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Article #6  Cambridge Journal of Education

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Article #6  Cambridge Journal of Education

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Teaching children to ask and answer questions is critically important to help them engage in argumentation, problem-solving and learning.

This is a study of the effectiveness of training teachers to use specific cognitive and metacognitive questions to challenge children’s thinking, problem solving and reasoning during cooperative learning in comparison to teachers who implement cooperative learning who have not participated in such training.  The study involved two groups of teachers, and two groups of students (3–4 person groups of mixed ability).

The results show that the teachers in the cooperative+questioning group used more challenging and scaffolding behaviors than the teachers in the cooperative only group. The study also shows that the children in the first group provided more elaborations, reasons, and justifications for their responses than their peers.

The Teacher’s Role in Promoting Discourse

There is no doubt that teachers need to explicitly teach children how to seek and provide help to each other if they are to reap the benefits widely attributed to social interaction during small group discussions. Teachers also need to be active during students’ small group discussions. This involves using a variety of strategies such as prompting students for supporting reasons, modeling the use of evidence, or challenging students with counter arguments More examples are: asking questions that challenged children to predict, identify, and generate potential solutions to group problems and were designed to encourage them to think more deeply and clearly about specific issues.

Task Construction

The importance of the type of task the children are asked to undertake can stimulate discussion and learning. When students participate in tasks where there is a correct or right answer to obtain, such as occurs for computational or mathematics tasks, there is often little need to interact as the answer can be reached in well-structured ways. In contrast, open- and discovery-based tasks with no clear answer to the problem so students must share ideas and information if they are to resolve the problem at hand have the potential to encourage student interaction during small group discussions.

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Article #5:  The Effects of Free Riders and Peer Evaluations

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Article #5:  The Effects of Free Riders and Peer Evaluations

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It is a challenge to assess team work in an effective and equitable way.

This article outlines a study to determine the usefulness of peer evaluations and whether or not a “free rider.” someone who does little or no work on team projects, effects the overall quality of group work.  This was done by requiring teams of students to write a set of three papers.  The students were grouped according to peer evaluations to determine who the “free riders” in the groups were.  One group had no “free riders,” while both of the others did.

The results indicate that free riders do not depress the grades of non-free rider students. We also found that students’ peer evaluations do not correlate with their course performance, a finding which warrants further research.  However, using peer evaluations to grade “free riders” on their effort within the group was beneficial.

Evaluating collaborative learning.

Some teachers argue that all group members should be assigned one grade. These teachers argue that in the workplace, teams are often rewarded for the quality of the project, and not for individual contributions to the project.  In addition, they argue that assigning one grade should motivate students to work together by creating “positive reward interdependence”  However, some evidence suggests that students easily become frustrated with group work when all group members earn the same grade regardless of effort.  This frustration can cause students to lose motivation and become disengaged from class activities.

Peer evaluations are an essential part of successful cooperative learning strategies and are useful for collecting feedback about team members’ specific behaviors. Another important question is whether the peer evaluations are valid and reliable.

Students who actively participate in teams reap educational benefits such as better assimilation of knowledge, higher test scores, and stronger leadership skills.

One study suggests that important factors that may influence peer evaluations are a student’s age, race, and tendency to help others. It is also possible that someone’s attraction influences their evaluation.

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Article #4  Cooperative Learning: Developments in Research

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Article #4  Cooperative Learning: Developments in Research

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Factors that contribute to the success of cooperative learning

-group structure

-composition and task

-key role of teachers

Cooperative learning promotes positive social interactions and achievement.

Children can be taught to facilitate each other’s learning, help motivate underachieving children, improve interpersonal attitudes, and students’ communication skills.

cooperative vs. competitive vs. individualistic learning

Group members working together as a team to attain group rewards are more successful than ad hoc groups where students are expected to work together but with few incentives to do so has little or no effect on learning.

Key Elements of Successful Cooperative Learning

1. Establish a state of positive goal independence so group members understand that they are required to not only complete their part of the work but ti ensure that others do likewise.

