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I have done this work in collaboration
with the fellow of religion.
It was interesting to work with the colleague of religion
and it is a job that we will accomplish during this school year

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Space Awareness activity template

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uragan

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Investigation of Earth Catastrophes From the Station

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The Uragan program aboard the Russian segment of the space station uses photography to study Earth's natural resources by monitoring catastrophes.

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Volcano eruption

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Animals are known to sense tectonic activity well before major seismic shifts

Astronauts plan to install a dedicated wildlife receiver to the International Space Station

It will chart the movement of animals including birds, bees and butterflies

Device could help give an extra five hours warning of an impending disaster

Tiny birds, bees and butterflies are to be tracked from space from next year to give us advance warnings of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Astronauts are planning to install a dedicated wildlife receiver to the International Space Station, which will continuously track the course of thousands of small animals.

New technology means radio transmitters are getting smaller and smaller, meaning even insects could soon carry one.

Animals are known to sense tectonic activity well before major seismic shifts - an ability which could be used to give us prior warning for natural disasters.

Uschi Müller, co-ordinator of the £33million Icarus project, said birds and animals living near disaster-prone zones could be fitted with the devices.

'It could give people an extra five hours warning of a disaster,' she said.

The devices could also help track and predict the spreads of animal-borne diseases such as Sars, bird flu and West Nile Virus.

Some 70 per cent of worldwide epidemics result from animal-human contact, but without long-distance tracking it is hard to predict where they will spread.

The Icarus scheme, a joint project run by the German and Russian space agencies and 12 scientific groups, will start by putting transmitters on small birds but hopes to be tracking insects within a few years.

Uschi Müller told the Observer: 'To start with, Icarus scientists will use 5g transmitters but in the future we will use much smaller ones, under 1g, which will allow us to follow insects.

'It will be used for conservation, health and disaster forecasting.' At the moment only large animals which have long-range migration patterns are tracked, mainly because of the technological challenges of following animals over many miles.

Scientists behind the project say only a satellite-based system can provide a solution to the problem.

The Icarus receiver will circle on the space station 200 miles above Earth - a relatively low orbit - allowing even bats and bugs to be tracked.

Scientists are not sure why animals are able to sense tectonic shifts well before humans or even, in some cases, before seismic monitoring equipment.

Colonies of birds, insects, frogs and snakes are reported to have abandoned their habitats hours or even days before a earthquake has struck.

One theory is that animals that live in or near groundwater are highly sensitive to any changes in its chemistry, so they might sense subtle alterations caused by chemical changes underground well before tectonic movements.

Another explanation is that they are just highly sensitive to vibrations. The Icarus project will also be highly valuable to conservationists.

Graham Madge of the RSPB said little is known about the routes migratory birds such as nightingales and spotter fly-catchers take.

He said: 'Understanding the routes they take can help us preserve them and prevent higher than normal rates of infection among wildlife populations.

'We still don't know where they go and many are only here for a few months. Without knowing exactly where they go and when we cannot understand how to conserve them.'

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Tracker monitoring bird migrations could warn of natural disasters

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Animals are known to sense tectonic activity well before major seismic shifts Astronauts plan to install a dedicated wildlife receiver to the International Space Station It will chart the movement of animals including birds, bees and butterflies Device could help give an extra five hours warning of an impending disaster Tiny birds, bees and butterflies are to be tracked from space from next year to give us advance warnings of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

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Public invited to test new tool to study earth using photos taken by International Space Station astronauts

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CosmoQuest's Image Detective, a NASA-funded citizen science project, invites the public to identify Earth features in photographs taken by astronauts from the International Space Station (ISS).

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the International Space Station (ISS)

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COSPAR ID

1998-067A

SATCAT no.

25544

Call sign

Alpha, Station

Crew

Launch

20 November 1998 (25 years ago)

Launch pad

Length

109 m (358 ft) (overall length), 94 m (310 ft) (truss length)[4]

Width

73 m (239 ft) (solar array length)[4]

Pressurised volume

1,005.0 m ³ (35,491 cu ft)[4]

Atmospheric pressure

101.3 kPa (14.7 psi; 1.0 atm)
79% nitrogen, 21% oxygen

Perigee altitude

413 km (256.6 mi) AMSL[5]

Orbital speed

7.66 km/s[5][failed verification ] 27,600 km/h; 17,100 mph

Orbits per day

15.5[5]

Days in orbit

25 years, 3 months, 8 days
(28 February 2024)

Days occupied

23 years, 3 months, 25 days
(28 February 2024)

No. of orbits

141,117 as of August 2023[7]

Orbital decay

2 km/month

Statistics as of 22 December 2022
(unless noted otherwise)
References:[4][5][8][9][10]

Configuration

The International Space Station ( ISS) is a large space station assembled and maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), CSA (Canada), and their contractors. ISS is the largest space station ever built. Its primary purpose is performing microgravity and space environment experiments.

Operationally the station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment assembled by Roscosmos and the US Orbital Segment assembled by NASA, JAXA, ESA and CSA. A striking feature of the ISS is the Integrated Truss Structure, which connects the large solar panels and radiators to the pressurized modules. The pressurized modules are specialized for research, habitation, storage, spacecraft control and airlock functions. Visiting spacecraft dock to the station via its eight docking and berthing ports. The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi) and circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day.

The ISS programme combines two prior plans to construct crewed Earth-orbiting stations: Space Station Freedom planned by the United States, and the station planned by the Soviet Union. The first ISS module was launched in 1998. Major modules have been launched by Proton and Soyuz rockets and by the Space Shuttle launch system. The first long-term residents, Expedition 1, arrived on 2 November 2000. Since then the station has been continuously occupied for 23 years and 118 days, the longest continuous human presence in space. As of December 2023, 273 individuals from 21 countries have visited the space station. The ISS is expected to have additional modules (the Axiom Orbital Segment, for example) before being de-orbited by a dedicated NASA spacecraft in January 2031.

The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have been realised. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences. Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease. Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.

Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs. On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS. According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".

The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity. Some simple forms of life called extremophiles, as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation.

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars.

Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.

In August 2020, scientists reported that bacteria from Earth, particularly Deinococcus radiodurans bacteria, which is highly resistant to environmental hazards, were found to survive for three years in outer space, based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of panspermia, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed in various ways, including space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids or contaminated spacecraft.

Remote sensing of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have dramatically increased during the 2010s after the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined aerosols, ozone, lightning, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Sun, cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3, ISS-RapidScat, ECOSTRESS, the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation, and the Cloud Aerosol Transport System. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include SOLAR, the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope, the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI), and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer.

Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:

Drag from the residual atmosphere.

Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.

Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment gyroscopes.

Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes.

Gravity-gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a rigid body.

Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.

A 3D plan of the Russia-based MARS-500 complex, used for conducting ground-based experiments that complement ISS-based preparations for a human mission to Mars

The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations". Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.

In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars." A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership. NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort." Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.

Original Jules Verne manuscripts displayed by crew inside the Jules Verne ATV

The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email. ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. In one lesson, students can navigate a 3D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society". Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life. In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of Kibō utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.

Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."

Spoken voice recording by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on the subject of the ISS, produced in November 2017 for Wikipedia

First Orbit is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during Expedition 26/ 27. The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website firstorbit.org.

In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's " Space Oddity" on board the station, which was released on YouTube. It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.

In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/ 53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on Wikipedia articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.

Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the U.S. components , , the Integrated Truss Structure, and the solar arrays were fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Michoud Assembly Facility. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch.

The Russian modules, including and , were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for , but Mir 2 was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.

The European Space Agency (ESA) Columbus module was manufactured at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe. The other ESA-built modules - , Tranquility, the Leonardo MPLM, and the Cupola - were initially manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory in Turin, Italy. The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing.

The Japanese Experiment Module Kibō, was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tsukuba Space Center, and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. The Kibo module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the SSPF.

The Mobile Servicing System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and the grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the David Florida Laboratory) and the United States, under contract by the Canadian Space Agency. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman.

The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998. Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of . All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); by 5 June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles. The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.

The first module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. A passive NASA module, Unity, was launched two weeks later aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs. The Unity module has two Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs): one connects permanently to Zarya and the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian (Soviet) station Mir was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12 July 2000, the Zvezda module was launched into orbit. Onboard preprogrammed commands deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. Zvezda then became the passive target for a rendezvous with Zarya and Unity, maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the Zarya- Unity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. Zarya's computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. Zvezda added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO ₂ scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, and exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control, enabling permanent habitation of the station.

The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign " Alpha", which he and cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome " International Space Station". The name " Alpha" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s, and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1. Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage." Yuriy Semenov, the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name " Alpha" as he felt that Mir was the first modular space station, so the names " Beta" or " Mir 2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.

Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions STS-92 and STS-97. These two flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays to supplement the station's four existing arrays. Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles , , and delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.

