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Psychological debriefing is broadly defined as a set of procedures including counselling and the giving of information aimed at preventing psychological morbidity and aiding recovery after a traumatic event.

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Dorothea Dix- She helped mental patients in "Mental hospitals" by challenging ideas, and observing the awful conditions these people lived in. She helped advocate for them and change their living conditions.

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Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron across a synapse to a target cell.

Learning Objectives

Explain the role of neurotransmitters in the communication process between neurons

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Neurotransmitters dictate communication between cells by binding to specific receptors and depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the cell.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell; excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization of the postsynaptic cell.

Too little of a neurotransmitter may cause the overaccumulation of proteins, leading to disorders like Alzheimer's; too much of a neurotransmitter may block receptors required for proper brain function, leading to disorders like schizophrenia.

The three neurotransmitter systems in the brain are cholinergic, amino acids, and biogenic amines.

Key Terms

reuptake: The reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a neuron after the transmission of a neural impulse across a synapse.

vesicle: A membrane-bound compartment found in a cell.

action potential: A short-term change in the electrical potential that travels along a cell (such as a nerve or muscle fiber); the basis of neural communication.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. When called upon to deliver messages, they are released from their synaptic vesicles on the presynaptic (giving) side of the synapse, diffuse across the synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic (receiving) side.

An action potential is necessary for neurotransmitters to be released, which means that neurons must reach a certain threshold of electric stimulation in order to complete the reaction. A neuron has a negative charge inside the cell membrane relative to the outside of the cell membrane; when stimulation occurs and the neuron reaches the threshold of excitement this polarity is reversed. This allows the signal to pass through the neuron. When the chemical message reaches the axon terminal, channels in the postsynaptic cell membrane open up to receive neurotransmitters from vesicles in the presynaptic cell.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell (that is, decreasing the voltage gradient of the cell, thus bringing it further away from an action potential), while excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization (bringing it closer to an action potential). Neurotransmitters match up with receptors like a key in a lock. A neurotransmitter binds to its receptor and will not bind to receptors for other neurotransmitters, making the binding a specific chemical event.

There are several systems of neurotransmitters found at various synapses in the nervous system. The following groups refer to the specific chemicals, and within the groups are specific systems, some of which block other chemicals from entering the cell and some of which permit the entrance of chemicals that were blocked before.

Cholinergic System

The cholinergic system is a neurotransmitter system of its own, and is based on the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). This system is found in the autonomic nervous system, as well as distributed throughout the brain.

The cholinergic system has two types of receptors: the nicotinic receptor and the acetylcholine receptor, which is known as the muscarinic receptor. Both of these receptors are named for chemicals that interact with the receptor in addition to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotine, the chemical in tobacco, binds to the nicotinic receptor and activates it similarly to acetylcholine. Muscarine, a chemical product of certain mushrooms, binds to the muscarinic receptor. However, they cannot bind to each others' receptors.

Amino Acids

Another group of neurotransmitters are amino acids, including glutamate (Glu), GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid, a derivative of glutamate), and glycine (Gly). These amino acids have an amino group and a carboxyl group in their chemical structures. Glutamate is one of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins. Each amino acid neurotransmitter is its own system, namely the glutamatergic, GABAergic, and glycinergic systems. They each have their own receptors and do not interact with each other. Amino acid neurotransmitters are eliminated from the synapse by reuptake. A pump in the cell membrane of the presynaptic element, or sometimes a neighboring glial cell, clears the amino acid from the synaptic cleft so that it can be recycled, repackaged in vesicles, and released again.

Biogenic Amines

Another class of neurotransmitter is the biogenic amine, a group of neurotransmitters made enzymatically from amino acids. They have amino groups in them, but do not have carboxyl groups and are therefore no longer classified as amino acids.

