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Q1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis. 

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Q1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis. 

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According to Tortora et al. (2019) the Pancreatic Islets, which are the endocrine tissues of the pancreas, contain alpha cells to secrete glucagon, when the level of blood sugar decreases, and beta cells which secrete insulin to balance high blood sugar. All of which are secreted through negative feedback.

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Q1. Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of the cells contained in each zone. 

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Q1. Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of the cells contained in each zone. 

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1. Zone of resting cartilage

nearest the epiphysis, containing small and scattered chondrocytes

2. Zone of proliferative cartilage

containing slightly larger chondrocytes, arranged like stacks of coins

3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage

containing large chondrocytes,  arranged in columns

4. Zone of calcified cartilage

containing dead chondrocytes, osteoclasts and osteoblasts

(Tortora et al., p.192, 2019)

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Q1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer. 

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Q1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer. 

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Fast glycolytic (FG) muscle fibres are suited to powerlifting as ATP is produced through anaerobic glycolysis to assist in fast moments of short duration. FG fibres contract rapidly with strength  due to their ability to hydrolyse ATP fast and the large amounts of glycogen within them (Tortora et al., p.470, 2019).

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Q2. Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. 

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Q2. Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. 

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High blood glucose stimulates beta cells to secrete insulin of pancreatic islets. As a result, insulin acts on various of cells, which include the diffusion of glucose into the cell, the conversion of glucose into glycogen, the increased uptake of amino acids and increase protein synthesis as well as fatty acids, slow glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. This leads overall to a decrease in Samantha's blood glucose level (Tortora et al., p. 709, 2019).

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Q2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. 

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Q2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. 

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During a bench press ATP is sourced from creatine phosphate (CP). An excess of ATP within the resting muscle is used to synthesise CP. The enzyme creatine kinase (CK) catalyses the transfer of one phosphate group from ATP to creatine to form CP. Once the contraction begins, CK catalyses the transfer of the phosphate group from CP back to ADP to generate ATP. Because the formation of ATP occurs rapidly, CP is the first source of energy (max. 15 seconds)(Tortora et al., p.346, 2019).

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Q2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. 

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Q2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. 

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Bone growth, in length, occurs at the epiphyseal plate via mitosis. Chondrocytes proliferate, on the epiphyseal side of growth plate, replacing dead chondrocytes and excreting ECM. On the diaphyseal side of the plate, osteoclasts dissolve calcified cartilage and osteoblasts create new bone via endochondral ossification (Tortora et al., p.192, 2019).

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Q3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline(including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair

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Q3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline(including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair

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1. Formation of fracture hematoma: forms 6-8 hours after injury. Phagocytes and osteoclasts remove dead and damaged tissue.

2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation: Fracture site invaded by fibroblasts, producing collagen fibres. A fibrocartilaginous callus is formed by chondroblasts which bridge broken ends of bones.

3. Bony callus formation: Spongy bone trabeculae formed by osteoblasts, joining bone fragments. This fibrocartilage is then converted to spongy bone, and eventually bony callus.

4. Bone remodelling. The callus is reshaped, and dead bone fragments are resorbed by osteoclasts. Compact bone then replaces spongy bone around fracture site. (Tortora et al., p.198, 2019)

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Q3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

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Q3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

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Fatigue resistance of fast glycolytic (FG) muscle fibres is low. FG fibres require anaerobic glycolysis to create ATP, possible due to high amounts of glycogen stored within muscles. If glycogen is depleted, the FG fibres can no longer make enough ATP to create contractions. Depletion of creatine phosphate (CP) within muscle fibres also affects metabolic fatigue. Without sufficient CP, ADP cannot be phosphorylated, thereby not providing substantial energy for muscle fibres (Tortora et al., p.352, 2019).

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1. Never post anything you wouldn’t say in person to the reader.

2. Only post messages appropriate to the topic.

3. Use correct language (no slang).

4. Be mindful of other peoples’ emotions.

5. Respect others.

6. Don’t respond to nasty/mean comments.

7. Be factual.

8. Be clear in the message you want to be delivered (Lancaster, 2019).

Please comment 'agree' if you agree with these netiquette rules.

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Q4. Name one possible consequence of damage to the ephiphyseal plate in Tom's (L) femur and outline why this occurs. 

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Q4. Name one possible consequence of damage to the ephiphyseal plate in Tom's (L) femur and outline why this occurs. 

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Any damage to the epiphyseal plate can stunt bone growth. According to Tortora et al. (2019), this cartilage is avascular, and any damage could accelerate the closure of the growth plate. Cartilage cell division ceases, inhibiting growth in length, which can result in bone that is shorter than usual.

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Q4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods. 

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Q4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods. 

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As stated in Tortora et al. (2019)

1.     Latent period – Lasts for 20-200msec, where the sarcolemma and calcium ions release from sarcoplasmic reticulum.

2.     Contraction period –Triggered by sarcolemma’s action potential. The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ into the cytosol then binds to troponin to allow cross bridge formation.

Relaxation period – Tension in the muscle fibre decreases. Ca2+ transports back into sarcoplasmic reticulum and myosin-binding sites detach from actin. Lasts for 10-100 msec.