The expansion schedule was interrupted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle disaster and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by Discovery. Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with Atlantis, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of . In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian module. The third node, Tranquility, was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, followed by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet, in May 2010. Rassvet was delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded Zarya module in 1998. The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of Discovery, STS-133. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by Endeavour on STS-134 the same year.

By June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Two power modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2. are still to be launched. Russia's new primary research module Nauka docked in July 2021, along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station. Russia's latest addition, the nodal module Prichal, docked in November 2021.

The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about 417,289 kg (919,965 lb) (as of 3 September 2011). The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators.

The ISS functions as a modular space station, enabling the addition or removal of modules from its structure for increased adaptability.

The ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing SpaceX Crew-2 capsule

Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The Unity node joins directly to the Destiny laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure.

Zarya as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-88

Zarya ( Russian: Заря, 'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian: "Функционально-грузовой блок", ' Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok' or ФГБ), is the first module of the ISS to have been launched. The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, Zarya, as of August 2021, is primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The Zarya is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian Salyut program. The name Zarya ("Dawn") was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.

Unity as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-88

The Unity connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and U.S. segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.

The module is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations ( forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections to other modules. Unity measures 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) in diameter, is 5.47 metres (17.9 ft) long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by Boeing in a manufacturing facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Unity is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are Harmony and Tranquility.

Zvezda as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-97

Zvezda (Russian: Звезда, meaning "star"), Salyut DOS-8, is also known as the Zvezda Service Module. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.

The module was manufactured by RKK Energia, with major sub-contracting work by GKNPTs Khrunichev. Zvezda was launched on a Proton rocket on 12 July 2000, and docked with the Zarya module on 26 July 2000.

The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. It was berthed to the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001. Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974. The Boeing Company began construction of the 14.5-tonne (32,000 lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Destiny was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7 February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98. Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science.

The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock. It is equipped with lighting, external handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA). The UIA is located on one wall of the crew airlock and provides a water supply line, a wastewater return line, and an oxygen supply line. The UIA also provides communication gear and spacesuit power interfaces and can support two spacesuits simultaneously. This can be either two American EMU spacesuits, two Russian ORLAN spacesuits, or one of each design.

Poisk (Russian: По́иск, 'Search') was launched on 10 November 2009 attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2, on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Poisk is used as the Russian airlock module, containing two identical EVA hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the Mir space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock. All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Poisk is used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provides contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS. Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on 26 July 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS.

Harmony shown connected to Columbus, Kibo, and Destiny. PMA-2 faces. The nadir and zenith locations are open.

Harmony, also known as Node 2, is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.

Harmony was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on 23 October 2007. After temporarily being attached to the port side of the Unity node, it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the Destiny laboratory on 14 November 2007. Harmony added 75.5 m ³ (2,666 cu ft) to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 per cent, from 424.8 to 500.2 m ³ (15,000 to 17,666 cu ft). Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be "U.S. Core Complete".

Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola.

The European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency had Tranquility manufactured by Thales Alenia Space. A ceremony on 20 November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA. On 8 February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission.

Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency.

Like the Harmony and Tranquility modules, the Columbus laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7 February 2008, on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.

The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.

Kibō Exposed Facility on the right

The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed Kibō, is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the Harmony module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127.

The Cupola's windows with shutters open

The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word , which means " dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the Tranquility (Node 3) module. With the Cupola attached, ISS assembly reached 85 per cent completion. The Cupola's central window has a diameter of 80 cm (31 in).

( Russian: Рассвет; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) ( Russian: Малый исследовательский модуль, ) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS). The module's design is similar to the Mir Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995. Rassvet is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-132 mission on 14 May 2010, and was connected to the ISS on 18 May 2010. The hatch connecting Rassvet with the ISS was first opened on 20 May 2010. On 28 June 2010, the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.

Science (or Experiment) Airlock

for extracting payloads and from the MLM docking adapter and placing them on the outer surface of the station;

enable science investigations to be removed, exposed to the external microgravity environment, then returned inside while being maneuvered with the European robotic arm.

for receiving payloads from the ERA manipulator and moving them into the internal volume of the airlock and further into the MLM pressurized adapter;

for conducting scientific experiments in the internal volume of the airlock;

for conducting scientific experiments outside the airlock chamber on an extended table and in a special organized place.

for launching cubesats into space, with the aid of ERA - very similar to the Japanese airlock and Nanoracks Bishop Airlock on the U.S. segment of the station.

The Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the International Space Station. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. Leonardo is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the US Orbital Segment. The Leonardo PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci.

The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016, was berthed to the station on 16 April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016. In December 2021, Bigelow Aerospace conveyed ownership of the module to NASA, as a result of Bigelow's cessation of activity.

The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the Harmony module.

Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally, IDA-1 was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at Harmony's forward port, and IDA-2 would be installed on PMA-3 at Harmony's zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in a launch incident, IDA-2 was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016, while IDA-3 was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019.

The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially funded airlock module launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020. The module was built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing. It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers.

Nauka (Russian: Наука, 'Science'), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль, усоверше́нствованный, or МЛМ-У), is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21 July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, Nauka was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the Rassvet module and moved to Zarya's nadir port. Nauka was successfully docked to Zvezda's nadir port on 29 July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the Pirs module.

Progress MS-17 undocking and taking the Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter with it[c][d]

It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft.

Nauka and Prichal docked to ISS

Prichal, also known as Uzlovoy Module or UM (Russian: Узловой Модуль Причал, 'Nodal Module Berth'), is a 4-tonne (8,800 lb) ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM was launched in November 2021. It was integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo spacecraft and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the Nauka module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (OPSEK).

The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted. The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 metres (356 ft) long.

The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs). While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms. Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129, STS-133 and STS-134. As of January 2011, only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilised - the Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2 - which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).[needs update ]

There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the Kibō Exposed Facility serves as an external " porch" for the Kibō complex, and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10, and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017. The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.

The commercial Bartolomeo External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard CRS-20 and attached to the European Columbus module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on Kibō, and four on Columbus. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.

A wide-angle view of the new module (behind Rassvet) attached to the ROS as seen from the cupola

In May 2010, equipment for Nauka was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of Rassvet (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the European Robotic Arm (ERA) (which was launched with Nauka) and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator and internal hardware alongside the pressurized experiment airlock.

The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to Nauka, which enables the module to host more scientific experiments.

The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator from Rassvet and transferred over to Nauka during VKD-56 spacewalk. Later it was activated and fully deployed on VKD-58 spacewalk. This process took several months. A portable work platform was also transferred over in August 2023 during VKD-60 spacewalk, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks. However, even after several months of outfitting EVAs and RTOd heat radiator installation, six months later, the RTOd radiator malfunctioned before active use of Nauka (the purpose of RTOd installation is to radiate heat from Nauka experiments). The malfunction, a leak, rendered the RTOd radiator unusable for Nauka. This is the third ISS radiator leak after Soyuz MS-22 and Progress MS-21 radiator leaks. If a spare RTOd is not available, Nauka experiments will have to rely on Nauka's main launch radiator and the module could never be utilized to its full capacity.

Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO). Delivered in two parts to Nauka by Progress MS-18 (LCCS part) and Progress MS-21 (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process. It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk.

The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components:

Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre around to perform tasks.

Dextre is a 1,560 kg (3,440 lb) robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.

The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.

A grapple fixture was added to Zarya on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the Russian Orbital Segment. Also installed during STS-134 was the 15 m (50 ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS. Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks.

Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the Kibō Exposed Facility, was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the Kibō Pressurised Module. The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.

The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, was launched alongside the Nauka module. The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two ( Russian: Стрела́, 'Arrow') cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45 kg (99 lb).

Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26 July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for Nauka module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits.

In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS. The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm fixed-price contract basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's Harmony (Node 2) module. Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom plans to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS. Canadarm 2 will also help to berth the Axiom Space Station modules to the ISS and will continue its operations on the Axiom Space Station after the retirement of ISS in late 2020s.

As of December 2023, Axiom Space expects to launch the first module, Hab One, at the end of 2026.

Nanoracks, after finalizing its contract with NASA, and after winning NextSTEPs Phase II award, is now developing its concept Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would turn spent rocket tanks into a habitable living area to be tested in space. In Spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as the Independence-1, the first 'outpost' in Nanoracks' Space Outpost Program.

If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects. It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew.

Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 Columbia disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity. The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station. The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of Zvezda in case of a launch failure. Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research. They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module. The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.

Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components)

Science Power Module 1 ( SPM-1, also known as NEM-1) and Science Power Module 2 ( SPM-2, also known as NEM-2) are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the Prichal module, which is currently docked to the Nauka module. In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2027 and docking to the free-flying Nauka module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited. NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028.

The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the Zvezda service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.

The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to that of Earth. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[better source needed ] Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.

The system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station. The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.

Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces and by electrolysis of water and vents overboard. The 1 kW (1.3 hp) system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. Mir was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5-20 minutes to decompose at 450-500 °C (842-932 °F), producing 600 litres (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) of . This unit is manually operated.

