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Examples of conditioning and non-conditioned responses?
Examples of biological or cognitive influences on conditioning?

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Bandura's experiment, examples of assumptions from your own lives

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Evidence for universality and evidence for non-universality?

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Examples of assumptions related to the different types of punishment and reinforcement

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Define motivation and emotions. How are they different? How are the two concepts linked?

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Motivation is a driving behaviour towards a goal. Emotions is the arousal, physical sensation & subjective feelings that occur spontaneously in response to stimuli.

Motivation and emotion is kind of similar in that way that emotion is anything from a low level of arousal a sensation, or a complex multifaceted subjective feeling that you may or may not even be able to describe. They are both responsive to stimulation (different kinds of stimulation on very different levels)

Emotion and motivation share the ability to arouse an organism and stimulate behaviour, but motivation does so more directly and precisely than emotions do.

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- Motivation: why people or animals do certain behaviours at a certain time
- Emotion: strong feelings deriving from one's circumstances, mood or relationships with others
- Emotion is an instant feeling whilst motivation is a long-time process.
- An emotion could be a source of motivation.
- Both drive behaviour.

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Emotions are spontaneous, automatic responses to our ongoing perceptions and thoughts

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours

Emotions and motivations can lead to behaviour. For exmaple: if you are happy then you will be energised and motivated to do something that will you believe will make you happy

Real-life example: Academic achievement --> achieving good grades, conditioned of having the fear of good grades thus motivated to work hard and achieve good results

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-Behavioral psych has less uncertainty as it looks at things objectively, the aims and objectives are more measurable compared to other subfields.

-look at concrete behavior, more physical data

-similar to social Psych?

-behavior doesn't define a culture, but a culture can help define behavior

-behaviour is based on the societal expectations on them, conditioning them to feel a certain way/ react a certain way to different situations (social psych)

- behavioral psych methods:
-test reflexes
-actions
-can they produce the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus

-cognitive psych methods:
-look at the brain - see if a person is lacking any parts and observing the difference?
-see which parts of the brain is activated when certain emotions are felt

-evolutionary psych methods:
-look at the history
-focus on survival

-Developmental methods:
-study the brain/behavioral development of kids

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universality:
- we all startle when there's a sudden change in environmental (e.g. loud noises)
- certain expressions are universal amongst ages and culture
- regions of the brain that is activated from certain emotions is similar (amygdala: fear and aggression responses) - certain parts of the brain are universally activated
non-universality:
- different cultures interpret same expressions as different emotions
- expressions for certain emotions is different (e.g. western culture - happy --> people tend to be more expressive about it compared to east-asian cultures)

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Universality:
- blind olympics example of people having similar expressions
-build in expressions of babies
Non universality:
-difference in culture the way people express emotions
-Japanese are more reserved in their emotional expressions compared to westerners

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Universality --> similar facial expressions across nations and independent of age (infants showing signs of disgust even when they are not conditioned to do so), olympics,

Non-universality --> expressiveness of emotions - Americans being more expressive in a group vs Japanese being more expressive alone

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University of emotion is the finding that certain emotional expressions, appraisals, and manifestations are the same or highly similar across cultures and societies

Similar
- Expressions of blind individuals from Olympics

However...
- Different cultures/societies interpret emotions differently
- Western cultures are more expressive (e.g. kissing, hugging, etc.) as compared to Asian cultures (e.g. bowing, shaking hands, etc.)

