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Reference List: Electronic Sources - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University

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Note: This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style can be found here.

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YouTube video that could be utilized to garner the Information contained in Dr. DeWitt’s book, Collaborative Leadership.

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Collaborative Leadership Webinar with Peter DeWitt

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Links for each task on this page. Further broken down on each ne page.

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This Library of Examples is a collection of actual written responses submitted by school leader candidates. Organized by task and by each textbox within a task, each example includes a stronger and weaker written response that you can use to compare against the rubric and your own work in order to evaluate the quality of evidence you have presented.

Corrections were not made to what candidates submitted. Because these excerpts were taken from a variety of candidates, they reflect a variety of writing styles and modes of presentation. No matter the style of writing, however, most important is how well the evidence addresses the guiding prompts and the rubric specific to each textbox within a task.

Correctly Using the Library of Examples

The PASL Library of Examples does not provide templates for successful submissions. The examples should be used only for comparison purposes; each pair of excerpts provides a stronger and weaker response to the same textbox.

The textbox number for each example is referenced at the top of the page and can be easily matched to the corresponding textbox number located on each task rubric. Compare your responses to the published pairs to determine whether or not your work contains sufficient evidence to fully address each guiding prompt. By examining each response and comparing the evidence within that response to the various levels of the rubric, you can determine where on the rubric your response might fall.

Examples by Task

Note: The work you submit as part of your response to each task must be yours and yours alone. Software is utilized to scan all responses for overlap with test-taker submissions from all submission windows and from the Library of Examples. If such overlap is detected, an investigation with the ETS Office of Testing Integrity (OTI) may be initiated and scores could be voided. See Scoring Policies.

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library of examples for ets performance assessment for school leaders

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performance assessment library of examples

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library of examples for performance assessment

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This Library of Examples is a collection of actual written responses submitted by school leader candidates. Organized by task and by each textbox within a task, each example includes a stronger and weaker written response that you can use to compare against the rubric and your own work in order to evaluate the quality of evidence you have presented.

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also https://www.facebook.com/ocdkidsmovie the Facebook page

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a psychological disorder that causes significant distress and severe anxiety. Symptoms include obsessions and/or compulsions that are time consuming and impairing, meaning they get in the way of a person's day-to-day life and lead to problems in friendships, school/jobs, and within the family.

When is an obsession more than just "a worry"?

Obsessions are thoughts, images or impulses that occur over and over again. OCD obsessions are different from everyday worries because they feel tremendously difficult to control, happen very frequently and repeatedly, and are extremely upsetting. Obsessions can be about almost anything, but some common categories include extreme worries about contamination (germs and illness), danger or harm, magical thinking/superstitious fears, and about the need for things to be "just right."

For example: In the film, Vanessa's obsessions were related to fears about contamination. Holden's obsessions were in the domain of magical thinking.

Compulsions are behaviors that someone with OCD feels they must do in order to feel less worried and/or prevent something bad from happening. Compulsions can be very different from person to person, but there are some compulsions that are more common.

These include checking and repeating behaviors (e.g., turning the doorknob to see if the door is locked 5 times), ordering or arranging objects, repeating rituals (e.g., turn on/off light switch), and mental behaviors (e.g., saying a certain phrase in your mind over and over, or a certain number of times). Compulsions are sometimes referred to as rituals.

Compulsions in the film included Ariel's checking behaviors and praying. Sharif and Sarah both engaged in checking and repeating behaviors as their primary compulsions.

When do OCD symptoms usually start?

The best way find out if you have OCD is for a trained and licensed clinician to make a diagnosis is through an interview with the individual suffering from OCD, or (in the case of a child) the child with OCD and their parents. A standardized assessment of OCD symptoms called the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) or Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS) should also be administered in an interview format.

What does OCD treatment look like? Does it ever go away?

Fortunately, OCD can be treated! Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT), has been found to be the best type of therapy for the disorder and is considered the "gold standard" of treatment. Within CBT, Exposure and Response Prevention Therapy (ERP) is the main technique used.

During ERP, the person with OCD is exposed to what causes their severe anxiety (related to their obsessive thoughts). At the same time, they are prevented from avoiding the trigger and engaging in their compulsions. While this is difficult and increases anxiety at first, it eventually leads to habituation, or a decrease in anxiety and OCD symptoms.

In UNSTUCK, Holden's obsessions were related to strength and superheroes. For exposures, Holden looked at pictures of superheroes, watched workout videos, and eventually hugged a real bodybuilder. Before treatment, this would have seemed impossible but by repeatedly doing these exposures, his anxiety eventually lessened and his OCD got better.

What can family members and friends of someone with OCD do to help?

One way that family members and friends can help a person with OCD is by learning about it. The more you know, the more you can assist in getting those with OCD the help they need.

While OCD is most impairing and distressing to the individual with the condition, it affects the entire family. When a child is in distress, family members also become stressed and want to make the child feel better. This often involves providing reassurance, accommodating OCD compulsions, and allowing the child to avoid stressors. Although intentions are good, accommodating OCD usually makes it worse. Therefore, it is essential that parents and family members are highly involved in OCD treatment in order to learn strategies to support their child and help in making treatment gains. Silbings can get more advice here.

Should people with OCD take medication?

Usually, CBT and ERP are the first line of treatment for OCD. When symptoms are very severe and/or are causing significant issues in the individual's everyday life and functioning, medications can help. In addition, if a person with OCD has been receiving good therapy treatment but progress is slow, minimal, or hits a plateau, medications may be considered. Specifically, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) have been approved to treat OCD. It is important to remember that combining SSRIs with therapy is much more effective than treating OCD with medication alone. Please consult a psychiastrist or your medical doctor to discuss things like dosage, side-effects and which medication might be right.

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Helpful OCD resources, information and videos - UNSTUCK: an OCD kids

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a psychological disorder that causes significant distress and severe anxiety. Symptoms include obsessions and/or compulsions that are time consuming and impairing, meaning they get in the way of a person's day-to-day life and lead to problems in friendships, school/jobs, and within the family.

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Home - ADDA - Attention Deficit Disorder Association

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Empowering adults with adhd to live their best lives A Different Brain Requires a Different Approach Whether you're newly diagnosed, wondering if you have ADHD, or simply ready to take charge of your life - we're here to help. Have ...

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Working to deliver a better special education service

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Is it a modification or is it an accommodation(1)

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Students with Disabilities & Section 504 of the

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Kids with learning and attention issues often face barriers to learning. For instance, if your child has ADHD, she may not be able to sit still long enough to do math problems. If she has reading issues, she may struggle to learn history from a traditional textbook. Fortunately, there are changes in the classroom-called accommodations -that can remove these barriers.

Read on to learn more about what accommodations are and how they can help your child.