The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the Quest airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the Tranquility module (Node 3), which produces by electrolysis. Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.

The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 V low voltage DC from two rotating solar arrays mounted on Zvezda. The USOS uses 130-180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters.

The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts. These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m ² (4,036 sq ft) in area and 58 m (190 ft) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the alpha gimbal once per orbit; the beta gimbal follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.

The station originally used rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries () for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station. Starting in 2016, the nickel-hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.

The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station. The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including Kibō and Columbus, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.

The communications systems used by the ISS.
* Luch and the Space Shuttle are not in use as of 2020.

The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the antenna mounted to Zvezda. The Lira antenna also has the capability to use the data relay satellite system. This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS, although two new Luch satellites - Luch-5A and Luch-5B - were launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system. Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk, and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on Zvezda's exterior.

The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding - located on the P1/S1 truss) and (audio, video and data - located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston. Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules were originally also routed via the S band and K u band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role. Communications between modules are carried on an internal wireless network.

UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station. Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to Zvezda to accurately dock with the station.

The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15 laptop computers. The laptops have run Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems. Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Portable Computer System (PCS) laptops connect to the Primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM) as remote terminals via a USB to 1553 adapter. Station Support Computer (SSC) laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi and ethernet, which connects to the ground via K u band. While originally this provided speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station, NASA upgraded the system in late August 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s. Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced. Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices.

The operating system used for key station functions is the Debian Linux distribution. The migration from Microsoft Windows to Linux was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility.

In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission. It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA.

ISS crew members have access to the Internet, and thus the web. This was first enabled in 2010, allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first tweet from space. Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using remote desktop mode, thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking attempts.

Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle Columbia. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010. With the arrival of crew on US commercial vehicles beginning in 2020, NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS was originally designed for.

Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/ 20, 31/ 32, and 43/ 44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes. Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 675 days, 3 hours and 48 minutes during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/ 51/ 52 and Axiom Mission 2.

Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike. As of June 2023, thirteen space tourists have visited the ISS; nine were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and four were transported on American SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft. For one-tourist missions, when professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required. The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40 million to members of the public who could pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.

Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent." She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The 2009 documentary Space Tourists follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space."

In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight. This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence. At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.

After a 12-year hiatus, the first two wholly space tourism-dedicated private spaceflights to the ISS were undertaken. Soyuz MS-20 launched in December 2021, carrying visiting Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and two Japanese space tourists under the aegis of the private company Space Adventures; in April 2022, the company Axiom Space chartered a SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft and sent its own employee astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and three space tourists to the ISS for Axiom Mission 1, followed in May 2023 by one more tourist, John Shoffner, alongside employee astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts for Axiom Mission 2.

A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified M-MIM2, M-SO1 and M-UM module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European ATVs, 9 Japanese HTVs, 1 Boeing Starliner, 30 SpaceX Dragon (both crewed and uncrewed) and 18 Cygnus missions.

There are currently eleven available docking ports for visiting spacecraft:

As of 22 May 2023, 269 people from 21 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 163 people, Russia sent 57, Japan sent 11, Canada sent nine, Italy sent five, France sent four, Germany sent four, the United Arab Emirates , Saudi Arabia and Sweden sent two, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, and Israel.

Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian Progress spacecraft, former European ATVs, Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft. The primary docking system for Progress spacecraft is the automated Kurs system, with the manual TORU system as a backup. ATVs also used Kurs, however they were not equipped with TORU. Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months. The other spacecraft - the Japanese HTV, the SpaceX Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman Cygnus - rendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the Harmony or Unity module for one to two months. Under CRS phase 2, Cargo Dragon docks autonomously at IDA-2 or IDA-3. As of December 2020, Progress spacecraft have flown most of the uncrewed missions to the ISS.

Soyuz MS-22 was launched in 2022. A micro-meteorite impact in December 2022 caused a coolant leak in its external radiator and it was considered risky for human landing. Thus MS-22 reentered uncrewed on 28 March 2023 and Soyuz MS-23 was launched uncrewed on 24 February 2023, and it returned the MS-22 crew.

Currently docked/berthed

Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation

All dates are UTC. Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change.

Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. Nadir is closest the Earth, zenith is on top. Port is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel; starboard to the right.

The Progress M-14M resupply vehicle approaching the ISS in 2012. More than 50 unpiloted Progress spacecraft have delivered supplies during the lifetime of the station.

Space Shuttle Endeavour, ATV-2, Soyuz TMA-21, and Progress M-10M docked to the ISS, as seen from the departing Soyuz TMA-20

All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. When it catches up it uses laser equipment to optically recognise Zvezda, along with the Kurs system for redundancy. Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. Progress and ATV supply craft can remain at the ISS for six months, allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash.

From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations.

Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the Columbia disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS. The average expedition requires 2,722 kg of supplies, and by 9 March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around 22,000 meals. Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year.

Other vehicles berth instead of docking. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks. Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months. The berthing Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon were contracted to fly cargo to the station under phase 1 of the Commercial Resupply Services program.

Spare parts are called ORUs; some are externally stored on pallets called ELCs and ESPs

While anchored on the end of the OBSS during STS-120, astronaut Scott Parazynski performs makeshift repairs to a US solar array that damaged itself when unfolding

Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.

Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an oxygen generator in 2006, and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thruster, Elektron, and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.

During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly. An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight. The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage. Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.

In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems. The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.

Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module. A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.

The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011 MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured. The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.

On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.

On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.

The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including RKA Mission Control Center, ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Payload Operations and Integration Center, Columbus Control Center and Mobile Servicing System Control.

The living and working space on the International Space Station is larger than a six-bedroom house (complete with six sleeping quarters, two bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window).

A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.

The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which was a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission.

The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the Zvezda, one in Nauka and four more installed in Harmony. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in Zvezda include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop. Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and colour temperatures adjusted.

The crews of Expedition 20 and STS-127 enjoy a meal inside Unity

Fresh fruits and vegetables are grown in the ISS

On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity, so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking. The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them using the galley, which has two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides heated and unheated water. Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption. Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment.

Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on Skylab and Salyut 3. By Salyut 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity. The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.

There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in Zvezda and Tranquility. These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal. A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal. Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet. The diverted urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water. In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS.

On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other.

In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.

Video of the Aurora Australis, taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on an ascending pass from south of Madagascar to just north of Australia over the Indian Ocean

The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about 70,000 km (43,000 mi) from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.

Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.

Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin at work inside the Zvezda service module crew quarters

There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the Salyut 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5 m × 6 m] and leave them together for two months."

NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.

A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.

The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.

Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.

Astronaut Frank De Winne, attached to the TVIS treadmill with bungee cords aboard the ISS

Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.

To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.

Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.

Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi. Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been done to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis. The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the SpaceX CRS-28 cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by light microsocopy, the present experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow spectrographic analysis. Two of the plaques will be returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months.

Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions. For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations. The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration - rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility.

Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch. During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels.

NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.

An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.

The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 370 km (230 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (290 mi), in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas. It travels at an average speed of 28,000 kilometres per hour (17,000 mph), and completes 15.5 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km). Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.

Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed. Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum at an annual cost of about $210 million.

The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station. Initially, Zarya, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System. Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), Zvezda computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.

Zvezda uses gyroscopes ( reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.

The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum.

Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from 1.5-5.0 cm-thick (0.59-1.97 in) aluminium, a 10 cm-thick (3.9 in) intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.

Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009. Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015.

A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at 7 km/s (23,000 ft/s), the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this 15 cm (5.9 in) crater in a solid block of aluminium

Radar-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of geostationary satellites

Example of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station

The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark. The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the Earth's shadow. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds. The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces. The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty.

Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see Live viewing below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.

Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5-6 June 2014.

Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.

Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.

Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?" (This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of Saratov.) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.

Many ISS resupply spacecraft have already undergone atmospheric re-entry, such as Jules Verne ATV

According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area. In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the lowest risk to human life.

OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module ( Nauka), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to Nauka. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.

At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and Zvezda 2 as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth-Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.

On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.

There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.

In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018. Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean. NASA will launch the deorbiting spacecraft, a year before reentry, docking at the Harmony forward port either through a CBM or to PMA 2/ IDA 2 after the removal of Axiom Orbital Segment. The spacecraft would only be functional during the final days of ISS, once the station's orbit has decayed to 220 km (140 mi). The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to 160 km (99 mi), followed by a final deorbiting burn.

In 2022, the movie The Challenge (Doctor's House Call) was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space.

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22. ^ Fincke, E. Michael; et al. (February 2005). "Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station". Radiology. 234 (2): 319-322. doi:10.1148/radiol.2342041680. PMID 15533948.

23. ^ Kawaguchi, Yuko; et al. (26 August 2020). "DNA Damage and Survival Time Course of Deinococcal Cell Pellets During 3 Years of Exposure to Outer Space". Frontiers in Microbiology. 11: 2050. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.02050. PMC 7479814. PMID 32983036. S2CID 221300151.