Neuropeptides

A neuropeptide is a neurotransmitter molecule made up of chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds, similar to proteins. However, proteins are long molecules while some neuropeptides are quite short. Neuropeptides are often released at synapses in combination with another neurotransmitter.

Dopamine

Dopamine is the best-known neurotransmitter of the catecholamine group. The brain includes several distinct dopamine systems, one of which plays a major role in reward-motivated behavior. Most types of reward increase the level of dopamine in the brain, and a variety of addictive drugs increase dopamine neuronal activity. Other brain dopamine systems are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of several other important hormones.

Effect on the Synapse

The effect of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic element is entirely dependent on the receptor protein. If there is no receptor protein in the membrane of the postsynaptic element, then the neurotransmitter has no effect. The depolarizing (more likely to reach an action potential) or hyperpolarizing (less likely to reach an action potential) effect is also dependent on the receptor. When acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic receptor, the postsynaptic cell is depolarized. However, when acetylcholine binds to the muscarinic receptor, it might cause depolarization or hyperpolarization of the target cell.

The amino acid neurotransmitters (glutamate, glycine, and GABA) are almost exclusively associated with just one effect. Glutamate is considered an excitatory amino acid because Glu receptors in the adult cause depolarization of the postsynaptic cell. Glycine and GABA are considered inhibitory amino acids, again because their receptors cause hyperpolarization, making the receiving cell less likely to reach an action potential.

The Right Dose

Sometimes too little or too much of a neurotransmitter may affect an organism's behavior or health. The underlying cause of some neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's, appears to be related to overaccumulation of proteins, which under normal circumstances would be regulated by the presence of dopamine. On the other hand, when an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine blocks glutamate receptors, disorders like schizophrenia can occur.

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Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron across a synapse to a target cell. Explain the role of neurotransmitters in the communication process between neurons Key Points Neurotransmitters dictate communication between cells by binding to specific receptors and depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the cell.

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what's an interneuron

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Detect early signs of cancer, heart disease and brain disorders. An injectable radioactive tracer detects diseased cells.

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Learned behaviors that result in psychological actions and functions, what is learned by conditioning (Founded by Watson and Skinner)

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Rapid eye movement sleep is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, characterized by random rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied by low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.

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Longitudinal studies are the same group of people studied over a long period of time. Cross Sectional studies are a group of people studied at the same time.

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Sits at the back of the head and is responsible for visual perception, including color, form and motion.

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correlational studies measure relationships between two variables over time.

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The endocrine system, made up of all the body's different hormones, regulates all biological processes in the body from conception through adulthood and into old age, including the development of the brain and nervous system, the growth and function of the reproductive system, as well as the metabolism and blood sugar.

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Measures of the quality of a test or experiment based upon the deviation of scores from the mean score.

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Deep sleep that last about 20-40 min. Blood pressure and breathing rate drops.

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Second stage of the sleep cycle, in this stage you become less aware of your surroundings and your heart rate and temperature begin to drop.

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The biopsychosocial approach is a combination of the biological, psychological, and social aspects and how they affect behavior

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Comes from the idea of natural selection where undesirable traits die off.

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Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system. These are linked to emotions.

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First stage of the sleep cycle, last about 10 minutes. Contains very light sleep.

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They are most commonly associated with processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory. The temporal lobes are also believed to play an important role in processing affect/emotions, language, and certain aspects of visual perception. Miles McCarthy

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each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behavior, learning, personality, and voluntary movement.

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The body's slow chemical communication network, secrets hormones into the bloodstream from various glands throughout the body including: the pituitary gland (the mastermind of the system), the pancreas, ovary/testes, adrenal cortex, thyroid (parathyroid) and the thymus

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This describes the behavior, although it does not explain why people are behaving that way.

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Naturalistic observation is a research method that is used by psychologists and other social scientists. The technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. It can be used if conducting lab research would be unrealistic, cost-prohibitive, or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.

How Does Naturalistic Observation Work?