What Accommodations Are

Accommodations are changes that remove barriers and provide your child with equal access to learning. Accommodations don't change what your child is learning. Rather, they change how your child is learning.

Here's a classic example. Let's say your child is taking an American history class, but she struggles with reading. As an accommodation, the teacher lets her listen to an audiobook version of the textbook.

By using an audiobook, she can learn history without her reading issues getting in the way. This has removed a barrier to her learning.

Accommodations don't change what your child is expected to know or learn. They don't lower expectations. Your child may use an audiobook in American history, but she's still expected to learn about events like the Civil War. And she still must complete all assignments and take exams, just like her peers. The accommodation simply helps her work around her challenges.

This is what makes accommodations different from modifications. A modification changes what your child is expected to know or learn. In American history, for instance, a modification may be that a child only needs to learn half of the material in the textbook.

Types of Accommodations

Accommodations work best when they target a specific barrier or challenge. For instance, for the child who can't sit still to do math, an accommodation may be frequent breaks. For the child who struggles to write out answers on tests, an accommodation may be to have her give answers orally. The accommodation matches the need.

Here are four categories of accommodations for different needs.

How to Get Accommodations for Your Child

If you think accommodations may help your child, talk to her teacher. Often, the teacher may agree to informal supports. These simple changes don't require paperwork. It doesn't take much, for example, for the teacher to move your child's seat away from a noisy classroom door that's distracting.

If your child needs bigger changes, however, you may want to seek formal accommodations. Under federal law, kids with disabilities have the right to equal access to learning. This means accommodations for their disabilities, which can include learning and attention issues. To exercise this right, you must ask the school to evaluate your child.

"Accommodations don't change what your child is expected to know or learn. They don't lower expectations."

The evaluation can lead to an IEP or a 504 plan for your child. You and the school decide together what accommodations to write into the plan. By law, this must also cover any accommodations on state tests. (Learn about the difference between IEPs and 504 plans.)

Just because an IEP or a 504 plan lists accommodations, however, doesn't mean they're always followed in the classroom. It's still important to check in with the teacher. And it's important to talk with your child about how the accommodations are working.

Schools are usually open to providing accommodations. The bigger challenge is choosing the right accommodations and keeping track of which ones are most helpful.

If an accommodation is in place, but your child isn't using it, find out why. Also, if your child gets accommodations on state tests, it's important for her to use them regularly in class. This helps her get familiar with the accommodations.

Accommodations Outside the Classroom

Learning and attention issues don't just create challenges in school. They also affect everyday life. That's why accommodations also exist outside the classroom. But instead of providing an equal opportunity to learn, they provide an equal opportunity to participate.

Accommodations can apply to many activities. You may see them used in driver's tests, the workplace, summer camps, sport clubs and even at Disney World.

Some of these accommodations are provided informally. Often, though, there's a specific process you need to follow to get them. Outside of school, kids with disabilities have a legal right to reasonable accommodations. To learn more, read how the Americans with Disabilities Act protects your child.

Accommodations can be a powerful tool for helping your child by removing barriers to learning. Learn more:

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Accommodations: What They Are and How They Work

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Kids with learning and attention issues often face barriers to learning. For instance, if your child has ADHD, she may not be able to sit still long enough to do math problems. If she has reading issues, she may struggle to learn history from a traditional textbook.

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For kids with learning and attention issues, school can be challenging. If a child is struggling, one possible strategy is giving him less schoolwork or simpler assignments. This is called a modification. It's not the same as an accommodation. While modifications can make school easier for kids, they can have serious drawbacks, too.

Here's what you need to know about academic modifications.

What Modifications Are

Most schools have academic standards for what kids are expected to learn in each grade. These apply to reading, math and other subjects. For instance, third graders are usually expected to learn multiplication.

Modifications change these expectations. They're typically used when a child has trouble keeping up in school.

Take a third grader with dyscalculia who hasn't mastered addition. A school may offer a modification where the child keeps working on addition, while his peers move on to multiplication. Or he may learn multiplication, but only with basic problems. Or he could have fewer test questions or less homework.

See more examples of modifications.

Keep in mind that only students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) or 504 plans can have modifications. The IEP team or the school will decide if modifications are right for the child.

Watch as an expert explains more about modifications.

Modifications vs. Accommodations

Along with modifications, you may also hear the term accommodations. They're not the same as modifications.

Modifications change what a child is taught or expected to do in school. Accommodations change how a child learns or accesses the curriculum.

Here's an example to help explain the difference. Imagine a third-grade class is expected to read Kate DiCamillo's chapter book, Because of Winn-Dixie. However, Bret, a student with dyslexia, is struggling to read the book at the same pace as the rest of the class.

An accommodation could be to let Bret use text-to-speech (TTS) technology to read the book aloud. TTS, like other dyslexia accommodations, can help Bret keep up with the rest of class as they read and learn about the whole book.

On the other hand, a modification could be that Bret only has to read part of the book. Or, he may be assigned a simpler book to read.

See a chart that compares modifications and accommodations.

Pros and Cons of Modifications

Modifications are controversial among schools, teachers and parents.

It's true that modifications can make school less of a struggle for students, including kids with learning and attention issues. But the result of modifications can be that a child learns less than his peers. He might fall behind on important skills. Over time, this can put a child at a big disadvantage.

For example, some states require a high school exit exam to graduate. A student that's had modified coursework won't be in a good position to pass this exam. Also, in some states, a child who's received modifications may not be eligible for a high school diploma. This will limit the child's future career and education options.

Of course, some kids with learning and attention issues need modifications in specific academic areas. For instance, kids with dyslexia can have trouble with spelling. An IEP team may decide that spending a lot of time learning spelling isn't a good use of a particular student's time. So the team may create a modification that allows the student to learn fewer spelling words and use spell-check instead.

Kids who are far behind and can't yet work at grade level may also need modifications. For example, if a child is reading several grades below grade level, his IEP may include modifications for reading. However, the IEP must still have ambitious goals to help the child make progress toward the grade-level standard.

Because of the downsides, experts recommend parents try accommodations before modifications. Another alternative to modifications is to use different teaching strategies to help kids keep up.

See more examples of classroom accommodations for kids with learning and attention issues. Find out how to tell if your child's accommodations are working. And learn what to do if you're concerned your child with an IEP isn't making enough progress.

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For kids with learning and attention issues, school can be challenging. If a child is struggling, one possible strategy is giving him less schoolwork or simpler assignments. This is called a modification. It's not the same as an accommodation. While modifications can make school easier for kids, they can have serious drawbacks, too.

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At a glance

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education services to eligible students.

IDEA covers 13 disability categories.

Not every student who struggles in school qualifies.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires public schools to provide special education and related services to eligible students. But not every child who struggles in school qualifies. To be covered, a child's school performance must be "adversely affected" by a disability in one of the 13 categories below.