24. ^ "The Sustainable Utilisation of the ISS Beyond 2015" (PDF). International Astronautical Congress. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012.

25. ^ Chow, Denise (8 April 2011). "Space Station Crucial for Going to Mars, NASA Chief Says". Space.com. Archived from the original on 11 August 2023.

26. ^ Seitz, Virginia A. (19 September 2011). "Memorandum Opinion for the General Counsel, Office of Science and Technology Policy" (PDF). justice.gov. US Justice Department. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2012.

27. Kitmacher, Gary (2006). Reference Guide to the International Space Station. Apogee Books Space Series. Canada: Apogee Books. pp. 71-80. ISBN 978-1-894959-34-6. ISSN 1496-6921.

28. ^ Sandal, Gro M.; Manzey, Dietrich (December 2009). "Cross-cultural issues in space operations: A survey study among ground personnel of the European Space Agency". Acta Astronautica. 65 (11-12): 1520-1529. Bibcode:2009AcAau..65.1520S. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.03.074. ISSN 0094-5765.

29. ^ Building Peace in Young Minds through Space Education (PDF). Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Vol. 53. Vienna, Austria: JAXA. June 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2023.

30. ^ Murakami, Keiji (14 October 2009). "JEM Utilization Overview" (PDF). JAXA. Steering Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2011.

31. ^ Riley, Christopher (11 April 2011). "What Yuri Gagarin saw: First Orbit film to reveal the view from Vostok 1". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023.

32. ^ Davis, Lauren (12 May 2013). "Chris Hadfield sings "Space Oddity" in the first music video in space". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 11 August 2023.

33. ^ Pearlman, Robert Z. (23 November 2021). "'The Infinite' VR space station tour to premiere spacewalk in Houston". Space.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023.

34. ^ Shiflett, Kim (22 April 2008). "KSC-08pd0991". NASA Image and Video Library. Cape Canaveral, Fla. Archived from the original on 24 November 2023. In the Space Station Processing Facility at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, an overhead crane moves the Kibo Japanese Experiment Module - Pressurized Module toward the payload canister (lower right). The canister will deliver the module, part of the payload for space shuttle Discovery's STS-124 mission, to Launch Pad 39A. On the mission, the STS-124 crew will transport the Kibo module as well as the Japanese Remote Manipulator System to the International Space Station to complete the Kibo laboratory. The launch of Discovery is targeted for May 31.

35. ^ "NASA Facts. The Service Module: A Cornerstone of Russian International Space Station Modules" (PDF). spaceflight.nasa.gov. NASA. January 1999. IS-1999-09-ISS019JSC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2020.

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satellite liaison

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Jorel Torres helps weather researchers and weather forecasters work together to understand information from satellites.

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all the details about an Earth observations scientist’s role and daily tasks

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Earth observation essentially gives a bird´s eye view of the Earth. It is also called "remote sensing", because it gathers images and data from the Earth´s surface and atmosphere using cameras and instruments that can be on a satellite orbiting the Earth, or on an aircraft flying over a particular region, or even on a drone flying over your backyard. The information collected is then processed in a computer to tell us more about the weather, the damage caused to a forest in a storm, the area flooded after a strong rainfall event, the area of a country planted with different crops, the temperature of the water in the sea and lots more. Remote sensing is also used to observe areas that are very difficult to access because of their remoteness, dangers or inaccessibility after an earthquake or flood.

One great thing about Earth observation is that we can "see" in ways that our eyes can´t. For instance, with sensors we can detect heat, therefore we can know the temperature of the clouds, the ocean, or land. With microwave sensors we can "see" through clouds and at night, which allows us to collect vital information at any time. We can also measure the height of a wave in the ocean using a sensor called an altimeter.

What would I do every day?

The main job of an Earth observation scientist is to analyze the data that is collected from the sensor systems. For that reason, you need to be very comfortable working with a computer in order to process the data and make sense of it. You would generate maps showing different features and produce graphs showing how temperature and other properties change over time. Some remote sensing scientists also make measurements on the ground or in the sea to compare them to the measurements made by instruments on the air to ensure that they are all consistent.

How much and what do I need to study?

It is good to be interested in how our Earth works, so geography is useful. However, Earth observation also involves a lot of computer processing so being good at mathematics, physics and computer science is definitely an advantage. You will need a degree in one of these areas and usually a master's degree with a specialization in Earth Observation. Some scientists working in the field also have PhDs but it is not vital.

Where can I work?

There are more and more opportunities for Earth observation scientists. You can work in private companies and consultancies involved in environmental monitoring, in non-governmental organizations, or shortly NGO´s, that follow global development or disaster response, research labs and universities and even in space agencies. This is still a somewhat specialized field, so at the beginning it may be necessary to move around, work on short term contracts, and it is still an area that relies on government funding to a great extent.

This is the job for me, if...

...you are curious about how our Earth works and love the idea of discovering parts of it you may never see with your own eyes.

...you also enjoy working with computers and if you like the challenge of writing computer programs that helps.

...you are methodical and patient, as often you have to process your images and data in a number of ways in order for them to reveal their secrets.
An Earth observation scientist should be:
A logical thinker: the results you get from processing the data need to make sense

Detail oriented: when working with the data, there are lots of steps to follow, so you need to pay attention to details and be thorough

Persistent: often you have to try a number of different approaches in order to reach the answer to your question. Sometimes you can go down blind alleys and have to retrace your steps and start again.

Learn more about Earth observations:

- Introduction to ESA's Earth Observations video

- How does Earth observation work?

- "Monitoring the oceans from space" EUMETSAT online course
The text is kindly provided by Dr. Ned Dwyer, Executive Director of the European Centre for information on Marine Science and Technology (Eurocean).

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Earth observation essentially gives a bird´s eye view of the Earth. It is also called "remote sensing", because it gathers images and data from the Earth´s surface and atmosphere using cameras and instruments that can be on a satellite orbiting the Earth, or on an aircraft flying over a particular region, or even on a drone flying over your backyard.

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Another good resource is the ESA Earth online website where you can access information about all of ESA’s Earth monitoring activities including earth-observing data.

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ESA Earth Observation Data - Earth Online - ESA

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Through its Earthnet Programme, ESA has been providing users with access to a number of non-ESA EO missions-so called Third Party Missions (TPM)-for many years, besides supplying them with data from its own Earth observation satellites.

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The European Space Agency (ESA) provides two extra tools we would like to feature. The first one, Climate from Space, is a visualization tool available as an app. This tool “lets you take a closer look at visualisations of climate data being produced through the European Space Agency's Climate Change Initiative (CCI) programme. In the data viewer, see the changes through time of sea surface temperature, the ice sheets, sea level, sea ice, carbon dioxide, soil moisture and many more ». You can see the full information and how to access the app,

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Visualisation Tool | CCI Open Data Portal

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Climate from Space, ESA's Tablet App, lets you take a closer look at visualisations of climate data being produced through the European Space Agency's Climate Change Initiative (CCI) programme. In the data viewer, see the changes through time of sea surface temperature, the ice sheets, sea level, sea ice, carbon dioxide, soil moisture and many more.

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Our Citizen Science project featured in this module is called The Weather Observations Website (WOW), with which you share your local weather observations.

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The UK Met Office Weather Observation Website (WOW). WOW allows anyone to submit their own weather data, anywhere in the world.

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Taking the pulse of our planet from space | Pierre-Philippe Mathieu | TEDxHamburg

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a didactic course on the topic of the greenhouse effect, for primary school children.

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Climate-KIC - Europe's largest public-private innovation partnership focused on climate change - provides support to the host organisations with a website for each Climathon city, logistics guidance, marketing and communication packages, and regular support calls. Excellent coverage is guaranteed through tweets and articles of the even

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Climate-KIC | The EU's main climate innovation initiative

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Climate-KIC is Europe's largest public-private innovation partnership focused on climate innovation to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

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Climathon Overview:

By 2017, which is the third year of initiative’s operation, the Climathon movement has grown tremendously, encouraging more innovators across the globe to drive climate action. Climathon 2016 took place in 59 cities across 6 continents, creating over 2,330 ideas and reaching 16.8 million people worldwide.

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It brings together the challenges of the world's cities with the people who have the passion and ability to solve them. Climathon attracts innovators, entrepreneurs, students and professionals to create innovative solutions to cities climate challenges.

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“Why should we care?”