People do not necessarily behave in a lab setting the way they would in a natural environment. Researchers sometimes want to observe their subject's behavior as it happens ("in the wild," so to speak). Psychologists can get a better idea of how and why people react the way that they do by watching how they respond to situations and stimuli in real life.

For example, a researcher interested in aspects of classroom behavior (such as the interactions between students or teacher-student dynamics) might use naturalistic observation as part of their research.

Performing these observations in a lab would be difficult because it would involve recreating a classroom environment. This would likely influence the behavior of the participants, making it difficult to generalize the observations made. By observing the subjects in their natural setting (the classroom where they work and learn), the researchers can more fully observe the behavior of interest as it occurs in the real world.﻿﻿

Advantages and Disadvantages

An advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows the investigators to directly observe the subject in a natural setting.﻿﻿ The method gives scientists a first-hand look at social behavior and can help them notice things that they might never have encountered in a lab setting.

The observations can also serve as inspiration for further investigations, and the information gleaned from naturalistic observation can lead to insights that can be used to help people overcome problems and lead to healthier, happier lives.

Other advantages of naturalistic observation include:

Allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns. For example, while it would be unethical to study the effects of imprisonment by actually confining subjects, researchers can gather information by using naturalistic observation in actual prison settings.

Can support the external validity of the research. Researchers might say that the findings of a lab study can be generalized to a larger population, but that does not mean they would actually observe those findings occurring in a natural setting.﻿﻿

Naturalistic observation can be useful in many cases, but the method also has some potential downsides.

Other disadvantages of naturalistic observation include:

People might behave differently when they know they are being watched. Subjects might try to behave better than they normally would in to appear more socially desirable or acceptable to those who are observing them. Researchers can make efforts to avoid the issue, but it can be difficult to eliminate.

People might change their behavior to conform to what they think the researchers expect to see. In psychology, the term demand characteristics refer to subtle cues that let participants know what the experiment is about or what the researchers hope to find. Participants might alter their behavior to go along with what they think the researchers want.

Different observers can draw different conclusions from the same witnessed behavior. Two researchers might see the same actions yet attribute them to different causes.

Data Collection Methods

Researchers use different techniques to collect and record data from naturalistic observation. For example, they might write down how many times a certain behavior occurred in a specific period of time or take a video-recording of subjects.

Audio or Video Recordings. Depending on the type of behavior being observed, the researchers might also decide to make audio or videotaped recordings of each observation session.﻿﻿

Observer Narrative. The observer might take notes during the session that they can refer back to. They can collect data and discern behavior patterns from these notes.

Tally Counts. The observer writes down when and how many times certain behaviors occurred.

How Often Is Data Collected?

It is rarely practical-or even possible-to observe every moment of a subject's life. Therefore, researchers often use sampling to gather information through naturalistic observation. The goal is to make sure that the sample of data is representative of the subject's overall behavior.

A representative sample can be obtained through:

Time Sampling. Taking samples at different intervals of time (random or systematic).

Situation Sampling. Observing behavior in different situations and settings.

Imagine that you want to study risk-taking behavior in teenagers. You might choose to observe behavior in different settings, such as on a sledding hill, a rock-climbing wall, an ice-skating rink, and a bumper car ride. After you operationally define "risk-taking behavior," you would observe your teen subjects in these settings and record every incidence of what you have defined as risky behavior.

Famous examples of naturalistic observations include Charles Darwin's journey aboard the HMS Beagle ﻿, which served as the basis for his theory of natural selection, and Jane Goodall's work studying the behavior of chimpanzees.﻿﻿

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The Pros and Cons of Naturalistic Observation

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Naturalistic observation is a research method that is used by psychologists and other social scientists. The technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. It can be used if conducting lab research would be unrealistic, cost-prohibitive, or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.

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The endocrine system is composed of glands; this system secretes hormones that the body uses for everyday function. These hormones control: respiration, metabolism, reproduction, sensory perception, movement, sexual development, and growth.