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Q5. Describe three factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years 

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Q5. Describe three factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years 

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Minerals, vitamins and hormones majorly influence growth and repair of bones. Calcium and phosphorus are required in large amounts, while magnesium, manganese and fluoride are needed in smaller quantities. Vitamin A stimulates activity of osteoblasts, vitamin D assists in bone building, Vitamin K and B12 are required for bone protein synthesis. Hormones such as IGFs produced by the liver and bone tissue fuel osteoblasts, enhance protein synthesis and promote cell division. Thyroid hormones also stimulate osteoblasts. Due to Tom's age, sex hormones are also causing a significant effect on his bone growth and osteoblast activity (Tortora et al., p.283, 2019).

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Proximal femoral growth plate mechanical behavior: Comparison between different developmental stages (Castro-Abril, Gutiérrez, & Garzón-Alvarado., 2016).

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Q1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected.

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Q1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected.

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The cerebral cortex of Maria’s cerebrum has been damaged in the stroke. This has affected the Wernicke's (posterior language) area and the primary motor area (precentral gyrus) of the cerebral cortex (Tortora et al., p.723, 2019).

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Q2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria. 

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Q2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria. 

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Wernicke’s area is a broad area located in the left temporal and parietal lobes and assists in verbal communication. People who suffer from a stroke in Wernicke’s area can still speak, but they have trouble coherently arranging words as did Maria. The cortical located within the primary motor area in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe is responsible for voluntary contraction of specific muscles and delicate movements, as well as muscles that move the fingers. The cortical region of Maria's brain must have been damaged when she had the stroke as she could no longer do up her blouse (Tortora et al., p.715, 2019).

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Q3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? 

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Q3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? 

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Neurogenesis is limited as the repair of damaged axons does not occur in most regions of the CNS. However, it has been shown that significant numbers of new numbers arise in the adult human hippocampus. The nearly complete lack of neurogenesis in other regions of the CNS result from the inhibitory influences from neuroglia and the absence of growth-stimulating cues (Tortora et al., p. 485, 2019).

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Q4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case? Give a rationale for the answer.  

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Q4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case? Give a rationale for the answer.  

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During Maria’s stroke, her upper motor neurons (UMN) were affected. According to Tortora et al. (2019), UMN from the cerebral cortex are responsible for voluntary muscle movement. Injury to this area can remove the inhibitory control these neurons have over the lower motor neurons, explaining Maria’s inability to control her arm.

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Q3. Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia.

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Q3. Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia.

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Samantha’s blood glucose levels drop, stimulating the secretion of hormone glucagon from alpha cells of the pancreatic islets. Glucagon uses hepatocytes to speed up the conversion of glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) from lactic acid and amino acids. Hepatocytes quickly release glucose into the bloodstream, and blood glucose levels rise. Negative feedback occurs if blood glucose continues to rise. Release of glycogen is then inhibited, and insulin is released from the pancreas to lower glucose levels (Tortora et al., p.948, 2019).

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Q4. Hormones within the body can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels. 

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Q4. Hormones within the body can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels. 

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Low blood glucose stimulates the release of GHRH. GHRH stimulates further the secretion of hGH by somatotrophs. Consequently, IGFs and hGH speed up the breakdown of liver glycogen into glucose, which enters the blood more rapidly. This causes the blood glucose level to rise to normal (90 mg/100 mL). If, however, the blood glucose continues to increase, hyperglycemia inhibits the release of GHRH again (Tortora et al., p.691, 2019).

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Q5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. 

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Q5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. 

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Human growth hormone (hGH) is secreted by Somatotroph cells, found in the anterior pituitary gland. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) is synthesised in the Hypothalamus and, when blood glucose is low, it is released to the anterior pituitary receptors where it stimulates the release of hGH (Tortora et al., p.690, 2019).

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Obesity, Hypertension, and Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus:
The Interrelationships and the Determinants among Adults in Gaza City, Palestine. (Ellulu, 2018).

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Q5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways - the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand. 

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Q5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways - the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand. 

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Maria experienced damage in the upper motor neurons that propagate nerve impulses to the lower motor neuron for voluntary movement. Located in the primary motor cortex, the upper motor neuron syntheses the direct motor pathways which decussate in the medulla and the contralateral side gets prevented from any muscle contractions (Tortora et al., 2019. Pp.823-824).

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Q5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length. 

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Q5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length. 

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The bench press Ben is performing causes the biceps brachii and the antagonist's muscle to undergo isotonic contractions, more specifically, concentric and eccentric contractions. When Ben lowers his arms, the muscles shorten through concentric isotonic contraction and undergoes eccentric isotonic contraction as the muscle elongates (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Muscular fatigue in response to different modalities of CrossFit sessions. (Maté-Muñoz, Lougedo, Barba, García-Fernández, Garnacho-Castaño, & Domínguez.,  2017)

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Muscular fatigue in response to different modalities of CrossFit sessions

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Corticospinal Circuits from the Sensory and Motor Cortices Differentially Regulate Skilled Movements through Distinct Spinal Interneurons. (Uneo, Nakamura, Li, …, Goulding, Baccei, Yoshida., 2018).