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We're all concerned about climate change, but when it looks like a problem for future generations, you ask yourself, 'will climate change even affect me?' No matter what you care about, climate change is already affecting our world today. While we still have time to limit the worst impact, here are ten great reasons to start acting now: 1. Because snow leopards, turtles and polar bears are awesome
Climate change will mean big changes for animals around the world. So if we care about incredible species, we must care about how climate change will make it harder for them to find food, and decrease their abitats - from forest to sea ice to the UK's rivers and chalk streams.
2. Because you need your morning coffee fix
If you're one of those people who need a coffee hit to get going, mornings may become grim. The effects of climate change on coffee are well-documented and coffee producers are already seeing reduced harvests, and more pests, because of it. Even if you're caffeine-free you're not in the clear - wine production may also be hit by climate change.
3. Because coral reefs are amazing
Finding Nemo or Dory may become harder as their beautiful homes crumble under the stress of climate change. Warmer air and ocean temperatures cause coral bleaching, where corals lose their colour and may die. Ocean acidification - from increased CO2 in the atmosphere - compounds the problem. Today, the ocean is 26% more acidic than it was in 1990, and the Great Barrier Reef has just experienced unprecedented back-to-back bleaching events in 2016 and 2017. Climate change is very bad news for anyone hoping to see the Great Barrier Reef one day.
4. Because we all need clean water
Did you know that 2 in every 3 people worldwide live in regions of severe water scarcity? Even a small increase in global temperatures will destabilise the water cycle and could make water scarcity much worse. Climate change affects rainfall patterns, meaning both drought and flooding will be more common, and more intense. And although it's hardly comparable with life-threatening floods, climate change may already be making you late for work.
5. Becausewe all hate the sight of politicians in wellies
Globally temperature records have been broken in recent years, and flooding in the UK gets worse. Year after year we've seen politicians wading through floods in Somerset, hopping into dinghies in Cornwall and arguing with each other in Westminster. More frequent and more intense extreme weather is a documented result of our greenhouse gas emissions, and the annual cost of flooding in the UK could increase 15-fold by the 2080s as a result of climate change. We need to see politicians taking serious action on climate change, not looking for the next photo opportunity.
6. Because rainforests are incredible
Unique, irreplaceable, and often described as 'the world's lungs', rainforests are some of the most precious habitats on the planet. They really are amazing; the Amazon, for example, is home to an astonishing 1 in 10 of all the known species on Earth. Yet over a third of the Amazon rainforest is already threatened by climate change. It's a double-edged sword too: worldwide, forest destruction - mainly for agriculture - is a major cause of climate change, generating an incredible amount of greenhouse gases.
7. Because we all deserve to breathe clean air
With anthropogenic climate change driven by human-caused emissions to the atmosphere, it stands to reason that we face compromised air quality. This affects human health, especially children. Air pollution can lead to asthma, heart and lung disease. Beijing's insidious smog is a visible reminder of this, but bad air quality is also making headlines in the UK, and has been labelled a 'public health emergency' by MPs. Just five days into 2017, streets in London had breached the annual air pollution limit.
8. Because clean tech is exciting
It's not all bad news. Some of the biggest advancements in technology over the past few years have come from trying to limit, and come up with alternatives to, humanity's CO2 dependency. Solar panels, wave-energy conversion and wind farms are allowing us to harness the power of nature in a clean way, harvesting energy without harming our environment or destroying habitats. Meanwhile nifty gadgets - like the Wall-E sized robot that can insulate your house to save energy - are helping to cut carbon in unexpected places. More of this technology could mean a cleaner, healthier future for us and our planet - because clean tech doesn't just help nature, it also has the potential to build better, more accessible and people-friendly cities.
9. Because we are all affected, no matter where in the world we live
Climate change won't just impact forest, or coral reefs, or even people in far-off countries - it will affect all of us. From more extreme weather to increasing food prices, to recreation and decreased opportunities to appreciate the natural world, people everywhere will feel the effects of climate change. Tackling climate change is fundamentally necessary to create a world where people and nature thrive - and that's why WWF is working on it.
10. Because of future generations
We are fortunate to live in a beautiful, diverse, nurturing, awe-inspiring planet. Our children, and all future generations, deserve the same.

If you're feeling worried by now, you're not alone. Millions of people are working together for our planet. Events like Earth Hour are a brilliant reminder that together, humanity is capable of great things, and we can make change happen for the right reasons.

Already, so much has changed since we first heard about the possible effect of climate change. Beginning with the Rio Earth Summit, then the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, action on a global scale is speeding up. Now it is more important than ever that we use our action, our votes and our voices to tell political and business leaders that action on climate is absolutely essential.

What can you do? You could start with taking our carbon footprint calculator, to look at how your lifestyle impacts the environment and where you can reduce your footprint.

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10 reasons why we should all care about climate change - WWF UK Blog

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We're all concerned about climate change, but when it looks like a problem for future generations, you ask yourself, 'will climate change even affect me?' No matter what you care about, climate change is already affecting our world today. While we still have time to limit the worst impact, here are ten great reasons to ...

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One more unconventional job is a storm chaser - a meteorological researcher who works on the field, very much in the centre of all the action.

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How to Become a Storm Chaser - Becomeopedia.com

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How To Become a Storm Chaser. Find Information and Tips About Becoming a Storm Chaser Including Education Requirements, Job Description, Salary, and Career Information.

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Climatologists are atmospheric or earth scientists who study the Earth's climate, weather patterns over long period of time.

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Degree Level

Bachelor's degree for entry-level jobs; master's or PhD for research and teaching positions

Degree Field

Climatology/meteorology or atmospheric science with a concentration in climatology

Experience

Number of years and type of experience varies with job position

Key Skills

Strong skills in science, writing, critical thinking, speaking, complex problem solving, knowledge of scientific software used to analyze data, software for graphics and map creation, spreadsheet and word processing software

Salary (2014)
The median salary for atmospheric and space scientists was $87,980 in 2014

Step 1: Earn a Bachelor's Degree

Bachelor's degree programs usually combine climatology with the study of meteorology, which is the science of weather forecasting. This provides the strong education in science, math, and computer technology needed for a climatology career. Foundation topics in chemistry and physics lead to more advanced coursework in oceanography, astronomy, plate tectonics, and advanced math such as calculus. Students also learn technical skills for geographic information systems (GIS), satellites, radar, and forecasting computer software.

Success Tip:

Use internships and independent study to get hands-on and/or specialized experience. Climatology internships might be found through local television and radio stations, the National Weather Service, the Weather Channel or state emergency management programs. Independent study courses may provide research experience for those who plan on going to graduate school.

Step 2: Start with an Entry-level Job

Those with a bachelor's degree in climatology are qualified for many entry level jobs. Each position - whether meteorologist or weather services assistant - can offer valuable experience towards qualifying for higher-level positions. In addition, the opportunity to work with new computer models and other recent technology may be beneficial for admittance to graduate school and when conducting research for a thesis or dissertation.

Success Tips:

Check out government jobs. The Federal government is the biggest employer of atmospheric scientists in the U.S., and advertises jobs located throughout the country on its USAJobs website. Agencies include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Department of Defense.

Be flexible about location. Those just starting out in the atmospheric sciences may need to be willing to move to a different geographic region or state, particularly when working in a government position. Once a career is established, there may be more latitude for location in the climate and region of choice.

Step 3: Complete a Graduate Degree

Climatology research work in both government and private institutions generally requires a graduate degree. Those with a PhD have the additional option of teaching and doing independent research at colleges and universities. A master's degree in a non-research job may also contribute to higher pay and more opportunities for advancement.

Applicants to graduate school may have a bachelor's degree in climatology or, in some cases, a bachelor's degree in physics or engineering. Master's degree programs can include graduate courses in microclimatology, atmospheric thermodynamics, and dynamic meteorology. There may be a thesis or comprehensive exam requirement. PhD programs might require similar courses along with an original research project culminating in a written dissertation and oral exam.

Success Tip:

Join a professional organization. While certification isn't required to be a climatologist, belonging to a professional organization can provide networking opportunities while looking for jobs. For those already working and/or doing climatology research, meeting with peers offers a place to exchange information, spark ideas, and even begin collaborating on new climatology projects. Climatologists can apply for membership with the American Association of State Climatologists and the American Meteorological Society.

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how to become a climatologist: education and career roadmap

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How to Become a Climatologist: Education and Career Roadmap

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Degree Level Bachelor's degree for entry-level jobs; master's or PhD for research and teaching positions Degree Field Climatology/meteorology or atmospheric science with a concentration in climatology Experience Number of years and type of experience varies with job position Key Skills Strong skills in science, writing, critical thinking, speaking, complex problem

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Learn what it takes to track greenhouse gases in the following article.

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For those of you who want to teach about gender balance in an experiential way, we propose you check out this game from the Red Cross / Red Crescent Climate Centre.

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Home - Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre

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The Climate Centre supports the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its partners in reducing the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events on vulnerable people.

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Below you can watch a video of Tilly Smith, an eleven-year-old pupil who, while on holidays with her parents, recognized the signs of a tsunami and managed to prevent loss of life.

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United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

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Lessons save lives: the story of Tilly Smith

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UN/ISDR (United Nations/International Strategy for Disaster Reduction)

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UNISDR defines itself through its multi-stakeholder coordination approach based on the relationships it has developed with national and local governments, intergovernmental organizations and civil society, including the private sector, and by its mode of operating through a network of global partners.