2. Group members understand that they are accountable for their contribution to the group.

3. Interpersonal and small group skills.

-actively listening to each other during discussions

-considering the other person’s idea and perspectives

-stating ideas clearly without making disparaging comments

-accepting responsibility for ones own behavior

-constructively critiquing the ideas of others

-sharing resources

-taking turns

4. Promotive interaction

5. Group processing involves members reflecting

Group Structure and Composition

Small groups of 4 or less are the most effective groupings, as well as mixed-ability groups rather than homogeneous.

Type of Tasks

When students work on high-level cooperative tasks, they demonstrate higher-level reasoning and problem-solving discourse which positively effects the learning the occurs.

Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning

Teachers must structure lessons that lend to cooperative group learning. Teachers must be facilitators.

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Cooperative Learning in the classroom: How to do it

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A true cooperative learning experience requires that a number of criteria be met.

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Article #1:  Instruction Based on Cooperative Learning

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Article #1:  Instruction Based on Cooperative Learning

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p. 344 Instruction Based on Cooperative Learning

by Robert E. Slavin

Reviews evidence on the theories relating to learning outcomes of cooperative learning and presents evidence on the most widely used applications of cooperative methods.

Cooperative learning vary wild in their details.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

1.  Motivational Perspective

Motivation is the single most important factor in the learning process.

2.  Social Cohesion Perspective

Social cohesiveness is the driving force behind successful cooperative grouping.

3.  Cognitive (Developmental) Perspective

Cooperative learning facilitates interaction among children on appropriate tasks which increases their mastery of critical concepts.

4. Cognitive (Elaboration) Perspective

Students take roles as recaller and listener - peer tutoring

All perspectives go hand in hand.

Strategy training and rewards are best for structuring group interaction.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHODS

Structured TEAM LEARNING

Student Team Learning

-team rewards

-individual opportunties

-individual accountability

-equal opportunities for success

FOUR METHODS OF TEAM LEARNING

A. Achievement Divisions

B. Games Tournament

C. Assisted Individualization

D. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition

E. Peer Assisted Learning Strategies

F. IMPROVE

Informal Group Learning Methods

A. Jigsaw

B. Learning Together

C. Group Investigation

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Article #2:  International Journal of Higher Education

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Article #2:  International Journal of Higher Education

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Constructivism - a theory of that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from interaction between their experiences and ideas

Researchers have different but similar definitions of cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning is the pedagogy within which students are active constructors of knowledge in the learning process instead of passive receivers of any given knowledge.

Three Types of Cooperative Learning

1. Informal cooperative learning - Cooperative grouping lasts from a few minutes to one class period, are short-term and ad-hoc groups in which students are required to work together to achieve a shared learning goal.

2. Cooperative based groups -Cooperative grouping that usually last a semester or an academic year, or even several years. They are long-term and heterogeneous learning groups with committed relationships, in which students support one another to complete assignments and make academic progress.

3. Formal cooperative learning groups -Cooperative grouping that lasts from one class period to several weeks. These are cooperative learning groups in which students work together to complete the learning tasks assigned and achieve shared learning goals.

Cooperative Groups Must Have ....

Positive interdependence: members understand that they must learn together to accomplish the goal; they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance.

Individual accountability: the performance of each group member is assessed against a standard, and members are held responsible for their contribution to achieving goals.

Promotive interaction: students interact face-to-face and close together, not across the room.

Group processing: groups reflect on their collaborative efforts and decide on ways to improve effectiveness.

Development of small- group interpersonal skills: these skills, such as giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, and involving every member, are necessary for effective group functioning. They must be taught and practiced before the groups tackle a learning task.

Teacher should be facilitator of learning.

Theoretical perspectives

1. Social interdependence theory - Students help each other learn because they care about the group and its members, and come to derive self-identity benefits from group membership.

2. Cognitive developmental perspective - Learners construct knowledge socially, based on their current or past knowledge, through social interaction rather than by observing it objectively.

3. Cognitive elaboration viewpoint - This viewpoint stresses the effectiveness of elaboration in the process of learning and thinking, and that elaboration prepares the individual for cognitive re-structure and rehearsal in order to enhance learning tasks.