1. Specific learning disability (SLD)

The "specific learning disability" (SLD) category covers a specific group of learning challenges. These conditions affect a child's ability to read, write, listen, speak, reason, or do math. Here are some examples of what could fall into this category:

SLD is the most common category under IDEA. In the 2018-19 school year, around 33 percent of students who qualified did so under this category.

2. Other health impairment

The "other health impairment" category covers conditions that limit a child's strength, energy, or alertness. One example is ADHD, which impacts attention and executive function.

3. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

ASD is a developmental disability. It involves a wide range of symptoms, but it mainly affects a child's social and communication skills. It can also impact behavior.

Various mental health issues can fall under the "emotional disturbance" category. They may include anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression. (Some of these may also be covered under "other health impairment.")

5. Speech or language impairment

This category covers difficulties with speech or language. A common example is stuttering. Other examples are trouble pronouncing words or making sounds with the voice. It also covers language problems that make it hard for kids to understand words or express themselves.

6. Visual impairment, including blindness

A child who has eyesight problems is considered to have a visual impairment. This category includes both partial sight and blindness. If eyewear can correct a vision problem, then it doesn't qualify.

Kids with a diagnosis of deafness fall under this category. These are kids who can't hear most or all sounds, even with a hearing aid.

The term "hearing impairment" refers to a hearing loss not covered by the definition of deafness. This type of loss can change over time. Being hard of hearing is not the same thing as having trouble with auditory or language processing.

Kids with a diagnosis of deaf-blindness have both severe hearing and vision loss. Their communication and other needs are so unique that programs for just the deaf or blind can't meet them.

10. Orthopedic impairment

An orthopedic impairment is when kids lack function or ability in their bodies. An example is cerebral palsy.

11. Intellectual disability

Kids with this type of disability have below-average intellectual ability. They may also have poor communication, self-care, and social skills. Down syndrome is one example of a condition that involves an intellectual disability.

12. Traumatic brain injury

This is a brain injury caused by an accident or some kind of physical force.

13. Multiple disabilities

A child with multiple disabilities has more than one condition covered by IDEA. Having multiple issues creates educational needs that can't be met in a program designed for any one disability.

Having a disability is not enough to qualify for special education. The disability has to have an "adverse effect" on a child's education.

Key takeaways

Each of the 13 disability categories in IDEA can cover a range of difficulties.

Dyslexia, dyscalculia, and written expression disorder fall under the "specific learning disability" category.

"Other health impairment" can cover ADHD.

About the author

About the author

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Rayma Griffin, MA, MEd has spent 40 years working with children with learning and thinking differences in the classroom and as an administrator.

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See a list of the 13 IDEA disability categories. Find out which disabilities can qualify kids for special education.

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Both Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and 504 plans can offer formal help for K-12 students who are struggling in school. They're similar in some ways but very different in others. This chart compares them side by side to help you understand the differences.

A blueprint or plan for a child's special education experience at school.

A blueprint or plan for how the school will provide support and remove barriers for a student with a disability.

To get an IEP, there are two requirements: A child has one or more of the 13 disabilities listed in IDEA. The law lists specific challenges, like learning disabilities, ADHD, autism, and others. And the disability must affect the child's educational performance and/or ability to learn and benefit from the general education curriculum. The child must need specialized instruction to make progress in school.

To get a 504 plan, there are two requirements: A child has any disability. Section 504 covers a wide range of different struggles in school. And the disability must interfere with the child's ability to learn in a general education classroom. Section 504 has a broader definition of a disability than IDEA. (It says a disability must substantially limit one or more basic life activities. This can include learning, reading, communicating, and thinking.) That's why a child who doesn't qualify for an IEP might still be able to get a 504 plan.

There are strict legal requirements about who participates. With a few exceptions, the entire IEP team must be present for IEP meetings. The team must include:

The rules about who's on the 504 team are less specific than they are for an IEP. A 504 plan is created by a team of people who are familiar with the child and who understand the evaluation data and special services options. This might include:

* The child's parent or caregiver

* General and special education teachers

* The school principal

* The child's parent or caregiver

* At least one of the child's general education teachers

* At least one special education teacher

* A school psychologist or other specialist who can interpret evaluation results

* A district representative with authority over special education services

The IEP sets learning goals and describes the services the school will provide. It's a written document. Here are some of the most important things the IEP must include:

There is no standard 504 plan. Unlike an IEP, a 504 plan doesn't have to be a written document. A 504 plan generally includes the following:

* Specific accommodations, supports, or services for the child

* Names of who will provide each service

* Name of the person responsible for ensuring the plan is implemented

* The child's present levels of academic and functional performance - how the child is currently doing in school

* Annual education goals for the child and how the school will track progress

* The services the child will get - this may include special education, related, supplementary, and extended school year services

* The timing of services - when they start, how often they occur, and how long they last

* Any accommodations - changes to the child's learning environment

* Any modifications - changes to what the child is expected to learn or know

* How the child will participate in standardized tests

* How the child will be included in general education classes and school activities

When the school wants to change a child's services or placement, it has to tell families in writing before the change. This is called prior written notice. Notice is also required for any IEP meetings and evaluations. Families also have "stay put" rights to keep services in place while there's a disagreement about the IEP.

The school must notify families about an evaluation or a "significant change" in placement. Notice doesn't have to be in writing, but most schools do so anyway.

How to resolve disputes

IDEA gives families several ways to resolve disputes (usually in this order):

Section 504 gives families several options for resolving disagreements with the school:

* Mediation

* Alternative dispute resolution

* Impartial hearing

* Complaint to the Office for Civil Rights (OCR)

* Lawsuit

* Mediation

* Due process complaint

* Resolution session

* Civil lawsuit

* State complaint

* Lawsuit

And if you need help navigating special education law in your state, consider reaching out to your local Parent Training and Information Center. The people there can answer questions and give practical advice on issues specific to your area.

Do you want to learn more about how IEPs and 504 plans compare? Watch as an expert explains the differences between them.

About the author

About the author

The Understood Team is made up of passionate writers and editors. Many of them have kids who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

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IEP vs. 504 Plan: What's the Difference?

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and 504 plans are similar but different. See how they compare in what they provide and the processes and laws involved.

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We encourage you to start by watching the video to the right to learn about teaching special education. Then you can explore the Disability Categories module and familiarize yourself with each disability category. Feel free to explore the other modules, supplemental information and resources as you see fit.

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Definition

Students with emotional disorders are a very heterogeneous group with a wide range of issues that are unique to each individual. However, there are some key characteristics that are used to define this disability category, mostly relating to issues of personal identity and emotional well-being. An emotional disorder may be present if a student responds to a situation with an inappropriate behavior or emotion, and particularly, if this emotion is depression or long term unhappiness. Students with emotional disorders typically have a very difficult time maintaining personal relationships with others, and these personal problems lead to physical symptoms in time. If the student has difficulty learning, but there is no intellectual or sensory cause of this difficulty, then an emotional disorder may be to blame. This disability category does include some mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.