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This includes you hormones and glands

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The Endocrine System and Glands of the Human Body

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The endocrine system consists of glands that make hormones. Your body uses hormones to control growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, mood, and other functions.

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The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system controls thought, movement, and emotion, as well as breathing, heart rate, hormones, and body temperature.

The central nervous system (CNS) is referred to as "central" because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole organism.

This article briefly overviews the CNS. It looks at the types of cells involved, different regions within the brain, spinal circuitry, and how the CNS can be affected by disease and injury.

Fast facts on the central nervous system

Here are some key points about the central nervous system. More detail and supporting information are in the main article.

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain is the most complex organ in the body and uses 20% of the total oxygen we breathe.

The brain consists of an estimated 100 billion neurons connected to thousands more.

The brain can be divided into four main lobes: temporal, parietal, occipital, and frontal.

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain is protected by the skull (the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels from the back of the brain, down the center of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region of the lower back.

The brain and spinal cord are housed within a protective triple-layered membrane called the meninges.

The central nervous system has been thoroughly studied by anatomists and physiologists, but it still holds many secrets; it controls our thoughts, movements, emotions, and desires. It also controls our breathing, heart rate, the release of some hormones, body temperature, and much more.

The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves, and olfactory epithelium are sometimes considered to be part of the CNS alongside the brain and spinal cord. This is because they connect directly with brain tissue without intermediate nerve fibers.

Below is a 3D map of the CMS. Click on it to interact and explore the model.

Now we will look at some of the parts of the CNS in more detail, starting with the brain.

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an estimated 15-33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of other neurons.

In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up the human brain. Our brain uses around 20% of our body's total energy.

The brain is the central control module of the body and coordinates activity. From physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of memories, and the sensation of emotion.

To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have dedicated roles. However, many higher functions - reasoning, problem-solving, creativity - involve different areas working together in networks.

The brain is roughly split into four lobes:

Temporal lobe (green): important for processing sensory input and assigning it emotional meaning.

It is also involved in laying down long-term memories. Some aspects of language perception are also housed here.

Occipital lobe (purple): visual processing region of the brain, housing the visual cortex.

Parietal lobe (yellow): the parietal lobe integrates sensory information including touch, spatial awareness, and navigation.

Touch stimulation from the skin is ultimately sent to the parietal lobe. It also plays a part in language processing.

Frontal lobe (pink): positioned at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe contains the majority of dopamine-sensitive neurons and is involved in attention, reward, short-term memory, motivation, and planning.

Brain regions

Next, we will look at some specific brain regions in a little more detail:

Basal ganglia: involved in the control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, and decisions about which motor activities to carry out. Diseases that affect this area include Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.

Cerebellum: mostly involved in precise motor control, but also in language and attention. If the cerebellum is damaged, the primary symptom is disrupted motor control, known as ataxia.

Broca's area: this small area on the left side of the brain (sometimes on the right in left-handed individuals) is important in language processing. When damaged, an individual finds it difficult to speak but can still understand speech. Stuttering is sometimes associated with an underactive Broca's area.

Corpus callosum: a broad band of nerve fibers that join the left and right hemispheres. It is the largest white matter structure in the brain and allows the two hemispheres to communicate. Dyslexic children have smaller corpus callosums; left-handed people, ambidextrous people, and musicians typically have larger ones.

Medulla oblongata: extending below the skull, it is involved in involuntary functions, such as vomiting, breathing, sneezing, and maintaining the correct blood pressure.

Hypothalamus: sitting just above the brain stem and roughly the size of an almond, the hypothalamus secretes a number of neurohormones and influences body temperature control, thirst, and hunger.

Thalamus: positioned in the center of the brain, the thalamus receives sensory and motor input and relays it to the rest of the cerebral cortex. It is involved in the regulation of consciousness, sleep, awareness, and alertness.