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Game for students
We present here just one example (out of many) on disaster prevention, for students between 9-16 years old. This disaster simulation game from the UN/ISDR (United Nations/International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) “children how to build safer villages and cities against disasters. Children will learn playing how the location and the construction materials of houses can make a difference when disasters strike and how early warning systems, evacuation plans and education can save lives. Children are the future architects, mayors, doctors, and parents of the world of tomorrow, if they know what to do to reduce the impact of disasters; they will create a safer world.”

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We have detected the use of a browser that is not currently supported by the GeoTag-X platform. GeoTag-X requires the following HTML5 feature(s), present on all modern browsers but undetectable on yours:

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An article written by a student from the Netherlands.

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Use any online tool of your choice (recommendation - Storybird ) to create a story together with your students about the importance of natural disasters’ prediction and prevention and share a short (3-4 sentences) reflection including the link in Padlet below.

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Storybird - Read, write, discover, and share the books you'll always remember.

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Become a better writer with Storybird's creativity tools. Online courses, challenges, and reader feedback will help you improve your writing.

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WWF - Calcolatore dell'impronta di carbonio

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The lesson Your Family’s Carbon Footprint has students reflect on how much greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide and methane) does their family release into the atmosphere each year. To answer these questions, you will use the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA). During the lesson students, use a foot print calculator in order to see how much greenhouse gas their family releases and what they can do about it.

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Hydrologists are scientists, engineers, or professionals who observe, monitor, model and forecast trends in the water cycle and in the water supply. Hydrologists play a vital role by studying the water cycle – the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth – and its impact on the distribution and supply of water. They are able to assess the quantity and quality of water resources available for meeting the needs of society (for example, in agriculture).

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Hydrologists study how water interacts with the earth's crust. For example, they may study how rainfall and snowfall cause erosion, create caves, percolate through soil and rock to become groundwater, or eventually reach the sea. They may also study how precipitation affects people by influencing river levels or groundwater availability. Hydrologists also help investigate contaminated sites to assess how water flow might disperse pollutants, or how polluted water can be remediated.

Groundwater hydrologists study the water below earth's surface. Most groundwater hydrologists focus on cleaning up polluted groundwater at industrial contamination sites. Others work on water supply, siting new well locations and estimating amounts of water available for pumping. They often help determine the locations of new waste disposal sites to prevent groundwater contamination.

Surface water hydrologists study above ground water sources such as streams, lakes, and glaciers. They may work with usage and precipitation data to estimate water levels in reservoirs. Their estimates help reservoir managers make decisions about storing and releasing water to meet demand. They also create flood forecasts and help develop flood management plans.

Most hydrologists develop specialties, such as glacial meltwaters or groundwater remediation.

What Do Hydrologists Do?

Most hydrologists collect water and soil samples and measure their properties. For example, they may record water volume, velocity, pH levels, and pollutant levels. They may also analyze data to assess the environmental impacts of pollutants, erosion, sedimentation, drought, other water-related issues, and research ways to minimize their effects. Hydrologists use computer models to forecast future conditions concerning water supplies, the spread or remediation of pollution, floods, and other events. They may also assess the suitability of new hydroelectric power plants, irrigation systems, and waste water treatment facilities.

Hydrologists often use advanced computer technology in their work. For example, they may use remote sensing equipment to collect data, and geographic information systems (GIS) to create maps. They also develop and use sophisticated computer models to analyze large datasets.

Hydrologists often cooperate with others to manage water supplies. For example, they may work with engineers and scientists to study water availability, and with government officials to develop conservation plans and policies.

Some people who study hydrology become college professors or teach high school science.

Where Does a Hydrologist Work?

As of 2012, 29% of all hydrologists were employed by the federal government, and 20% were employed in management, scientific, and technical consulting services. 18% worked in engineering services. 17% worked in state government, and 8% worked in local government.

Hydrologists work outdoors and in offices. In the field, they may wade into lakes and streams to collect samples or to handle monitoring equipment. When indoors, hydrologists use computers to analyze and model data. They also write reports on the conditions of surface and ground water. Many jobs require travel, with some private sector jobs requiring international travel.

Most hydrologists work full time. Shifts may vary when conducting fieldwork.

What Is a Typical Hydrologist Salary?

Median pay for hydrologists in 2012 was $75,530 per year, or $36.31 per hour. The highest-paid workers were employed by the federal government ($84,540). Those in engineering services made an average of $80,310, while hydrologists in management, scientific, and technical consulting services made $78,580. Hydrologists working for local government were paid $69,000, while those in state government made an average of $63,450.

Table data taken from BLS (http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes192043.htm)

What Is the Job Demand for Hydrologists?

Job growth in hydrology is estimated at 10%, with an addition of 800 jobs by 2022. This rate is as fast as the average predicted across all occupations. Growth will be fueled by expansion of mining and fracking, as well as climate-change related concerns regarding droughts and flooding.

What Are the Education Requirements to Become a Hydrologist?

While a bachelor's degree is sufficient for some entry-level jobs, most hydrologists will need a graduate degree in the natural sciences. Since there are very few undergraduate programs in hydrology specifically, students interested in this career path should seek out hydrology concentrations within geosciences, engineering, or earth science programs. Coursework typically includes math, statistics, physical sciences, computer sciences, and life sciences. Courses in environmental law or public administration may be helpful for communicating with project partners from other fields. Computer modeling, data analysis, and digital mapping are highly marketable skills for hydrologists.

Licensing may be required for hydrologists in some states.

Related Degree Options for Hydrologists

What Kinds of Societies and Professional Organizations Do Hydrologists Have?

The American Institute of Hydrology (AIH) (http://www.aihydrology.org/) issues certifications to qualified professional hydrologists. Its certifications help ensure quality within this critical profession, and increase the marketability of certified individuals. The Institute establishes standards, provides education and training, and advises government agencies on hydrologic matters.

The American Water Resources Association (http://www.awra.org/) is a well-known organization offering information exchange, professional development and education about water resources.

The International Association for Environmental Hydrology (IAEH) (http://www.hydroweb.com/) focuses on remediation of freshwater resources. It aims to facilitate the exchange of ideas and knowledge about hydrology through discussion boards and the Journal of Environmental Hydrology. The association is also a charitable organization that aids members working in developing countries.

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How to Become a Hydrologist | EnvironmentalScience.org

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Hydrologists study how water interacts with the earth's crust. For example, they may study how rainfall and snowfall cause erosion, create caves, percolate through soil and rock to become groundwater, or eventually reach the sea. They may also study how precipitation affects people by influencing river levels or groundwater availability.

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In the video below, you will meet Australian Bureau of Meteorology employee Clare Yeo who talks about how she became a Meteorologist.

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At international, national and local levels, there is a drive to improve access for women to technology, information, science education and technical training and to strengthen the position of women scientists and technologists. Ensuring that women have equal access to science education and technology is an essential catalyst to ensure that the developers and users of weather, water and climate services provided by WMO and its Members serve the global community - men, women, boys, girls. This commitment strengthens the position of women as scientists, technologists and users of weather, water and climate services and fosters increased participation of women in weather and climate decision and policy-making.

The WMO Conference on the Gender Dimensions of Weather and Climate Services ( Conference Report) will offer a special side-event on empowering women - who represent less than one-third of professionals in meteorology and hydrology - to participate in the dynamic career opportunities available nationally and internationally in weather, climate and water sciences and policy.

Young girls are often discouraged to pursue science as a career and intimidated by perceived competition with males at every level of the educational and working spectrum of the scientific world. Women professionals can play a large role in encouraging young girls and women in pursuing an education in science, particularly meteorology and hydrology.

Can women be successful in science? The overwhelmingly positive experiences from the women interviewed below proves that they can. These women overcame obstacles to be the "first" women in many areas of their careers and to pave a way for others to follow.

The WMO Youth Corner also contains direct links to youth websites and materials created by Members. The two final rticles focus on efforts by WMO and its partners to fill the aps in observation systems in the polar regions to respond togrowing scientific understanding of the critical role these egions play in the global weather and climate system. A career in meteorology and hydrology can open the world to you.

Sue Barrell, Australia

Sue Barrell loved math and science when she was in school. When she started thinking about her career choices, "Meteorology seemed to combine all the things I valued - and they happened to advertised for trainee meteorologists just at the right time!" She went on to earn a Ph.D. in Astronomy from the Australian National University, a Bachelor of Science in Physics from the University of Canterbury (New Zealand), a Graduate Diploma in Meteorology from the Bureau of Meteorology and to become a Graduate member of the Australian Institute of Company Directors.

Dr Barrell is now the Vice-President of the WMO Commission for Basic Systems and Chair of the Inter-commission Coordination Group of the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS). She served on the Australian Space Industry Innovation Council and is Australia's Principal Delegate to the Group on Earth Observations (GEO). She is a member of the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) Radiocommunications Consultative Committee and sits on the Steering Committee of the Australian National Telescope Facility. Over the years, she has served as acting Deputy Director, Information Systems and Services, Chief Information Officer and as Assistant Director, Observations and Engineering, at the Bureau of Meteorology of Australia. Despite her many responsibilities, she considers herself "very lucky to have worked doing the things I loved doing and with the challenge of learning something new every day."