It should be noted that one or more of the previously mentioned characteristics has to be present for an extended period of time, and must have a negative impact on the student's academic performance before being considered an emotional disorder. Signs of an emotional disorder need to be taken seriously, as they can lead to physical aggression and self-injurious behavior. However, care must also be taken to recognize the difference between emotional disturbance and general teenage angst. There are as many causes of emotional disturbance in children as there are children in this category, but they can generally be divided into either biological causes, environmental causes, or a combination of the two.

Prevalence

The U.S. Department of Education reports 5,971,495 students receiving special education services in the 2003-2004 school year. Of that number, roughly 7.7%, or 461,055 students, received special education services based on a classification of emotional disturbance. However, within this group of 461,055 students, there was a definite disproportionally between gender, race and socioeconomic background. African-American students were far more likely to be diagnosed as emotionally disturbed than white students, reflecting possible race bias in this category. Research has pointed to a direct correlation between low income status and emotional disorders, but the exact reasons for this correlation are unknown.

Characteristics

Each student with an emotional disturbance will have characteristics that are unique to that individual. However, these students will all share deficits in three specific areas, namely emotional development, behavioral development, and cognitive development.

These students may have specific emotional characteristics/conditions such as anxiety disorder, mood disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and schizophrenia. Not addressing any one of these disorders with the appropriate support system could have potentially tragic results. Behavioral characteristics of an emotional disorder include externalizing behavior and conversely internalizing behavior. The former can result in problem behavior and physical aggression while the latter results in depression and anxiety. Finally, students with emotional disorders have a number of academic issues as well, and each year half of the students in this category drop out of school entirely.

One intriguing possible contributing factor to emotional disturbance can be found in deficits in communication. An estimated 71% of students with emotional disorders also have expressive and receptive language disorders that impact their ability to understand and communicate with peers and adults.

Impact on Learning

Students with emotional disorders can be found at every level of cognitive functioning, but the majority of these students tend to have low average intelligence. Most achieve below grade level in academic achievement, with the greatest deficits in both math and spelling. Many have a coexisting learning disability of some type. Students that exhibit externalizing behaviors are at the greatest risk for continued deficits in academic functioning. Students with emotional disorders are less likely to attend post-secondary school than students in many other disability categories. An effective educational program for students with emotional disorders will provide emotional and behavioral supports that foster the replacement of problem behaviors with more appropriate behaviors. Positive behavior support systems are one especially effective strategy to achieve this goal, as are the implementation of wraparound services.

Teaching Strategies

Wraparound planning is a collaborative process that has shown great promise in supporting students with emotional disorders, both in research and in more practical application. This planning process brings all of the involved service providers (i.e., adult rehabilitation services, mental health services, guidance counselor) and individuals together to create a natural support system that is founded on the strengths of the individual student and the community in which that student lives. The family is an integral part of this process, and the overall goal is to devise a program that will capitalize on the strengths and interests of the student while utilizing community resources for placement and intervention.

Generally, academic achievement and problem behaviors often go hand-in-hand for students with emotional disorders. To put this another way, the more difficulty they have with a classroom task, the more likely that maladaptive behavior will result. Supporting the academic performance of these students will thus have the added benefit of decreasing externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Best practices for students with emotional disorders are often best practices for all students. A strategy such as allowing students to choose between classroom tasks, for example, is an effective way to decrease problem behaviors in general. Consistent and specific praise is also a great technique to utilize with all students in the classroom, but can be particularly effective with students with emotional disorders.

It is very important to not make assumptions about any family of a child with an emotional disorder. Many emotional disorders have an organic cause, and the parents of the child may well be loving and supportive in every way. However, some of these students have indeed been abused in some fashion in their young lives, and this too can be a cause of emotional or behavioral issues. Trust can be a very large issue for these children. Forming a relationship with these students that is built on empathy, trust, and mutual respect can often be the solution to many problem behaviors, and can have a lasting impact of the emotional development of the child.

Assistive Technology

Some modification in instruction will be necessary to allow a student with an emotional disorder to demonstrate mastery in a number of academic areas, and most especially in the area of writing. Word processing software can be an excellent supplementary aid for these students, allowing them to edit and revise their work as they produce it. These programs can strengthen spelling skills and writing cohesion simply by making the writing process easier overall. Of particular benefit are word processing programs that read the text as it is typed, providing an additional audio cue for the student.

Organizations

There are a number of excellent organizations that can help support classroom instruction for students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. The information presented in this module is intended as just a very brief description of emotional disorder and its impact on learning. Much more in-depth information and instructional strategies can be accessed through the following organizations:

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

The AACAP (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) is the leading national professional medical association dedicated to treating and improving the quality of life for children, adolescents, and families affected by these disorders. Composed of over 7,500 child and adolescent psychiatrists and other interested physicians, its members actively research, evaluate, diagnose, and treat psychiatric disorders and pride themselves on giving direction to and responding quickly to new developments in addressing the health care needs of children and their families.

Public Information Office
3615 Wisconsin Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20016-3007

Web: www.aacap.org

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports

The OSEP-funded National Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior and Intervention Supports was established to address the behavioral and discipline systems needed for successful learning and social development of students. The Center provides capacity-building information and technical support about behavioral systems to assist states and districts in the design of effective schools.

5262 University of Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403-5262

Email: pbis@oregon.uregon.edu
Web: www.pbis.org

Center for Disability and Development

Dept. of Educational Psychology
4225 Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-4225

Council for Exceptional Children

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is the largest international professional organization dedicated to improving educational outcomes for individuals with exceptionalities, students with disabilities, and/or the gifted. CEC advocates for appropriate governmental policies, sets professional standards, provides continual professional development, advocates for newly and historically underserved individuals with exceptionalities, and helps professionals obtain conditions and resources necessary for effective professional practice.

1110 North Glebe Road, Suite 300
Arlington, VA 22201-5704

Federation of Families for Children's Mental Health

This organization is dedicated exclusively to helping children with mental health needs and their families achieve a better quality of life. They provide leadership to develop and sustain a nationwide network of family-run organizations; focus the passion and cultural diversity of our membership to be a potent force for changing how systems respond to children with mental health needs and their families; help policy-makers, agencies, and providers become more effective in delivering services and supports that foster healthy emotional development for all children.

1101 King Street, Suite 420
Alexandria, VA 22314

Email: ffcmh@ffcmh.org
Web: www.ffcmh.org

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI)

NAMI is the National Alliance on Mental Illness, the nation's largest grassroots organization for people with mental illness and their families. NAMI is dedicated to the eradication of mental illnesses and to the improvement of the quality of life for persons of all ages who are affected by mental illnesses. NAMI members and friends work to fulfill our mission by providing support, education, and advocacy.