Amygdala: two almond-shaped nuclei deep within the temporal lobe. They are involved in decision-making, memory, and emotional responses; particularly negative emotions.

The spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information between the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks.

From the brainstem, where the spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves enter the cord.

Along its length, it connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that run in from the skin, muscles, and joints.

Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine to the muscles and sensory information travels from the sensory tissues - such as the skin - toward the spinal cord and finally up to the brain.

The spinal cord contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses, such as the involuntary movement your arm might make if your finger was to touch a flame.

The circuits within the spine can also generate more complex movements such as walking. Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can coordinate all of the muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a cat is separated from its spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it will start spontaneously walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is only required to stop and start the process, or make changes if, for instance, an object appears in your path.

The CNS can be roughly divided into white and gray matter. As a very general rule, the brain consists of an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner area housing tracts of white matter.

Both types of tissue contain glial cells, which protect and support neurons. White matter mostly consists of axons (nerve projections) and oligodendrocytes - a type of glial cell - whereas gray matter consists predominantly of neurons.

Also called neuroglia, glial cells are often called support cells for neurons. In the brain, they outnumber nerve cells 10 to 1.

Without glial cells, developing nerves often lose their way and struggle to form functioning synapses.

Glial cells are found in both the CNS and PNS but each system has different types. The following are brief descriptions of the CNS glial cell types:

Astrocytes: these cells have numerous projections and anchor neurons to their blood supply. They also regulate the local environment by removing excess ions and recycling neurotransmitters.

Oligodendrocytes: responsible for creating the myelin sheath - this thin layer coats nerve cells, allowing them to send signals quickly and efficiently.

Ependymal cells: lining the spinal cord and the brain's ventricles (fluid-filled spaces), these create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and keep it circulating using their whip-like cilia.

Radial glia: act as scaffolding for new nerve cells during the creation of the embryo's nervous system.

The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and pass through holes in the skull rather than traveling along the spinal cord. These nerves collect and send information between the brain and parts of the body - mostly the neck and head.

Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and optic nerves arise from the forebrain and are considered part of the central nervous system:

Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I): transmit information about odors from the upper section of the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the base of the brain.

Optic nerves (cranial nerve II): carry visual information from the retina to the primary visual nuclei of the brain. Each optic nerve consists of around 1.7 million nerve fibers.

Below are the major causes of disorders that affect the CNS:

Trauma: depending on the site of the injury, symptoms can vary widely from paralysis to mood disorders.

Infections: some micro-organisms and viruses can invade the CNS; these include fungi, such as cryptococcal meningitis; protozoa, including malaria; bacteria, as is the case with Hansen's disease (leprosy), or viruses.

Degeneration: in some cases, the spinal cord or brain can degenerate. One example is Parkinson's disease which involves the gradual degeneration of dopamine-producing cells in the basal ganglia.

Structural defects: the most common examples are birth defects; including anencephaly, where parts of the skull, brain, and scalp are missing at birth.

Tumors: both cancerous and noncancerous tumors can impact parts of the central nervous system. Both types can cause damage and yield an array of symptoms depending on where they develop.

Autoimmune disorders: in some cases, an individual's immune system can mount an attack on healthy cells. For instance, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis is characterized by an immune response against the brain and spinal cord, attacking myelin (the nerves' insulation) and, therefore, destroying white matter.

Stroke: a stroke is an interruption of blood supply to the brain; the resulting lack of oxygen causes tissue to die in the affected area.

Difference between the CNS and peripheral nervous system

The term peripheral nervous system (PNS) refers to any part of the nervous system that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is separate from the peripheral nervous system, although the two systems are interconnected.

There are a number of differences between the CNS and PNS; one difference is the size of the cells. The nerve axons of the CNS - the slender projections of nerve cells that carry impulses - are much shorter. PNS nerve axons can be up to 1 meter long (for instance, the nerve that activates the big toe) whereas, within the CNS, they are rarely longer than a few millimeters.