Her biggest challenge has been "getting the right balance between work and my home life. But my family is usually good at reminding me of this!" Apart from her family, she regards winning a tiny slice of the IPCC's Nobel Peace prize and being elected as a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 2013 as her greatest achievements. In addition, "Becoming the first female meteorologist to win a senior executive role in the Bureau has helped me inspire others along the way."

Dr Barrell recommends a career in meteorology to young women as it offers many opportunities. "It can move you from different roles within the organization and can take you around the world."

Barbara Tapia, Chile

When living close to the border between the United States of America and Canada, Barbara Tapia experienced extreme weather conditions for the first time. Marked by the experience, Ms Tapia decided to embark on a career in meteorology, "I thought that I would be able to better understand the dynamics of the atmospheric conditions that I had experienced. It was the best decision!" She holds a Bachelor Degree in Meteorology and a Masters Degree in Management and Public Policy.

Ms Tapia, a Senior Meteorologist at the Chilean Meteorological Service, is currently stationed at the Pacific Regional Meteorological Centre on Easter Island. In 2014, she was elected Vice-President of the WMO Commission of Climatology (CCl). During her career, she led the Working Group on Climate Services for South America, coordinated the implementation processes of two WMO Regional Climate Centres in the South America region and carried out other climate related activities. In 2002, Ms. Tapia spent a year working for the WMO World Climate Programme.

Her work on climate issues has earned her recognition at the regional and international levels, she is very proud to be the first female representative from South America elected as Vice-President of CCl.

Ms Tapia claims that success came from perseverance and always wanting to accomplish "something more" than others. But it was not always easy. "Unfortunately, we women still need to go the extra mile to prove our abilities," observed Ms Tapia. "I would recommend that young women scientists remain open-minded, because there are several different areas in which to develop one's career in the meteorological field."

Sri Woro Budiati - Harijono, Indonesia

Dr Ir. Sri Woro B. Harijono was the first woman Director General of the Agency for Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics of Indonesia (BMKG). From 2010 to 2014, she was also the President of WMO Regional Association V (South West Pacific). Today, Dr Harijono is an advisor to the Minister of Transportation of the Republic of Indonesia on Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics. "There is nothing that can't be achieved, it is just a matter of deciding if you want to do it or not," asserts Dr Harijono.

Having obtained a doctoral degree in atmospheric sciences from the Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB), Dr Harijono started her career as a Coordinator of the Weather Modification Program at the Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology in 1985. "My responsibility required me to gain in depth understanding of cloud microphysics processes, which I thought very unique, yet fascinating." She remained in that post until 1999 when she became Deputy of the Research and Technology Program of the Ministry of Research and Technology. She left that position to become Deputy of Data from 2004 to 2005 in the agency that would be renamed BMKG.

She believes her greatest accomplishment was the development of the Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System and the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre. But BKMG also recognizes the important contributions she made to the creation of the Weather and Climate Warning Centre and the Division for Research and Development. She is proudest of her son and daughter, both are medical doctors.

To young women embarking a scientific career she recommends to "be a lifelong learner" but also "to balance your private life and your work."

Nadia Pinardi, Italy

Professor Nadia Pinardi is passionate about science and its usefulness for society, so her decision to have a career in physics and mathematics was logical. "I like to understand the laws of nature. Science is like artistic inspiration, providing a new vision of nature."

Today, Prof. Pinardi holds a Ph.D. in Applied Physics from Harvard University and is an associate Professor of Oceanography at Bologna University. She directs the Operational Oceanography Group of the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia and is co-president of the Joint Committee for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) of WMO/IOC-UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). Prof. Pinardi is a member of both the European Environment Agency Scientific Advisory Committee and the European Research Council for Earth Sciences, and was awarded the European Geophysical Union Fridtjof Nansen Medal for Oceanography in 2007 and the Roger Revelle Unesco Medal in 2008.

Prof. Pinardi claims the key to success is "hard work because even geniuses have to work hard. And luck because I was lucky to find people who cared about my education and gave me a research topic so visionary that I built an entire career on it."

She is proudest "to have started the field of ocean forecasting, down to the operational service design and implementation." Though she claims that to be her greatest achievement, she insists that her biggest challenge was "to reconcile private and working life - bringing-up a family and having a career in scientific research." Twisting the old saying to her personal experience she notes that, "Behind a great woman, there is always a caring man!"

Her recommendation for young women starting a career in Applied Physics is "to look for people and institutions that have the highest level of scientific achievements and that have a mission."

Federica Rossi, Italy

"If you do what you like it will be more interesting, and you will reach better results," says Federica Rossi to young female scientists. She followed her own advice. Fascinated by research, Federica earned a Ph.D. in Agricultural Science at the University of Bologna then dedicated her career to agriculture meteorology, a field she knew would have a big impact on people's lives.

"Being a researcher is a hard job, but you need to be a 360° person and not only a scientist," says Ms Rossi. The various areas in which she is active certainly prove that:

Senior Researcher at the Italian National Research Council, Institute of Biometeorology (IBIMET), leading the working team on Micrometeorology, Ecophysiology and Productivity of Natural and Agricultural Systems;

Representative of Italy in the International Society Horticultural Science;

Representatitve of Italy on the Management Committee of the Cost Action 734 "Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on European Agriculture" and of the Cost Action 18 "Meteorological Applications in Agriculture" (COST is one of the longest-running European frameworks supporting cooperation among scientists and researchers across Europe);

Member of the Editorial Board of the Italian Journal of Agrometeorology;

Web Editor and founding Member of the International Society of Agrometeorology;

Vice-Director of the Fabbrica del Futuro, a Project of the Italian Ministry of Education and Research to improve the competitiveness of the Italian industry and of products branded "Made in Italy" within the global context; and

Vice-President of WMO Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM) since 2010.

The hardest challenge for a researcher like her is "the huge amount of time to be spent in finding money" she says. However, she believes that success takes dedication and bit of fantasy. She encourages young people to "dedicate time to others and to support the people working with you." She urges them to keep a positive attitude and to work in teams. "Do not be afraid to fight for your ideas, but respect the ideas of others."

Vida Auguliene, Lithuania

"Meteorology is a rare profession - romantic and independent of political influence - which allows consistent and interesting work," claims Vida Auguliene. As Director of the Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service (LHS), Permanent Representative of Lithuania to WMO since 2006 and Vice-President of WMO Regional Association VI (Europe) since 2011, she is well placed to strongly recommend her career choice to young women.

Ms Auguliene did her diploma studies at Vilnius University before holding various positions at the predecessor to the present-day LHS. In 1994, she became the Chief Specialist for Environmental Monitoring at the Environmental Protection Agency of the Ministry of Environment. She left that post in 2004 to become the Deputy Director of LHS. Ms Auguliene represents Lithuania at EUMETSAT (European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites), ECMWF (European Center for Medium range Weather Forecasting) and HIRLAM (High Resolution Limited Area Model). She has chaired the EUMETSAT Advisory Committee of Cooperating States since 2008. Over her career, she published several papers on ambient air quality as well as on meteorological issues, and coordinated various international and national projects and programmes.

She perceives her greatest achievements to be her contribution to the modernization of Lithuanian ydrometeorological infrastructure and services. Prior to modernization in 2005, only 43% of survey respondents thought weather forecasts were important. In 2009, after some remarkable improvements, the number increased to 70%, and in 2012 to 86%.

"If you love what you are doing, you will be successful," says Ms Auguliene. "Real leaders are shaped to overcome challenges, control stress, sweat and practice."

Agnes Kijazi, Tanzania

Dr Agnes Kijazi rose from the lowest ranks of National Meteorological Service in the United Republic of Tanzania, which she joined in 1987 as a meteorological assistant, to be the Director General. She is the first woman in the East African Region to hold such a post and to be elected to the WMO Executive Council.

A desire to further help her country to better cope with extreme weather events motivated Ms Kijazi to join the undergraduate program in Meteorology at the University of Nairobi in 1996. She completed her Bachelor of Science in 2000, and went on to do a Master's in Environmental Science at the University of Cape Town in 2004. She earned her Doctorate in Meteorology at the University of Cape Town in 2008.

Her career has brought her personal satisfaction, however, Dr Kijazi is most gratified to have paved a way for young women in science. "Unfortunately, women are discouraged from choosing scientific studies in Africa. They should not be. Instead, they should look at the women hat have succeeded in these fields and know they can make it too," urged Dr. Kijazi.

The key to success "is not only hard work, but also support from family and relatives" stated Dr. Kijazi who was married when she started her studies. "It turned out to be very important," she said smiling.

Laura Furgione, United States of America

"I grew up on a five-generation farm in Missouri, so I understood the importance of accurate weather information very early," explains Laura Furgione. "Weather impacts everyone and everything. There is no other field that has such a broad and diverse mission."