Colonial Place Three
2107 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 300
Arlington, VA 22203-3754

Web: www.nami.org

Mental Health America

Mental Health America is dedicated to helping ALL people live mentally healthier lives. They work to fulfill this mission by education the public about ways to preserve and strengthen mental health; advocating for access to effective care; fostering innovation in research, practice, services and policy; and providing support to individuals and families.

2001 N. Beauregard Street, 12th Floor
Alexandria, VA 22311

Web: www.nmha.org

National Mental Health Information Center

The National Mental Health Information Center was developed for users of mental health services and their families, the general public, policy makers, providers, and the media. They provide free information about mental health via a toll-free number, their website, and more than 600 publications.

P.O. Box 42557
Washington, DC 20015

Web: www.mentalhealth.org

References

Hunt, N., and Marshall, K. (2006). Exceptional children and youth. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2004). Fact Sheet 5. Retrieved February 1, 2008 from www.nichcy.org/pubs/factshe/fs5txt.htm.

Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R. & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Exceptional lives. Special education in today's schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

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Students with emotional disorders typically have a hard time maintaining relationships, and these personal problems may lead to physical symptoms in time.

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

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The U.S. Department of Education’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act website brings together department and grantee IDEA information and resources. The IDEA makes available a free appropriate public education to and ensures special education and related services to eligible children with disabilities.

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Not all students who have disabilities require specialized instruction. For students with disabilities who do require specialized instruction in the United States, the IDEA controls the procedural requirements and an IEP is developed. "Special education" under IDEA means the child has been identified as having unique educational needs related to his/her disability and is entitled to an Individualized Education Program (IEP) to meet these needs.

The IDEA process is more involved than that of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. The IDEA requires that measurable growth and progress towards written goals and objectives be documented.

For students with disabilities who do not require specialized instruction but need the assurance that they will receive equal access to public education and services, a document is created to outline their specific accessibility requirements. Section 504 is a federal civil rights law. The purpose of Section 504 is to protect persons with disabilities against discrimination for reasons related to their disabilities.

While students with a 504 plan do not require specialized instruction, and specific goals and objectives are not necessarily outlines nor is data tracked, the plan should be reviewed annually to ensure that the student is receiving the most effective accommodations for his/her specific circumstances.

Unlike IDEA, Section 504 does not guarantee that a child with a disability will receive an individualized educational program that is designed to meet the child's individual educational needs. Rather, it guarantees that accommodations will be made relative to their specific medical needs.

Eligibility for protections under Section 504 depends on the child in question having a physical or mental impairment which must substantially limit at least one major life activity. Major life activities include walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, reading, writing, performing math calculations, working, caring for oneself, and performing manual tasks. Section 504 requires an evaluation that draws information from a variety of sources.

A child who receives Section 504 protections has fewer rights than the child who receives special education services under the IDEA. The child who receives special education services under the IDEA is automatically protected under Section 504.

Section 504 is designed to guarantee that children with disabilities will not be discriminated against. It is also important to understand that if your child does not qualify for special education services under IDEA, your child does not have the procedural protections that are available under the IDEA.

Under Section 504, the child with a disability may receive accommodations and modifications that are not available to children who are not disabled. These accommodations and modifications are also available under IDEA. For example; accommodations could include, but not be limited to, such things as:

Tests taken in a separate location with time limits waived or extended.

The use of a word processor due to fine motor, visual motor deficits.

Shortened assignments.

Standardized tests answers written directly in the test booklet and transferred onto answer sheet by teacher or assistant.

Class notes provided rather than having the student copy from the chalkboard or overhead.

Allowing the child to leave the classroom 2 to 3 minutes early to avoid crowded hallways.

Preferential seating in the classroom.

Provision of a daily assignment sheet to be filled out by the student and verified by the teacher for accuracy. The parent could then check to make sure that all the work is accomplished. This would assist with homework prioritizing and management.

Please note: These are simply examples. All or none of these may be suitable for your child.

Students with bipolar disorder may or may not have a need for specialized instruction provided within an IEP. For some students, simply being granted accommodations that make allowance for the side effects of medications, related anxiety issues, or results of mood changes is sufficient.

Students with bipolar disorder who are well-controlled on medication may or may not be plagued by racing thoughts, distracting thoughts, an inability to concentrate, decreased energy; all of which will require modifications in the teaching environment or instructional strategies.

For other students, the side effects of medications may be significant enough to require changes in instruction provided or curriculum modifications. Some of the common side effects of medications include: tremors (trembling of hands), blurred vision, loss of coordination, slurred speech, sedation, ataxia (unsteady movement), dizziness, seizures. Some students with bipolar disorder may also have one of a number of other disabilities that impacts their access to the general education curriculum; such as vision or hearing impairment, learning disability, processing problems, or other disability. The co-morbidity rates of ADHD, anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, oppositional-defiant disorder and learning disabilities in students with bipolar disorder tell us that we should explore all avenues available to meet the educational needs of our children.

The following accommodations are meant to serve as a resource for parents unsure of what possibilities exist:

Students on some medications may need:

increased access to water, unlimited access to restrooms (particularly students taking Lithium)

decreased reading assignments or having books on tape or computer screen-reading due to blurred vision

modified school arrival, shortened day, scheduling of core content during the student's most alert time, reducing homework and extending deadlines, providing notes, allowing longer or more frequent breaks, allowing exercise or other movement due to sleep impairment or to sedation of medications

provision of notes and listening guides, work monitoring, extended time on assignments, extra set of books for home use, breaking assignments into more manageable pieces, use of checklists, providing written instructions and/or other visual cues, use of word banks on fill-in types of tests and other modifications that aid retrieval/memory, testing in a separate room, or extended test time, use of multiple choice formats, use of oral exams rather than written demands, use of noise-canceling headsets, - all for impaired concentration, memory

reducing or discontinuing homework may be necessary for some students due to difficulties with concentration, sleep patterns, mood irritability. For these students it may be necessary to schedule a resource room period at the beginning of the day to get assignments ready for the day, or at the end of the day to complete assignments before leaving school

preferential seating can be used to help with vision, focus, reduce visual or auditory distraction, allow for discrete monitoring

and while a 504 plan will simply list the type of accommodation needed and the reasons for it/them, an IEP must contain objectives that are written with specific criteria; such as -Given a grade level reading assignment of 1 chapter with 4 comprehension questions, (name) will answer the questions with 60/70/80% accuracy. Or given an assignment containing 5 long division problems, (name) will complete 3/4/5 problems at 80% accuracy.