4. Social learning theory - Learns can improve their knowledge and retention by observing and modeling the desired behaviors, attitudes and reactions of others, and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality.

5. Constructivist learning theory - Knowledge is not achieved by learners but constructed through their interaction with the environment, to create their own meaningful knowledge.  Students are active in achieving their own knowledge. Teacher is facilitator.  In the process of learning, students actively develop and enlarge their knowledge through observation, reflection, experimentation, discovery and especially, social interaction.

Constructivist vs. Traditional Learning

-constructing knowledge vs. receiving knowledge

-understanding and applying vs. retention

-analyzing vs. accumulating and memorizing

-dynamic vs. passive

Outcomes of Cooperative Learning

Students expose inadequate reasoning which can then lead to better understanding.

Through mutual feedback and debate, peers encourage one another to abandon  misconceptions and search for better solutions.

Peer communication can help a child master participation and argumentation, as well as verification and criticism.

Collaboration between peers can provide a forum for discovery learning and encourage creative thinking.

Peer interaction can introduce children to the process of generating ideas.

Four Components Necessary for Modeling

-attention

-retention

-reproduction

-motivation

Four Features of Instruction for Cooperative Learning

experience which most effectively implant a predisposition toward learning

the ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured for understanding

the most effective sequences in which to present the material to be learned nature of rewards and punishment in the process of learning

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Cooperative Learning has been proven to be effective for all types of students, including academically gifted, mainstream students and English language learners (ELLs) because it promotes learning and fosters respect and friendships among diverse groups of students. In fact, the more diversity in a team, the higher the benefits for each student.

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Article #3:  Making Cooperative Learning Powerful

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Article #3:  Making Cooperative Learning Powerful

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Making Cooperative Learning Powerful

Five Practices of Cooperative Learning

1. Form interdependent teams

Diverse groups of 5 or less that work together daily for 6-8 weeks after which new groups are formed.

2. Set group goals

Share a team goal such as increasing the average score on a quiz that all students take individually after they help one another prepare.

3. Ensure individual accountability.

Individual accountability means that to reach the team goal, all team members must master the targeted content or skills. Team success should depend on the hard work—and therefore the learning—of all members. This prevents the free rider and the know-it-all.  Teacher should not jump in and help too quickly.

4. Teach communication and problem-solving skills.

Students need to learn about, practice, and refine key interpersonal skills.¹

-Active listening

-Explaining ideas and opinions

-Encouraging teammates

-Completing tasks

5. Mix cooperative learning with other structures

Cooperative learning should be seen as a key part of each lesson, but not the whole lesson.

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Just about everyone loves the idea of cooperative learning. Think of kids working productively and excitedly in groups, everyone getting along and enthusiastically helping one another learn. Think of kids completing great projects together, encouraging one another, and forming friendships. In this ideal scenario, all students are engaged, active, and minds-on. They are learning cooperation itself, an important life skill. Cooperative learning: how pro-social, how liberating-and how does anyone really accomplish this?

Cooperative learning can be wonderful. Students often love working this way. I've heard comments like, "An explanation is easier to understand if it's coming from another kid" or "My teammates ... make sure I understand the work." But for many teachers who've tried it, cooperative learning is a noisy mess rather than a stairway to heaven. One student might be doing all the work while the others socialize, for example. Kids may ignore or belittle group mates they perceive to be low achievers. Some students may think cooperative learning is party time rather than learning time. This is why studies find that most teachers don't use cooperative learning regularly, despite extensive research supporting it (Gillies, 2014; Roseth, Johnson, &amp; Johnson, 2008; Slavin, 1995, 2013; Webb, 2008).

It is the "learning" in cooperative learning that is too often left out. But it needn't be. Using these five strategies, teachers can get the greatest benefit possible from cooperative learning and ensure that collaboration enhances learning.

An effective cooperative group is not a collection of kids thrown together for a brief activity. It's a team composed of diverse students who care about helping one another learn-and about the success of the team itself. All members must know they can depend on one another for help.

