evolving.

- UC Berkeley, 2016. p9.

"Human beings understand the world by constructing models of it in their minds."

- Johnson-Laird 1983, quoted in Pritchard 2014 (p22)

Mental models have been described in various forms by psychologists since the 1920s, and are widely considered to be a reasonable means of describing the way that learning happens. Mental models, or schema, are theoretical stores for a huge number of items of knowledge, or frameworks with many nodes and even more numerous connections between nodes.

At each node in a schema, there is a piece of information or an idea. It could be an image, sound, smell, feeling, action, etc. Each node is connected to many others by links that are formed by there being a meaningful link between the connected items.

Links are personal, and the same items appearing in the schemas of two different people could have completely different links for different reasons. It is the adding of nodes to schemas, and the formation of new connections with other nodes, that constitutes learning.

The more connections there are within schemas, the more construction has taken place and the more learning has taken place.

In summary, units of knowledge, understanding and skill are schemas - a way of referring to conceptual knowledge held in a person's long-term memory. An adult may have hundreds of thousands of schemas that would be interrelated in a very large and complex number of ways. New schemas are created constantly, and existing schemas are updated just as often.

This theory describes the stages in the process by which people process information. Schunk (1996) suggests four stages, where people:

1. attend to events

2. encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory

3. store new knowledge in memory

4. retrieve it as needed

CIP theory uses the metaphor of computer systems with inputs and outputs, focusing on the processing that happens in-between these stages:

Various processes can keep information "alive" or help to transfer it from one stage of memory to the next, including rehearsal, chunking, encoding and retrieval.

Stage theory is one of the most popular theories of this kind in the cognitivist tradition.

It proposes that information is processed serially, in three stages with the final stage being long-term memory: our permanent (or close enough!) information store.

Our senses are constantly taking in information, which is then stored for very short amount of time in the sensory store. It is transferred for a somewhat longer time to short-term memory, where, depending on the processing that takes place, the information (or some degree of it) can be assimilated or accommodated into long-term memory.

Chunking

The capacity of short-term memory is an important factor when designing instructional experiences, specifically in chunking. In instructional design terms, a chunk is a single item in working memory. The size and organisation of this chunk will determine how easily & effectively it is processed.

Content that is chunked is more meaningful, making it easier to understand. There are three key steps in chunking for e-learning:

1. Start at the highest level: determine how modules are formed from chapters, which are made up of topics, etc.

2. Chunk at the screen level: one screen = one chunk of related information. Packing too much onto one screen is unlikely to be effective for instruction.

3. Use working memory chunks: evaluate in terms of working memory, and be critical of what content you are including. Remove anything that is unnecessary.

Mayer's principles

Many of the points above became the foundation for Professor Richard Mayer's Twelve Principles for Multimedia Learning (2001).

View of knowledge

Cognitive constructivists argue that knowledge is actively constructed by learners. Knowledge is made up of active systems of mental representations that learners have built through past learning experiences. Each learner interprets experiences and information in light of their:

extant knowledge

stage of cognitive development

cultural background

personal history, etc.

Learners use these factors (among others) to organise their experience and to select and transform new information. Knowledge is therefore actively constructed rather than passively absorbed, dependent on the standpoint from which the learner approaches it.

View of learning

Learning is presented as a process of active discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through repetition, or by deploying systems of rewards or punishments. Instead, they are to facilitate discovery by providing needed resources and guiding learners as they try to assimilate new knowledge to old. Learning is active mental work, not passive reception of teaching.

This means therefore that teachers must take into account the knowledge that learners already have when deciding how to construct a curriculum and to adapt approaches based upon it.

View of motivation

In contrast to the extrinsic approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism sees motivation as intrinsic: that learning is its own reward. Learners have to accept the limitations of their existing knowledge, and the need to modify or expand upon their existing beliefs. Without an internal drive from the learner to do so, extrinsic motivators such as grades, gold stars or house points are unlikely to make them want to do this.

Criticisms

Recent thinking has gone beyond Piaget's views of developmental stages. The exactness of the stages of development have been criticised. Children may well pass through all the stages identified by Piaget, but not necessarily at the ages he identified. It remains, however, a useful developmental trail if nothing else.

Bates, B. (2016). Learning Theories Simplified. Los Angeles: Sage.

Piaget, J. (1968). Six Psychological Studies. Anita Tenzer (trans.), New York: Vintage Books.

Pritchard (2014). Ways of Learning: Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom. 3rd edition. Oxford: Routledge.