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Accommodations for Students with Bipolar Disorder and Related Disabilities - International Bipolar Foundation

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The maximum amount of time allowed to pass between the parents' request and/or agreement to conduct the evaluation to the IEP development differs from state to state, but most regulations cite a time line somewhere between fifty and 120 days. (Note: In some states the meeting at which the IEP is written is called by the somewhat misleading phrase Admission, Review Dismissal meeting-the ARD meeting.)

Whatever it's called in your state, you will have a lot to prepare so that the meeting is productive and so that the school personnel understand the necessity of the accommodations. Being prepared will also ensure that the IEP is well written.

Parents must be prepared to educate the school team, develop a resource binder, rehearse the meeting beforehand, and decide who will be at the meeting with them (the child psychiatrist, an advocate, an educational lawyer).

Any written materials about early-onset bipolar disorder that you want the special education team at school to review (perhaps the article What is Juvenile Bipolar Disorder?) should be sent about two weeks before the scheduled meeting so that the IEP team will have time to digest the materials and better understand how to write the IEP. Few could skim and grasp the implications of this illness and construct an IEP in the hour or two allotted to the process without prior knowledge about the student's challenges and illness.

Preparing the Binder

The three-ring binder should carry a picture of your child on the front, his or her name and grade on the spine, and be divided into sections inside. These should include:

1. Important contacts and telephone numbers.

2. Reports or letters from the professionals working with your child. An example would be letters from the psychiatrist or therapist with any recommendations they have for your child's education.

3.Results you have from private assessments such as the neuropsychological testing. These test results should support your child's need for an IDEA classification.

4.The complete list of accommodations from this article.

5. The sample IEP from The Bipolar Child website. This sample IEP will help you with your input at the IEP meeting.

6.The Behavior/Symptom/Accommodation chart from this article is a visual aide to help the IEP team better understand how to interpret disruptive behaviors and recommend how to develop interventions which will reduce these unruly behaviors.

7.Examples of your child's work which exemplify areas of difficulty and areas of giftedness.

8. A copy of Jennifer Bollero's beautifully written and reasoned article called "Playing Hearts, Not Poker" available at the Harbor House Press Law site. No parent should leave home for an IEP meeting without reading or re-reading this article.

Educating the Team About Accommodations
That Will Benefit Your Child

Since a parent usually understands the illness and the side effects of the medications better than anyone, he or she should be ready to spell out a list of symptoms and medication side effects and proposed modifications in the academic schedule to accommodate the child's difficulties and to make the school day more productive and comfortable for the student.

Hopefully, by the time the education team sits down to write the IEP, the parents can provide the independent neuropsychological assessment which can pinpoint any specific learning disabilities, learning styles, and possible weaknesses in the domains of executive functions. (This neuropsychologist's report should make recommendations for the academic arena and these recommendations should be addressed in the IEP also.)

We thought it would be helpful to divide the modifications into categories where parents and educators could see at a glance which symptoms the student has and which accommodations will have to be incorporated into the IEP. Four categories the IEP team should consider when developing an appropriate IEP for a student with a mood disorder are:

I. Symptoms caused by the mood disorder

II. Side effects of the medications used to treat the condition

III. Attention and organizational difficulties

IV. Specific learning disabilities

(Click here to view all the symptoms and accommodations)

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How to Prepare for the IEP Meeting - Juvenile Bipolar Research Foundation

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The maximum amount of time allowed to pass between the parents' request and/or agreement to conduct the evaluation to the IEP development differs from state to state, but most regulations cite a time line somewhere between fifty and 120 days. (Note: In some states the meeting at which the IEP is written is called by...

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Inside Higher Ed | Higher Education News, Events and Jobs

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More than half of the college students who visited their campus counseling centers during the 2015-16 academic year reported symptoms of anxiety, according to a survey by the Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors.

This marks the seventh year in a row that anxiety has been the top complaint among students seeking mental health services. This year, 51 percent of students who visited a counseling center reported having anxiety, followed by depression (41 percent), relationship concerns (34 percent) and suicidal ideation (20.5 percent). Many students reported experiencing multiple conditions at once.

Since 2009, when anxiety overtook depression as the No. 1 concern among college students, the number of students experiencing anxiety has steadily increased.

This survey was conducted between September 2015 and August 2016. In total, 529 counseling center directors representing that many institutions responded to the survey, with an even split between public and private institutions. The majority of respondents came from four-year colleges, but community colleges, professional schools and art schools were also included.

In an effort to reflect the makeup of their student bodies, counseling centers have diversified their clinical staff members. Of new hires, 62.2 percent are white, 15.3 percent black, 7.5 percent Latino and 10 percent Asian. This compares to current clinical staff, who are 70.9 percent white, 10.1 percent black, 7.3 percent Latino and 7.9 percent Asian.

"Student populations have become more diverse," said Micky Sharma, president of the AUCCCD and director of counseling and consultation services at Ohio State University. "Counseling services work to create a staff that represents their student bodies."

At Ohio State, for example, the counseling center now offers clinical services in nine different languages to meet the needs of their international students, who make up about 12 percent of the student body, Sharma said.

Regardless of race, ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation, "anyone could show up with anxiety or depression or a relationship issue," Sharma said. "A university counseling center is charged with providing help for everybody."

Another key finding in the survey is that 41.6 percent of counseling centers hired additional staff members in the last academic year, compared to about 26 percent in 2011 and 36 percent in 2016.

College counseling centers continue to grow to match the demands of their students, according to David Reetz, the lead researcher and coordinator for the 2016 survey and director of counseling and psychological services at the Rochester Institute of Technology.

"More students are seeking services because we continue to be more and more aware that a student's health and well-being have a lot to do with their success in their academic programs and the quality of their student life experience," Reetz said.

In fact, of the students surveyed, about 72 percent who used counseling services said it helped their academic performance in some way.

As more students continue to seek out mental health services and campus counseling centers try to keep up with new hires, the question of student wait times becomes key.

For the first time, this year's survey asked counseling center directors about average wait times for students based on the number of business days between when the appointment was scheduled and when it occurred.

The survey team found that, on average, students waited between six and eight business days for counseling services. However, as might be expected, institutions with a lower ratio of professional staff to students saw shorter wait times.

Reetz noted that the wait-time average is a "tricky number," given that some students opt to schedule their first appointment farther out to accommodate their own schedules.

"Students don't necessarily want to be seen right away," Reetz said, adding that, generally, "the more staff a center has, the shorter that wait time is between initial contact and first appointment."

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Anxiety and depression are the primary concerns for students seeking counseling services

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Survey of campus counseling centers finds increased demand for services, as well as additional positions and more diversity in hiring.