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Conditioned responses:
- explains a lot of behavior
- learned reactions
- Pavlov dog: classical conditioning
-pairing neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus
-most behaviors are conditioned because they don't have inherent survival meaning
-little albert experiment: scared of smol furry white animals
-generalized vs discriminated learning
- wearing clothes is a conditioned response? Habituation
-feeling nervous for an examination
-walk into a shop and see a sale
-personality traits:
-conditioned to be compassionate
-personality can change over time

Non-conditioned responses:
- moro reflex in babies: Startle reaction
-don't need to be learned, they appear without prior experience with a stimulus
-meant for survival
-In-built
-are personality predisposed?
-malleability of personality?
-not all infants are born the same in personality
-introversion and extroversion

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Biological:
- babies as evidence since they can express themselves through expressions at such a young age
- Emotions are characterized by the activity of multiple areas of the brain: the neocortex, brain stem and an almond-shaped region in the limbic system called amygdala.
-Arousal theory proposes that motivation is strongly linked to biological factors that control reward sensitivity and goal-driven behavior.
The reward system in the human body spurs physiological arousal, which motivates individuals to engage in whatever behavior is necessary to relieve their arousal.
Socio-cultural:
-approach avoidance theory is dependent on cultural influences
- motivation differs based on the cultural differences

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Biological:
Certain regions of the brain activated when we feel certain emotions (amygdala), infants expressing universal facial emotions --> biological evidence

Socio-culturally
Emotions: approach and avoidance - certain cultures tend to approach things even if it is disgusting and avoid things when you are angry

Motivation: culturally defined goals eg must get good grades/ good job

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Examples of conditioning:
- associate some random stimulus with response to it; dog initially has no response to bell; but when you give the dog food with a bell sound, dog starts salivating when there's a bell
- conditional response: associating "ping" sound with a message
- conditioning yourself to relate something you don't like with what you like (by doing something you like when thinking of what you don't like)
- reward yourself after doing what you don't like; doing chores --> award yourself with something you like --> reinforcement for you to do chores
- [biological] taste aversion: tend to avoid food you ate just before getting sick
- personality: when young, haven't formed an opinion yet; being conditioned to make your bed everyday before breakfast
- moral values: taught moral values from our environment
- prejudice: gender roles, gender stereotypes (pink used to be for boys)

Examples of non conditioning:
- reflex response: tapping on a knee and the knee jerks (knee-jerk reaction)
- innately stay away from heights (e.g. cliffs)
- cannot condition everything: spanking, for example, may not link directly to behaviour across all cultures; increased aggression in general in children - not an effective punishment for children
- [biological] instinctive drift: certain innate behaviours cannot be conditioned
- genetically determined: sexual orientation, health
- evidence that prejudice could not non-conditioned: children prefer playing with the white doll more than the black doll

- has to be a continuous reinforcement: take it away - does not lead to change in behaviour; eventually if there is no reinforcement, there won't be any more association (e.g. if bell is rung but meat is brought, dog will not respond)

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- bobo doll experiment: kids will mimic the aggressive actions against the doll
-18 months old: have sufficient cognitive ability to process what they are watching but lack the judgement agility to consider if they should replicate
-they grow out of observational learning
-baby on the cell phone

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-4 types of consequences: punishments and reinforcements
-Positive: adding something
-Negative: removing something
-assumption: everyone puts the same value on reinforcements/punishment
-we can accidentally reinforce behaviors that are unwanted subconsciously
-negative reinforcement can in turn also reinforce bad behavior if the removal of punishment is too soon
-no clear answer as to what is effective
-not able to be endlessly conditioned

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Biological psych:
-need research and brain scans etc

Behavioural psych:
-can be done through observation esp in the case of baby studies as babies can’t really tell us stuff
- uncertain as there are a lot of theories out there

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Behavioural psychology is more observational
- infants can't tell us anything, can only observe
- a lot on how people perceive the data (a lot of theories)

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Motivation:
At a Biological Sense:
- Drive Reduction Theory
- Homeostasis: Primary motives that act on survival needs etc. (E.g Drinking water because of thirst - body causes your throat to dry up to prime you to drink)

At a Socio-Cultural sense:
-Maslow's and Kenrick's Hierarchies
- Eastern and Western Spheres - How in America/Western countries, Individualism and lower hierarchies of Maslow's are prioritized, While in Asian cultures, Collectivization and higher hierarchies are prioritized.