Ms Furgione obtained a Bachelor of Science Degree in Atmospheric Science from the University of Missouri- Columbia and a Master of Public Administration Degree from the University of Alaska-Southeast. "I found my options unlimited, there are so many geographical choices of employment. If you don't restrict yourselves geographically, the opportunities are endless."

Since 2010, Ms Furgione has been the Deputy Assistant Administrator for Weather Services and the Deputy Director of the National Weather Service (NWS), both part of the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In this role, she is responsible for the day-to-day civilian weather operations for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas. She was the proud recipient of two NOAA Administrator's Awards in 2011 - one for NOAA's Arctic Vision and Strategy and another for developing NOAA's Strategy Execution and Evaluation system. Ms Furgione was designated as the United States Permanent Representative to the WMO in March 2013.

Being passionate and curious about what one does is the key to success for Laura Furgione. "I always ask a lot of questions and get involved in as many activities as possible."

WMO Contributors

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At international, national and local levels, there is a drive to improve access for women to technology, information, science education and technical training and to strengthen the position of women scientists and technologists.

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In this activity, students learn what is meant by air and what the atmosphere is. They do this by working in groups to learn more about the composition of the atmosphere, its temperature and air circulation.

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A gender sensitive education should start at a very early stage as early socialization plays a huge role in kids’ mindsets. In the video “Inspiring the next generation of female engineers”, Debbie Sterling explains how one of her motives to create the company was her realization -after failing at an 3D drawing assessment in an engineering drawing class- that kids who scored better at spatial skills were those who grow up playing with construction toys. Seeing as those toys were usually marketed to boys, she decided to start designing construction games designed at girls so they could get inspired to pursue engineering careers too.

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Inspiring the next generation of female engineers | Debbie Sterling | TEDxPSU

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In 2015, ANTHC and Resource Data Inc. (RDI) developed LEO App to increase access and improve data management and analytical features of the network. In the same year, LEO Network was selected as a model program under the United States Chairmanship of the Arctic Council, to help raise awareness and improve communication about climate change in the circumpolar region.

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One Citizen Science we would like to feature in this module is the Cyclone Centre, which you can easily tie to Earth observation, climate change and satellites topics.

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The Cyclone Center project was launched in September 2012 with the goal of studying global tropical cyclones in order to better understand and predict their behavior. The project ran for seven successful years on the Zooniverse platform, during which 18 thousand users contributed 1 million image classifications.
Publications " Zooniverse "

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The Cyclone Center project was launched in September 2012 with the goal of studying global tropical cyclones in order to better understand and predict their behavior. The project ran for seven successful years on the Zooniverse platform, during which 18 thousand users contributed 1 million image classifications.

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Module 2: Climate Change – Part 1  - 2.1 Introduction to subject matter

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Module 2: Climate Change – Part 1  - 2.1 Introduction to subject matter

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MOOC “Our Fragile Planet” Introduction to subject matter

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1.4 Space carrers

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Astrobiologia/ Due esperimenti italiani dell'Università "Tor Vergata" sulla Stazione Spaziale Internazionale per provare la tenacia della vita, anche sulla Luna e su Marte

É partito la notte del 23 luglio dal cosmodromo di Baikonur il cargo Progress 56 con a bordo due esperimenti selezionati dall'Agenzia Spaziale Europea per testare la tenacia di estremofili - microrganismi che sopravvivono e proliferano in condizioni ambientali proibitive per gli esseri umani - al fine di provare la resistenza della vita come noi la conosciamo e la stabilità di bioimpronte per la ricerca di vita passata o presente su Marte.

I due progetti internazionali BOSS (Biofilm Organisms Surfing Space) e BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars Experiment) - coordinati da Petra Rettberg del DLR di Colonia e da Jean-Pierre de Vera del DLR di Berlino -, vedono per l'Italia la partecipazione dell'Università degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata.
Il responsabile scientifico è la dott.ssa Daniela Billi, leader del Laboratorio di Astrobiologia e Biologia Molecolare di Cianobatteri del Dipartimento di Biologia dell'Università "Tor Vergata".
I cianobatteri di ambiente desertico, sui quali il team dell'Università romana lavora da anni, sono stati posizionati in un contenitore dell'ESA detto EXPOSE-R2 e dopo il lancio hanno raggiunto, in meno di 6 ore, la Stazione Spaziale Internazionale.
Il prossimo 18 agosto EXPOSE-R2 verrà collocato all'esterno della Stazione Spaziale durante un'attività extraveicolare degli astronauti. "Grazie al finanziamento ottenuto dall'Agenzia Spaziale Italiana - spiega Daniela Billi - sarà possibile investigare la tenacia di diversi estremofili selezionatiti per gli esperimenti, nell'ambiente spaziale e marziano (simulato in bassa orbita terrestre)". Alla base del progetto BOSS l'ipotesi che gli estremofili in forma di biofilm possano tollerare l'ambiente spaziale e marziano simulato. Mentre nell'esperimento BIOMEX viene valutata la sopravvivenza di estremofili in presenza di regoliti lunari e marziani, in un contesto scientifico che vuol testare anche la stabilità di macromolecole biologiche per la ricerca di vita su Marte e per future sperimentazioni da condursi in un luogo più estremo della bassa orbita terrestre come la Luna.
"Studi preliminari in condizioni simulate di vuoto e radiazione ultravioletta condotti su cianobatteri desertici caratterizzati da una straordinaria resistenza al disseccamento, radiazioni UV e ionizzanti - anticipa Daniela Bili - suggeriscono che, una volta riportati a Terra e reidratati, abbiano la potenzialità di riaccendere il metabolismo e riparare i danni indotti, compresi quelli al DNA. La sfida risiede nel fatto che nello spazio gli estremofili terrestri saranno esposti non solamente alle condizioni simulate a Terra, ma ad una combinazione di vuoto, estremi di temperatura, radiazioni cosmiche e solari".

Gli "Estremofili nello spazio" saranno protagonisti anche della Notte Europea dei Ricercatori, il 26 settembre, con un laboratorio interattivo presso le Scuderie Aldobrandini (Frascati). Esperimenti di astrobiologia in bassa orbita terrestre verranno raccontati dagli studenti del liceo Scientifico e Linguistico di Ceccano ai ragazzi delle scuole Medie.
Quest'anno la Notte è dedicata al tema della alla "Sostenibilità" e la novità di questa edizione 2014 è che alle sedi di Roma e Frascati si sono aggiunte quelle di Trieste, Bologna, Milano, Ferrara, Catania, Bari, Cagliari, Pavia,e Pisa.
La Notte Europea dei Ricercatori è un progetto promosso dalla Commissione Europea, coordinato e realizzato da Frascati Scienza in collaborazione con l'Assessorato alla Cultura e Politiche Giovanili della Regione Lazio, Comune di Frascati, ASI, CNR, ENEA Frascati e Casaccia, EGO VIRGO, ESA-ESRIN, INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali e INAF Bologna, INFN Bari, Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Ferrara, Frascati, Milano, Pavia, Pisa, Roma e Trieste, con Sapienza Università di Roma e il Dipartimento di Management, Università degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata e Università Roma Tre. Partecipano all'evento, in qualità di partner di Frascati Scienza, l'INGV, Telethon, G.Eco, Associazione Tuscolana di Astronomia (ATA), Accatagliato, Associazione Arte e Scienza e Istituto Salesiano Villa Sora.
Info e programma http://www.frascatiscienza.it/

Roma, 24 luglio 2014

Ufficio Stampa d'Ateneo
via Orazio Raimondo, 18 00173 Roma
Tel. +39 06 72592709 - 06 72592059
Cell. 320.4375681
ufficio.stampa@uniroma2.it

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Astrobiologia/ Due esperimenti italiani dell'Università "Tor Vergata" sulla Stazione Spaziale Internazionale per provare la tenacia della vita, anche sulla Luna e su Marte

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Astrobiologia/ Due esperimenti italiani dell'Università "Tor Vergata" sulla Stazione Spaziale Internazionale per provare la tenacia della vita, anche sulla Luna e su Marte É partito la notte del 23 luglio dal cosmodromo di Baikonur il cargo Progress 56 con a bordo due esperimenti selezionati dall'Agenzia Spaziale Europea per testare la tenacia di estremofili - microrganismi che sopravvivono e proliferano in condizioni ambientali proibitive per gli esseri umani - al fine di provare la resistenza della vita come noi la conosciamo e la stabilità di bioimpronte per la ricerca di vita passata o presente su Marte.

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1.2 ICT tools
Globe at Night is an international campaign to raise public awareness about the impact of light pollution.
https://www.globeatnight.org/
http://kcvs.ca/concrete/visualizations/global-climate-change
http://www.golabz.eu/
http://www.golabz.eu/lab/structure-atmosphere
Sky Map is a hand-held planetarium for Android device. We could use it to identify stars, planets, nebulae and more. Sky Map could be easily used in class to students.