Another major difference between the CNS and PNS involves regeneration (regrowth of cells). Much of the PNS has the ability to regenerate; if a nerve in your finger is severed, it can regrow. The CNS, however, does not have this ability.

The components of the central nervous system are further split into a myriad of parts. Below, we will describe some of these sections in a little more detail.

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Central nervous system: Structure, function, and diseases

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The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It gathers information from all over the body and coordinates activity. We explore the types of cells involved, the regions of the brain, spinal circuitry, and how the system is affected by disease and injury.

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first female to earn a PhD in psychology. 2nd president of the APA.

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The Autonomic Nervous System runs the parts of the body that are involuntary, actions that we cannot control.

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Introduced Structuralism and a student of Wilhelm Wundt

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The mean is the average of a data group (affected most by an extreme number)
The median is the middle number of a data set
The mode is the most frequently occurring number in a data set

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The Central Nervous System is composed of the brain and spinal cord. It controls most functions of the body and the mind.

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There are several parts of the brain all of which are used to communicate to the rest of the body and to each other.

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Anatomy of the human brain, complete with illustrations and references

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The mean is the arithmetic average of data. To get this, you add up all the scores and divide by the amount of scores.

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What happens to a neuron when an electrical charge travels through the neuron?

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What happens to a neuron when an electrical charge travels through the neuron?

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The sodium ions rush in creating a state of action potential. The axon starts of negative, then when the sodium goes in it becomes positive. Then once the sodium is there a potassium pump pushes the sodium back out giving the axon a negative charge again. After the message is sent, the neuron goes through a refractory period so the cell can "regroup" until the next message is sent. When the message gets down the axon, neural transmitter are sent to the synapse to the other neuron. Then through the reuptake process, the neurotransmitters go back to the old neuron.

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This involves getting data from a variety of people, asking them questions about their knowledge, preferences, and behavior.

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Peripheral Nervous System-gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other parts of the body.

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Peripheral Nervous System-gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other parts of the body.

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Central Nervous System-brain and spinal cord

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Technically the first woman to receive a PHD in psychology from Harvard; second president of the APA

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fonder of functionalism, studied how humans use perceptions to function in our environment.

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When an event occurs that usually may not be tested due to moral circumstances happens, then further analyzed to come up with a conclusion

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Researchers use a variety of neuroimaging tools to study the brain. Computed tomography (CT) scans are oblique X-ray slices that show the density of brain structures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses changes in electrically charged molecules in a magnetic field to form images of the brain.

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Findings

Intensive instruction in reading improves how a child's brain works. In schizophrenia, key parts of the brain may not communicate well, making it hard to organize one's thoughts. And true love wouldn't be true without the neurotransmitter dopamine. We know all this and more thanks to neuroimaging, an increasingly sophisticated tool that sheds light - literally - on the human brain.

Doctors and scientists once had to wait until autopsy to examine the brain, and psychologists had to deduce from behavior where the brain was injured. Now they can study detailed three-dimensional images of the brain to spot problems, to understand what happens during tasks, thoughts and emotions and to assess the effectiveness of various treatments.

Current neuroimaging techniques reveal both form and function. They reveal the brain's anatomy, including the integrity of brain structures and their interconnections. They elucidate its chemistry, physiology and electrical and metabolic activity. The newest tools show how different regions of the brain connect and communicate. They can even show with split-second timing the sequence of events during a specific process, such as reading or remembering.

Psychologists employ these tools across the range of the discipline. Social cognitive neuroscientists, for instance, are capturing the psychological and neural processes involved in emotion, pain, self-regulation, self-perception and perception of others. Psychologists have used neuroimaging technology to demonstrate how white Americans, even those who report themselves free of prejudice, show differences in brain activity in the amygdala - a structure involved in emotional learning - when they look at pictures representing people of different racial groups. Positive emotions are also studied. Psychologists have compared functional images taken when students looked at pictures of their romantic partner versus pictures of an acquaintance. When students gazed at their beloved, two deep-brain areas that communicate as part of a circuit showed increased levels of activity. Those areas help to regulate the neurotransmitter dopamine, which floods the brain when people anticipate a reward.