In the forms of cooperative learning we've used for years at Johns Hopkins University and at the Success for All Foundation in elementary and secondary schools (Slavin, 1995), we group students into four-member teams (if the class doesn't divide evenly, we have a few five-member teams). A foursome provides flexibility. Some activities can be done in pairs and some with the whole team. Teams work together daily for 6-8 weeks; after that period, teachers assign new teams.

Team members move their desks together and choose a team name. At the beginning of the team's work, members engage in group bonding activities, like creating a motto or coat of arms to express their team personality.

In middle or high school, groups might investigate careers that interest them and colleges known for majors tied to those careers. Their research often culminates in each team giving a presentation about why they recommend a particular college, and teams sometimes name themselves after the school they recommend. Even if students choose Duke because of basketball fame, they've spent time helping one another learn something new, shared what matters to them, and met a deadline.

It's best if teams are composed of a cross section of the class: high and low achievers, boys and girls, students of different ethnicities. Groups definitely won't have such diversity if students choose their teams, so the teacher should make team assignments.

Too often in cooperative learning, students are put into teams and instructed to "help one another." Helping one another is a good thing, but kids will do a lot more of it if they share a team goal.

A team goal is a target, product, or indicator that shows a team has done a good job of getting every member to perform at his or her personal best. A team goal could be increasing the average score on a quiz that all students take individually after they help one another prepare. It could be one overall product with individual components that each team member clearly contributed to, such as by coding a specific part of a computer program or contributing essential data to a group lab report.

In each case, a teacher both looks at the team average and evaluates the individual products. Teams whose work meets certain criteria are awarded certificates or small privileges. This helps team members see their joint work as achieving something important. Teams that don't have a goal are like sports teams in a game where no one knows, or cares, what the score is-not the sort of game in which all players do their best.

This is the essential element most often left out of cooperative learning-and when it is, teachers lose a lot of cooperative learning's potential.

Individual accountability means that to reach the team goal, all team members must master the targeted content or skills. Team success should depend on the hard work-and therefore the learning-of all members.

To understand why this is important, consider a team working together without individual accountability. Imagine that a team studies together and then takes one quiz, on which all team members can help one another. This arrangement will likely produce two undesirable outcomes: the free rider and the know-it-all.

Free riders do little work. They may chat with others, but they don't try much to learn or help others learn. "The others will do it anyway," they reason. "Why should I try?" Students who have doubts about their own skills may be shy or reluctant to participate if they know others will do the work.

The know-it-all is another story. A know-it-all (or two) may dominate the group and tell others the answers. I once saw a group of middle schoolers trying to solve a complex math problem together. (Their task was to solve the problem and give the answer as a group.) Two kids were doing most of the talking. When one of their (usually quiet) teammates ventured an opinion, both know-it-alls shushed her and told her to wait for them to deliver the answer.

How can teachers ensure individual accountability? First, make sure the team goal requires the learning and participation of all team members. For example, if the team goal is to score an average of 80 percent or better on a quiz, all students need to do well. Or a goal might be to write an outstanding report on a given country, with each chapter signed by a team member. Never choose an outcome one student could do alone. In addition, frequently reinforce the idea that the purpose of the team is to make sure that all members are learning, not just to get the right answers or complete the project. Explain why individual accountability is fair; students will readily understand why no team member should get a free ride.

During lessons, use informal cooperative structures that reinforce the idea of individual accountability. Teachers we work with in Success for All programs, for example, make frequent use of a technique called "random reporter." Each student is given a number from 1 to 5. When teachers ask a question, they direct it to a team and then pick a number at random. The student on that team with that number has to respond for the whole group-and the team can earn points based on the answer.

Practices like random reporter communicate consistently that teams must make sure all their members learn. Potential free riders understand that they will be held accountable and that they can't wait for their teammates to make all the effort. Know-it-alls realize that if they don't engage, teach, and give feedback to every team member, their team won't succeed. One middle school math teacher noted, "Students ... know they need to work hard on math problems and be ready to explain them. If they aren't ready, they can't get off the hook easily."