Emotion:
At a Biological Sense:
(From Science Friday)
- Darwin came to understand that emotions are mental states shared by all people in all cultures. He was particularly interested in children because he believed that they express emotions in a pure and powerful form. Since they are seldom able to suppress their feelings or fake an expression, he considered them ideal subjects for studying the importance of emotion.
- Emotions can be classified along two axes: valence and intensity. Valence has to do with the nature of an emotion, with how bad or good something makes us feel on a spectrum from avoidance to approach. Intensity refers to the strength of the emotion, the degree of arousal it evokes. We can actually map most emotions onto these two axes. Such a map doesn’t capture the entire essence of a particular emotion, but it does present it in a way that is useful when matching facial expressions to the brain systems that produce them.
- Many structures in the brain are involved in emotion, but four of them are particularly important: the hypothalamus, which is the executor of emotion; the amygdala, which orchestrates emotion; the striatum, which comes into play when we form habits, including addictions; and the prefrontal cortex, which evaluates whether a particular emotional response is appropriate to the situation at hand. The prefrontal cortex interacts with, and in part controls, the amygdala and striatum.
- We say the amygdala “orchestrates” emotion because it links the unconscious and conscious aspects of an emotional experience. When the amygdala receives sensory signals from the areas concerned with vision, hearing, and touch, it generates responses that are relayed onward, largely by the hypothalamus and other structures in the brain that control our automatic physiological responses. When we laugh or cry—when we experience any emotion—it is because these brain structures are responding to the amygdala and acting on its instructions. The amygdala is also connected to the prefrontal cortex, which regulates the feeling state, the conscious aspects of emotion, and its influence on cognition.

At a Socio-Cultural Sense:
(From Lumen Learning)
- A cultural display rule dictates the types and frequencies of emotional displays considered acceptable within a certain culture (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982). These rules may also guide how people choose to regulate their emotions, ultimately influencing an individual’s emotional experience and leading to general cultural differences in the experience and display of emotion.

- For example, in many Asian cultures, social harmony is prioritized over individual gain, whereas Westerners in much of Europe and the United States prioritize individual self-promotion. Research has shown that individuals from the United States are more likely to express negative emotions such as fear, anger, and disgust both alone and in the presence of others, while Japanese individuals are more likely to do so only while alone (Matsumoto, 1990). Furthermore, individuals from cultures that tend to emphasize social cohesion are more likely suppress their own emotional reaction in order to first evaluate what response is most appropriate given the situation (Matsumoto, Yoo, & Nakagawa, 2008).

- Cultures also differ in the social consequences that they assign to different emotions: in the United States, men are often directly or indirectly ostracized for crying; in the Utku Eskimo population, the expression of anger can result in social ostracism.

- Within a particular culture, different rules may also be internalized as a function of an individual’s gender, class, family background, or other factor. For instance, there is some evidence that men and women may differ in the regulation of their emotions, perhaps due to culturally based gender norms and expectations (McRae, Ochsner, Mauss, Gabrieli, & Gross, 2008)

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Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. The type of reinforcement used will determine the outcome.

Examples of conditioning:
- Pavlov's dog experiment
- Food poisoning
- Litter albert experiment

Examples of non-conditioning:
- Reflexes
- innate responses

Social interactions: Conditioning focuses on individual in isolation but arousal, focus, motivation can contribute to effective learning; Performing complex behaviours: Social facilitation (riding a bike faster with others around) but more complex tasks (taking a difficult exam; perform poorer with others around)

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- bobo doll experiment: children learn
- show someone doing something bad on screen (doing drugs), there might be imitation
- watching people play professional sports --> might not necessarily be able to play sports at such skill
- violent games: evidence that people watch violent games might not necessarily lead to them being more violent
- violent games could perhaps be an outlet for people to "act out" or "indulge" in their violent tendencies on media without actually doing it in real life
- possibly due to age? observational learning is more impactful for children, perhaps;
- certain trends (fashion) - what we see on media, try to imitate and mimic it; societal pressure to fit in could play a role