Neuroimaging is also helping us understand how the brain develops from infancy through adulthood. Developmental neuroscientists study the neurobiological underpinnings of cognitive development. Combining functional measures of brain activity with behavioral measures, they explore how subtle early insults to the nervous system affect cognitive and emotional function later in life - for example, the effects of maternal illness or early childhood neglect on learning, memory and attention later in life. Imaging tools can pay off in the classroom, too: Using such tools, literacy experts have shown that a year of intensive, methodical reading instruction makes the brains of high-risk kindergarteners look and function like those of more skilled young readers.

To aid clinical treatments, psychologists are using functional imaging to get at the neural mechanisms involved in such difficult problems as post-traumatic stress disorder, phobias and panic disorder. For example, scans reveal that schizophrenia's diverse symptoms may result not from faults in single neural components but rather from differences in webs of neural connections. Scans similarly help researchers follow brain activity to assess whether various treatments change the underlying brain dysfunction.

Significance

Critics have argued that while neuroimaging may be flashy and exciting, its contributions to psychological theory are, so far, limited. Even with expensive technologies and tools, it turns out that understanding the brain isn't as clear cut as researchers might have hoped. In the early days of brain scanning, researchers often focused on locating regions for different emotions in the brain. Over time, it became evident that emotions don't map neatly onto specific brain regions, but rather stem from a complicated network of interconnected brain regions.

Despite these complexities, experts haven't given up on neuroimaging's promise. To the contrary, the field is thriving. In 2013, the National Institutes of Health joined with several other federal agencies to launch the Brain Research through Advancing Innovating Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative. The project is slated to invest $4.5 billion over 10 years in an effort to map brain circuits, understand patterns of electrical and chemical activity in those circuits and explore how their interplay creates cognitive and behavioral capabilities.

Practical Application

Researchers use a variety of neuroimaging tools to study the brain.

Computed tomography (CT) scans are oblique X-ray slices that show the density of brain structures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses changes in electrically charged molecules in a magnetic field to form images of the brain. Both technologies are more precise than ordinary X-rays and can help find problems when people fall ill. These images also help researchers map the brain regions associated with different behaviors, often by studying people with specific brain injuries.

A form of MRI known as functional MRI (fMRI) has emerged as the most prominent neuroimaging technology over the last two decades. fMRI tracks changes in blood flow and oxygen levels to indicate neural activity. When a particular brain area is more active, it consumes more oxygen and blood flow increases. Early on, fMRI was typically used to map cognitive functions in different brain regions, such as labeling areas associated with visual perception, language or memory. As the technology was refined, fMRI researchers became able to characterize brain function at the level of neural processes.

Another imaging process called diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) uses a regular MRI machine to track how water molecules move in and around the fibers connecting different parts of the brain. DTI gauges the thickness and density of the brain's connections.

Other measures of brain activity include electroencephalography (EEG), which records the brain's electrical waves to detect abnormal activity, such as in seizures and sleep disorders, and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, which use radioactive tags to show which brain areas become active when someone performs a task. PET scans are also coming into use to aid diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease by identifying amyloid plaques in the brains of living people.

Initially, neuroimaging technologies were met with great enthusiasm by some researchers, and with strong skepticism by others. After more than two decades of research, many researchers now agree that while the tools have limitations, they also have great promise. While neuroimaging shouldn't replace older methods such as behavioral studies, most experts agree that it is a powerful tool in the scientist's toolkit.

Cited Research and Further Reading

Aron A., Fisher H., Mashek D.J., Strong G., Li H., Brown L.L. (2005). Reward, motivation, and emotion systems associated with early-stage intense romantic love. Journal of Neurophysiology , 94(1), 327-37.