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Sports participation in High School and Anxiety

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Kansa DMH Conduct Disorder Fact Sheet 2016.07

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Acute Exercise Effects among Young Adults with Analogue Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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referral processess for students/school system

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Counsel for Exceptional Children

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Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders

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The authority on APA Style and the 6th edition of the APA Publication Manual. Find tutorials, the APA Style Blog, how to format papers in APA Style, and other resources to help you improve your writing, master APA Style, and learn the conventions of scholarly publishing.

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Citing based on viewing from YouTube or TED

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by Timothy McAdoo
Dear APA Style Experts, How should I cite a TED Talk? Is the author TED or TED Talks or the speaker giving the talk?
Thanks for asking! References include the who- when- what- where information that, ideally, allows your reader to find not just the source material but the source exactly where you found it. For online sources this is particularly important because the presentation and sometimes even the information provided can vary from one online location to the next.

Take, for example, this TED Talk by Amanda Palmer:

If you viewed the video on the TED website, a reference to this TED Talk would be as follows:

Reference:

Palmer, A. (2013, February). Amanda Palmer: The art of asking [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/amanda_palmer_the_art_of_asking

In-text citation: Palmer (2013) or (Palmer, 2013)

Note that the TED page and the video itself give only "February" as the date, so that's what you can include in the reference.

(As an aside, you'll note that Amanda Palmer's name is also included in the title. This is not an extra element of our APA Style reference; it's included because her name is part of the title itself. TED videos include speaker names as part of the video titles.)

But, if you viewed the video on YouTube, the same TED Talk would be referenced as follows:

Reference:

TED. (2013, March 1). Amanda Palmer: The art of asking [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMj_P_6H69g
In-text citation:
TED (2013) or (TED, 2013)

YouTube shows the date that the video was posted as March 1, 2013, so that's the date to use in this reference.

The author name is TED in this case because the TED organization posted the video to YouTube, and that's the information your reader needs to retrieve the reference. That is, for the " who" portion of a reference to a YouTube video, we use the name of the person or organization that posted the video.

In that case, you might include information about the speaker, if necessary, in the context of your paper.

Example:

Amanda Palmer used examples from her career as a busker and a musician to discuss the sharing economy (TED, 2013).

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APA Style Blog: How to Cite a TED Talk in APA Style

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by Timothy McAdoo Dear APA Style Experts, How should I cite a TED Talk? Is the author TED or TED Talks or the speaker giving the talk? Thanks! -TED Listener Thanks for asking! References include the who-when-what-where information that, ideally,...

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Completing college: A national view of student attainment rates by race and ethnicity: Fall 2010 cohort 

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Completing college: A national view of student attainment rates by race and ethnicity: Fall 2010 cohort 

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six-year completion rates disaggregated by race and ethnicity

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National Student Clearinghouse Research Center

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This supplement to our Signature Report 12 provides six-year completion rates disaggregated by race and ethnicity for students who began postsecondary education in fall 2010.

Suggested Citation: Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Huie, F., Wakhungu, P., Yuan, X., Nathan, A & Hwang, Y., A. (2017, April). Completing College: A National View of Student Attainment Rates by Race and Ethnicity - Fall 2010 Cohort (Signature Report No. 12b). Herndon, VA: National Student Clearinghouse Research Center.

About This Report

AUTHORS

National Student Clearinghouse Research Center

Doug Shapiro

Afet Dundar

Faye Huie

Project on Academic Success, Indiana University

Phoebe Khasiala Wakhungu

Xin Yuan

Angel Nathan

Youngsik Hwang

SPONSOR

This report was supported by a grant from the Lumina Foundation. Lumina Foundation, an Indianapolis-based private foundation, is committed to enrolling and graduating more students from college - especially 21st century students: low-income students, students of color, first-generation students and adult learners. Lumina's goal is to increase the percentage of Americans who hold high-quality degrees and credentials to 60 percent by 2025. Lumina pursues this goal in three ways: by identifying and supporting effective practice, through public policy advocacy, and by using our communications and convening power to build public will for change. For more information, log on to www.luminafoundation.org.

Among the study's findings:

Among students who started in four-year public institutions, black students had the lowest six-year completion rate (45.9 percent). The completion rate of Hispanic students was almost 10 percentage points higher than that of black students (55.0 percent). Over two-thirds of white and Asian students completed a degree within the same period (67.2 percent and 71.7 percent, respectively). Nationally, 62.4 percent of students finished a degree or certificate within six years.

Nationally, 54.8 percent of students who started in any type of college or university in Fall 2010 completed a degree or certificate within six years. When examined by race and ethnicity, Asian and white students had a much higher completion rate (63.2 percent and 62.0 percent, respectively) than Hispanic and black students (45.8 percent and 38.0 percent, respectively). These rates include students who graduated after a transfer. They also count both full time and part time students.

Among students who started in four-year public institutions, black men had the lowest completion rate (40.0 percent) and the highest stop-out rate (41.1 percent). Asian women had the highest completion rate (75.7 percent) and the lowest stop-out rate (11.2 percent).

The overall completion rate for students who started in two-year public institutions was higher for white and Asian students (45.1 percent and 43.8 percent, respectively) than Hispanic and black students (33 percent and 25.8 percent, respectively). Nationally, the rate was 39.2 percent, as the Research Center reported in December 2016.

The completion rate at four-year institutions for students who started at a community college (with or without receiving an associate's degree first) was dramatically different for students of different racial and ethnic groups. While almost one in four Asian students and one in five white students had completed this transfer pathway by the end of the six-year study period, just one in 10 Hispanic students and about one in 12 black students did.

The completion gaps between racial groups tend to shrink as students grow older. Among traditional-age students, there was a 24-percentage point gap in the completion rates of black and white students (42.7 percent and 66.8 percent, respectively) and 17.5-percentage points gap between Hispanic and white students (49.3 percent and 66.8 percent, respectively). Among adult learners (those who started college at 25 or older), however, the gap was 12.3 percentage points (42.0 percent and 29.7 percent, respectively) between black and white students and just 9.1 percentage points between Hispanic and white students (42.0 percent and 32.9 percent, respectively).

Introduction

This supplement to our Signature Report 12 (Shapiro et al., 2016) provides six-year completion rates, including degree and certificate completion, disaggregated by race and ethnicity for students who began postsecondary education in fall 2010. The fall 2010 cohort was also the focus of the Signature Report 12, the national report on college completions, released in December 2016, and the state-level report, released in March 2017. Unlike those reports, which relied on full populations from the National Student Clearinghouse data, the data used in this supplement was limited to a sample of schools selected specifically for race and ethnicity analyses.