UC Berkeley (2016). Learning: Theory and Research, a teaching guide for Graduate Student Instructors. [Online], available from: http://gsi.berkeley.edu/media/Learning.pdf

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14 minute read C ognitivism is based on the idea that information is actively processed in the mind of a learner and that changes in behaviour happen as a result of searching for the relationships that exist between the various kinds of information learned.

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Critique of Cognitivism as a Theory in Education

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Critique of Cognitivism as a Theory in Education

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This short article discusses limitations and shortcomings of cognitivism, but points out strengths as well. (Jessica Currie)

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CRITIQUE OF COGNITIVISM AS A THEORY IN EDUCATION

Cognitivism or cognitive psychology is a theory of learning that sees a learner as an active receiver, processor, and stoker of information that is being learned (Eysenck and Keane, 2015). This theory was developed in the twentieth century in criticism of behaviourism, especially following the advent of computers. Cognitive psychology likened a human mind to a computer that receives, processes and stores information (Leonard, 2002). Essentially, cognitivism focuses on the mental process that leads to learning. However, this theory is not devoid of pitfalls. This paper addresses the various strengths, pitfalls, and weaknesses seen in the theory of cognitive psychology by first giving a brief summary of the theory.

Cognitive psychology is a theory of learning thatappreciates the role of unseen mental phenomena in the learning process (Leonard, 2002). Cognitivism appreciates the importance of cognitive and mental development in the learning process. For one to learn, they have to pay attention - cognitivism sees attention as an active process initiated by the attributes of the learner (Eysenck and Keane, 2015). There are existing schemes according to which information received by hearing and vision is processed and organised. These schemes also guide the storage and subsequent retrieval or recall of the information that is stored. The concept of schemes means that cognitivismemphasises that learning is dependent on what the learner already knows; the schemes are made from pre-existing information (Baron-Cohen et al., 1994). The environment and the process of instruction highly influence the learning process as postulated by the theory of cognitivism. The learning process, therefore, includes the learner's beliefs, attitudes and thoughts.

The main strength of the theory of cognitive psychology is its wide application in current education systems. A study by Baron-Cohen and colleagues used this theory to identify the thinking deficits that constituted the condition known as autism or Asperger's syndrome (Baron-Cohen et al., 1994). This makes cognitive psychology an important concept in the diagnosis of autism and in subsequent management of children with autism. Understanding the mental and thinking deficits that underlie the learning difficulties seen in autism can help a teacher know how best to handle such children. The concept of cognitive psychology is also used widely in eyewitness testimonies and forensic psychology (Loftus and Palmer, 1996). This use was enhanced by a study conducted by Loftus and Palmer (1996), which used leading questions to enhance memory; the leading questions essentially made it easier for information to be retrieved from the many storage compartments in the brain. These are not the only applications of cognitivism, and an understanding of this theory is key to any teaching exercise (Geiselman et al. 1986). Teachers, for instance, must first strive to catch the attention of learners since attention is the first process in learning. Moreover, the fact that attention is an active learner-determined process has heavily informed the learner-directed learning system towards which the world is moving.

Another chief strength of cognitivism is its reliance on experimentation as the major research method. Experiments can help to determine a cause and effect relationship and demonstrate temporality between the suggested cause and effect. The most famous experiments in this regard were the Loftus and Palmer (1996) laboratory experiment, a quasi-experimental study by Cohen-Baron and colleagues, and a field study by Geiselmanet al. (1986). These experiments confirm that studies on cognitive psychology are actually scientific and have high internal validity, since the confounding factors are well controlled (Geiselman et al., 1986). The high internal validity of such studies makes them highly reliable and highly applicable in real life situations.

By explaining behaviour in only one dimension, cognitive psychology makes understanding behaviour much easier and thus enhances the applicability of the theory to more areas. Cognitive psychology explains behaviour solely as a result of cognitive decisions made by the individual (Leonard, 2002). Such a nomothetic approach reduces the number of variables that need to be modified in order for behaviour change to be achieved, hence enhancing the applicability of the theory.

Despite its applicability and widespread acceptability, cognitivism also has its weaknesses. The main weakness of cognitivism lies in its reliance on complex cognitive processes that cannot be observed (Higgs, 2008). Despite there being scientific evidence for the applicability of cognitivism, there is no such evidencefor the principle of cognitivism. The theory is reliant mainly on inferences. The study of the theory seems to be unscientific since it relies on subjective memories as the research findings. Critics of the famous Loftus and Palmer (1996) experiment argue that such memories could have been the result of poor judgment or the demand of the leading questions. Since memory cannot be directly observed, it is impossible to tell whether or notthe memory has undergone changes before it is reproduced. The fact that the findings in studies of cognitivism are dependent on mental processes that cannot be seen and are heavily subjective seems to nullify the internal validity of such studies.