Finally, it's important that the teacher lets the work be challenging and doesn't step in too early to do the work for students who struggle. Doing so not only undermines teammates' developing interdependence, but also teaches students that if they feign helplessness, display apathy, or work slowly, the teacher will soon step in and complete the tasks. If kids instead learn to make appropriate levels of effort and to persist, they will build confidence in their ability to improve and learn. They'll realize that asking for help-not the answers-helps them learn. Letting students struggle constructively and safely in their teams enables each student to reflect on his or her thinking, compare it with others' ideas, and refine that thinking before sharing it with the class-or on a test.

Setting up structures that promote effective cooperative learning is not enough. Team members need to know how to make good use of the opportunity to work with one another; this means they need to learn about, practice, and refine key interpersonal skills.

Active listening. Active listening skills are essential in good group work-and in life. When students are listening well, their eyes are on the speaker and they occasionally nod. Active listeners avoid interrupting but periodically summarize what they hear and ask for clarification when needed. These practices communicate respect for the speaker and enable the listener to learn as much as possible from that speaker's words.

Explaining ideas and opinions. Team members need this skill to communicate and persuade in cooperative interactions. Explaining must go beyond single-word answers; students must be able to identify sources or reasons for their personal opinions or conclusions. They must explain their ideas to others so that peers can understand them too. This demands metacognition, evidentiary thinking, summarizing, paraphrasing, and listening to others thoughtfully.

Encouraging teammates. Effective team members know how to encourage and support teammates, disagree with dignity, and help maintain a positive, prosocial tone within the group. Tell students you expect them to make sure that all team members are actively participating in the thinking parts of the group's tasks. Teach them how to make that happen.

Explaining your own ideas while also encouraging others is a complex skill that demands that students respect one another. Guide kids to make teamwork time a safe environment in which to speak, receive feedback, and admit what they don't understand. Once students establish a productive working relationship, they can set goals together, monitor their own progress, and solve learning problems together.

Completing tasks. Students should be expected to work on the group's tasks until they are finished to a high standard and to ensure that at the end of a team study session, all participants have learned the class objective.

When students know what constitutes great work within their team, and reach that standard, they can be proud of themselves and of any recognition their group receives.

Cooperative learning should be seen as a key part of each lesson, but not the whole lesson. Effective class lessons might also include teacher instruction, media- or computer-based activities, and individual assessments of various kinds. Informal cooperative-learning activities such as random reporter or think-pair-share may also be used, but these shouldn't be the only cooperative activity.

The best way to use cooperative learning is to replace individual work, which in traditional lesson cycles happens after lessons and before assessments. Individual, isolated practice is boring and ineffective for most students, especially if they struggle. Cooperative learning makes practicing to mastery engaging and social and gives all students "study buddies" to help them when they run into difficulties.

Sometimes team activities may come before teacher instruction, as when teams are conducting experiments in a discovery learning format. But at some point, a teacher needs to explain the essential objectives and give students parameters and guidance for their group work so they can move forward.

I once observed a class of 9th graders who started the school year reading significantly below grade level. Their first-year teacher worked hard to provide a research-based cooperative learning model in which they would read a wide variety of complex texts, discuss them in teams, and prepare one another to participate in class discussions. However, students weren't making the desired progress. As the teacher looked for what was missing, she noticed students were sloppy in their work and slow to complete tasks. Although they often talked to one another, they weren't helping one another.

The first change this educator made was holding each student individually accountable for the work. The second was providing and discussing with the class rubrics for high-quality answers or comments in discussions. Students and teachers practiced scoring sample answers and exchanged feedback.

Then she made the task more interesting, challenging, personal, and relevant. She asked students to read closely and compare several journal articles about the science of emotions. Team members were to help one another answer questions that required more than recitation of facts from the articles, but to individually form their own hypotheses about the author's intent in writing the articles-and support those hypotheses with evidence from the texts.

In a few days, when the students realized that the teacher wasn't going to dilute this work to save time, they dug into the articles. Discussions flourished. Well-structured cooperative learning and recognition of work that met the standards of the rubrics ultimately transformed this class from remedial to advanced. When the students were asked what they thought about how their class was changing, one girl summed it up: "When I work with my teammates and we use the rubrics and our brains, we know we have a good answer. We're proud to show what we know-we are ready for any of us to report out."