Breier, J. I., Simos, P. G., Fletcher, J. M., Castillo, E. M., Zhang, W., and Papanicolaou, A. C. (2003). Abnormal activation of temperoparietal language areas during phonetic analysis in children with dyslexia. Neuropsychology , 17, 610-621.

Cacioppo, J.T., Berntson, G.G., and Nusbaum, H.C. (2008). Neuroimaging as a new tool in the toolbox of psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science 17 (2), 62-67.

Davidson, M. C. Thomas, K. M., & Casey, B. J. (2003). Imaging the developing brain with fMRI. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities , 9(3), 161-167.

Fan, J., Flombaum, J. I., McCandliss, B. D., Thomas, K. M., & Posner, M. I. (2003). Cognitive and brain consequences of conflict. Neuroimage , 18(1), 42-57.

Fisher, Brown and Aaron study, romantic love

Hasson, U., and Honey, C.J. (2012). Future trends in neuroimaging: Neural processes as expressed within real-life contexts. NeuroImage 62, 1272-1278.

LaBar, K. S. and Cabeza, R. (2006, January). Reviews: Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature , 7, 54-?

Lindquist, K.A., Wager, T.D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., and Barrett, L.F. (2012). The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35, 121-202.

Moran, J.M., and Zaki, J. (2013). Functional neuroimaging and psychology: What have you done for me lately? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 25 (6), 834-842.

Ochsner, K. N. & Lieberman, M. D. (2001). The emergence of social cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist , 56(9), 717-734.

Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunninghamd, W.A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J.C., and Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(5), 729-738.

Simos, P. G., Fletcher, J. M., Sarkari, S., Billingsley, R. L., Castillo, E. M., Pataraia, E., Francis, D. J., Denton, C., Papanicolauo, A. C. (2005). Early development of neurophysiological processes involved in normal reading and reading disability: A magnetic source imaging study. Neuropsychology, 19(6), 787-798.

Spelke, E. S. (2002). Developmental neuroimaging: a developmental psychologist looks ahead. Developmental Science, 5(3), 392-396.

The Brain Initiative (2014). Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://www.nih.gov/science/brain/index.htm

Thomas, K. M. (2003). Assessing brain development using neurophysiological and behavioral measures. Journal of Pediatrics, 143, S46-S53.

Zhang, L., Thomas, K. M., Davidson, M. C., Casey, B. J., Heier, L. A., & Ulug, A. M. (2005). Diffusion and volume changes during brain development. American Journal of Neuroradiology , 26, 45-49.

American Psychological Association, August 2014

Psychologists and Related Topics

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Intensive instruction in reading improves how a child's brain works. In schizophrenia, key parts of the brain may not communicate well, making it hard to organize one's thoughts. And true love wouldn't be true without the neurotransmitter dopamine. We know all this and more thanks to neuroimaging, an increasingly sophisticated tool that sheds light - literally - on the human brain.

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Ivan Pavlov, conducted a conditioning experiment to make dogs salivate at the sound of a bell ringing.

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mental activity that has to do with remembering and learning.

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Hudson:
The endocrine system uses chemical signaling (hormones, produced by glands).

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Neuron firing is communication between neurons sent by electrical impulses

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suggests that it is our biology, our chemicals and hormones that is responsible for our behaviors.

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This approach emphasizes our mental process in knowing, perceiving information, and remembering.

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Wilhelm Wundt-"father of psychology." first person to study humans in a laboratory setting. he wished to move the field of psychology away from philosophy and more towards scientific and measurable aspects (empirical).

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the psychodynamic approach focuses what goes on in the unconscious mind.

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Sigmund Freud adopted the psychodynamic/psychoanalytic approach, where he studied how the unconscious mind affected behavior

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wilhem wundt is regarded as the father of psychology