The second major weakness of the theory of cognitive psychology lies in the importance the theory gives to cognitive decision-making over other factors that are known to affect behaviour. This is demonstrated best by a study into moral reasoning and behaviours of decision making among criminals by Palmer and Hollin (1997). The study concluded that the only explanation as to why the members of the study group were criminals and the control group were not was because of their own cognitive decision making. However, it is known that behaviour is influenced by many other factors including the environment, one's upbringing, and one's biology as demonstrated by studies conducted by Juby and Farrington (2001). It is reductionist to ascribe behaviour to cognitive decision making alone. Thought, language, attention, memory, and perception alone cannot explain behaviour sufficiently; behaviour is a complex result of many things surrounding an individual's past and present life. Moreover, as McLeod (2003) puts it, the theory does not explain initial learning in the absence of prior knowledge.

Cognitive psychology is a theory of great applicability in the current education system. Even though it has weaknesses as discussed above, and various theories have been proposed to try and explain what the theory does not explain, we can conclude that cognitivism is a strong and real theory. From the discussion above, it is clear that the strengths of the theory are numerically and empirically superior to its weaknesses. The fact that the theory can be demonstrated experimentally makes the theory so realistic. It is a theory whose continued application in current education is justifiable.

Bibliography

Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H., Moriarty, J., Schmitz, B., Costa, D. and Ell, P., 1994. Recognition of mental state terms. Clinical findings in children with autism and a functional neuroimaging study of normal adults. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 165(5), pp.640-649.

Eysenck, M. W., and Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook, ( 7 ed.).London : Taylor and Francis.

Geiselman, R.E., Fisher, R.P., MacKinnon, D.P. and Holland, H.L., 1986. Enhancement of eyewitness memory with the cognitive interview. The American Journal of Psychology, pp.385-401.

Higgs, J. (2008). Clinical reasoning in the health professions. Amsterdam, BH/Elsevier.

Juby, H. and Farrington, D.P., 2001. Disentangling the link between disrupted families and delinquency sociodemography, ethnicity and risk behaviours. British Journal of Criminology, 41(1), pp.22-40.

Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning theories: A to Z. Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press

Loftus, E.F. and Palmer, J.C., 1996. Eyewitness testimony. In Introducing Psychological Research (pp. 305-309). Macmillan Education UK.

McLeod, G., 2003. Learning theory and instructional design. Learning Matters, 2(2003), pp.35-43.

Palmer, E.J. and Hollin, C.R., 1997. The influence of perceptions of own parenting on sociomoral reasoning, attributions for criminal behaviour, and self-reported delinquency. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(2), pp.193-197.

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CRITIQUE OF COGNITIVISM AS A THEORY IN EDUCATION - Get Homework Done

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Need Help with Your Paper? Get a Customized Answer Get a Customized Answer: Order Now. CRITIQUE OF COGNITIVISM AS A THEORY IN EDUCATION Cognitivism or cognitive psychology is a theory of learning that sees a learner as an active receiver, processor, and stoker of information that is being learned (Eysenck and Keane, 2015).

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Cognitive Learning Strategies through Undergraduate Learning Community

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Cognitive Learning Strategies through Undergraduate Learning Community

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This article I found through the UWM Libraries databases explains how Librarians in an academic library created Learning Communities to improve and develop new student motivation and cognitive learning skills. (Emily Gail Wawer)

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Abstract

This study describes the effects on student motivation and cognitive learning strategies of an approach involving an undergraduate learner-centered community of learners approach to instruction. Six learning communities were created using the following objectives: integrated courses, active and collaborative learning, and opportunities for learning through information technology and library resources. Instructors attended ten workshops designed to assist them in developing the learning communities according to the objectives of the program. Results indicate significant changes in motivation and cognitive strategy use by the end of participation in the learning community. Within the motivation subscales, students in the learning communities reported significantly higher levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, more internal control of their learning, and self-efficacy, along with significantly lower levels of test anxiety and task value. Within the learning strategies subscales, students reported increases in their use of rehearsal strategies, organization strategies, critical thinking, time management, and the use of peer learning and help-seeking behaviors.

higher education information technology learning communities learning strategies motivation

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Developing Motivation and Cognitive Learning Strategies Through an Undergraduate Learning Community

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This study describes the effects on student motivation and cognitive learning strategies of an approach involving an undergraduate learner-centered community of learners approach to instruction. Six learning communities were created using the following objectives: integrated courses, active and collaborative learning, and opportunities for learning through information technology and library resources.