Used properly, cooperative learning is an exciting way for all kids to learn. Research finds that if teachers make the five elements discussed here part of group learning, students learn more, feel more successful, love school, and enjoy the subject they're studying-and like and accept one another (Roseth et al., 2008; Slavin, 2013; Webb, 2008). For outcomes like these, it's worth the effort.

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Five key practices bring out the tremendous potential of this approach.

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I use puzzles as an introductory activity for setting up cooperative groups, or starting a new unit. I find that they build thinking skills, cooperation, and self-analysis/reflection. I use a puzzle of 25 to 100 pieces, depending on the age and ability of the class, for each cooperative group. I set the puzzles out on group tables, just the pieces, no picture of what the puzzle will look like when finished. Then I pick pieces from each puzzle -- enough to give each student one piece -- and put them in a container. To keep the puzzle pieces from getting mixed up, I buy puzzles that are different in design and color.

As students enter the room they take a puzzle piece from the container and find the table that has the puzzle their piece fits into. They start putting the puzzle together right away, which keeps them busy while other students join them. Before long the whole class is engaged in putting their puzzles together in their different groups.

After they finish putting together the puzzles, I ask them to discuss these questions:

1) How did your group cooperate to get your puzzle together?
2) Did you get your puzzle done in the allotted time?
3) How did you feel trying to put a puzzle together without seeing a picture of what it was supposed to look like?
4) Did everyone in the group feel the same way?
5) What did you learn about yourself working in a group?
6) What did you learn about your learning style?

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I use puzzles as an introductory activity for setting up cooperative groups, or starting a new unit. I find that they build thinking skills, cooperation, and self-analysis/reflection. I use a puzzle of 25 to 100 pieces, depending on the age and ability of the class, for each cooperative group.

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OVERVIEW

The jigsaw classroom is a research-based cooperative learning technique invented and developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the University of Texas and the University of California. Since 1971, thousands of classrooms have used jigsaw with great success.

The jigsaw classroom has a four-decade track record of successfully reducing racial conflict and increasing positive educational outcomes such as improved test performance, reduced absenteeism, and greater liking for school.

Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece - each student's part - is essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product.

If each student's part is essential, then each student is essential; and that is precisely what makes this strategy so effective.

JIGSAW IN 10 EASY STEPS

The jigsaw classroom is very simple to use. If you're a teacher, just follow these steps:

STEP SEVEN

Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.

STEP EIGHT

Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group.

Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.

STEP NINE

Float from group to group, observing the process.

If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.

STEP TEN

At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material.

Students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.

ABOUT ELLIOT ARONSON

Elliot Aronson is currently Professor Emeritus at the University of California in Santa Cruz. He has long-standing research interests in social influence and attitude change, cognitive dissonance, research methodology, and interpersonal attraction. Professor Aronson's experiments are aimed both at testing theory and at improving the human condition by influencing people to change dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors.

Professor Aronson received his B.A. from Brandeis University in 1954, his M.A. from Wesleyan University in 1956, and his Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1959. He has taught at Harvard University, the University of Minnesota, the University of Texas, and the University of California. In 1999, he won the American Psychological Association's Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, making him the only psychologist to have won APA's highest awards in all three major academic categories: distinguished writing (1973), distinguished teaching (1980), and distinguished research (1999).

MORE ABOUT
ELLIOT ARONSON

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The jigsaw technique is a cooperative learning approach that reduces racial conflict among school children, promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and increases enjoyment of the learning experience.

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Interpersonal Skills and Cooperative Learning

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Interpersonal Skills and Cooperative Learning

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PROBLEM:  Students do not work well together in groups, therefore, they are not benefitting from the academic advantages of doing so. 

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PROBLEM:  Students do not work well together in groups, therefore, they are not benefitting from the academic advantages of doing so. 

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QUESTION:  What effect does direct instruction of interpersonal skills have on cooperative learning?

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QUESTION:  What effect does direct instruction of interpersonal skills have on cooperative learning?