The National Student Clearinghouse Research Center worked with the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at the University of Chicago to design a representative sample of schools from which to conduct college success studies using student race and ethnicity data. To create the sample, a stratified survey design was used to enable results to be reported for three groups of students, those starting at:

Four-year public institutions

Two-year public institutions

All other postsecondary institutions

In the national report, we found that just over half of all students (54.8 percent) starting in any type of postsecondary institution complete a degree or certificate within six years (Shapiro et al., 2016). There is a consensus in the literature that attainment barriers exist for members of traditionally underrepresented minority groups (Engle & Theokas, 2010; Jackson & Reynolds 2013; Oseguera, 2005; Sólorzano, Villalpando & Oseguera 2005). In fact, two recent national studies extensively discuss these achievement gaps (U.S. Department of Education, 2016; Nichols & Evans-Bell, 2016). While these racial and ethnic achievement gaps have been well-documented in previous research, there are a number of unique contributions of this report:

The completion rate in this report includes students who completed a degree or certificate at a different institution from where they started, answering the unaddressed hypothesis that perhaps some racial and ethnic groups of students, with otherwise lower same-institution graduation rates, might have higher transfer-completion rates, thereby partially closing the gap in total completion rates.

The report includes students who started part-time, covering important enrollment pathways that may be disproportionately pursued by some racial and ethnic groups, and which standard metrics of first-time full-time students only may miss.

We use a more recent student cohort, potentially capturing the latest available post-recession changes in student enrollment behaviors, as well as recent institution-based improvements in academic student support and retention, and, perhaps, broader changes in the level of racial equity in society.

We use detailed student-level data, not institution-level surveys, to allow more granular reporting on the interactions of race and ethnicity with age, gender, enrollment intensity (exclusively full-time, exclusively part-time, or mixed enrollment), and starting institution type (two- or four-year institution).

In order to provide to the education community the full benefit of the latest student data available, the Clearinghouse Research Center will update these national statistics annually going forward.

Carnevale and Stohl (2013) found that since mid-90s "...82 percent of new white enrollments have gone to the 468 most selective colleges, while 72 percent of new Hispanic enrollment and 68 percent of new African-American enrollment have gone to the two-year and four-year open-access schools" (p. 9). Furthermore, Bowen, Chingos and McPhenson (2009) identified an "undermatching" phenomenon, where well-qualified minority students from less affluent households would attend less selective four-and two-year institutions. Prior research also established that different student attributes, such as high school GPA, college entry exam (SAT or ACT) composite scores, parental education, and socioeconomic status (SES), contribute to the bachelor's degree completion disparities among racial and ethnic groups (Choy, 2001). Institutional characteristics can also play a large role in racial completion disparities. Factors such as selectivity, campus climate, and availability of financial aid can serve as either completion barriers or pathways. Overall, research results highlight the complex connection between socio-economic status, college enrollment and degree attainment, particularly among minority populations (Frehill, 2000; Jackson & Reynolds, 2013; Lundy, 2010).

Given previous findings that public colleges and universities enroll the largest percentage (almost 80 percent) of college students (Shapiro et al, 2016), and that a high proportion of minority students attend public institutions, there is a greater pressure on this sector to improve in order to make an impact on minority student completions (Santos & Haycock, 2016). For this purpose, the report presents the results not only for all first-time-in college students in fall 2010, but also separately for those who started in four- and two-year public institutions.

College completion has important benefits to individuals and the society, including job satisfaction, civic engagement, individual labor market access, and, ultimately, the nation's economic growth and global competitiveness (DeAngelo et al., 2011). Currently, the inequalities in postsecondary college completion rates highlight the need for higher education stakeholders to design initiatives aimed at increasing participation and ameliorating racial disparities.

Annual updates using the latest cohorts of student-level data that will follow this introductory report will enable institutions, public policymakers, and the general public interested in these important outcomes to follow the progress and changes in the completion gaps.

Results
Cohort Description
Figure 1 shows the sample fall 2010 cohort (Weighted N= 2,823,678) disaggregated by race and ethnicity. The largest proportion (57.8 percent) were white students, followed by black (11.9 percent), Hispanic (11.4), and Asian (4.8 percent) students. These four groups of students represented about 86% of the total fall 2010 cohort ( Figure 1). Regardless of racial or ethnic background, women accounted for more than half of the sample ( Figure 2). In terms of age, most students were traditional age students (i.e., 20 years old or younger) when they first started their postsecondary studies ( Figure 3). However, approximately one in five black (21.7 percent) students were adult learners (i.e., older than 24 years old), nearly double the proportion of adult learners among Asian (11.2 percent), Hispanic (12.3 percent), and white (13.4 percent) students. When disaggregated by institutional type, Asian (45.1 percent) and white (45.9 percent) students were more likely to start at a four-year public institution than black (36.6 percent) or Hispanic (36.3 percent) students, whereas black (48.5 percent) and Hispanic (50.8 percent) students were more likely to start at a two-year pubic institution than white (35.6 percent) and Asian (37.8 percent) students ( Figure 4). In terms of enrollment intensity, the most common enrollment intensity was mixed enrollment (a combination of full- and part-time enrollment over six years) across all races (Asian 57.1 percent; black 60.2 percent; Hispanic 62.6 percent; and white 50.9 percent), followed by exclusively full-time enrollment and exclusively part-time enrollment ( Figure 5).

Figure 1. Fall 2010 Cohort by Race and Ethnicity*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 1.
Figure 2. Fall 2010 Cohort by Race and Ethnicity and Gender*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 2.
Figure 3. Fall 2010 Cohort by Race and Ethnicity and Age at First Entry*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 3.
Figure 4. Fall 2010 Cohort by Race and Ethnicity and Starting Institution Type*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 5.
Figure 5. Fall 2010 Cohort by Race and Ethnicity and Enrollment Intensity*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 6. Overall Completion Rates by Race and Ethnicity
Figures 6 through 9 depict the six-year certificate and degree completion rates of students broken out by race and ethnicity and other demographic variables. Overall, Asian and white students had the highest completion rates (63.2 percent and 62.0 percent, respectively) followed by Hispanic (45.8 percent) and black (38.0 percent) students (Figure 6). A larger proportion of black students (44.6 percent) were not enrolled at the end of the study period (had no degree or certificate and no enrollment record in the sixth year), compared to Hispanic (35.0 percent), white (26.9 percent), and Asian (20.0 percent) students. In terms of gender differences, female students graduated at a higher rate than male students and male students were more likely to stop out than female students, regardless of race and ethnicity (Figure 7). Black men, overall, had the lowest completion rate (33.5 percent). In terms of age differences ( Figure 8), traditional-age students had higher completion rates than delayed entry students and adult learners, regardless of race and ethnicity. The race and ethnicity completion rate patterns were consistent within each age group.

This pattern is reversed when looking at the not enrolled categories, where within each age group, black students were most likely not to be enrolled, followed by Hispanic, white, and Asian students. Among black, Hispanic, and white students, adult learners showed higher completion rates than delayed entry students. The completion rates by enrollment intensity show that exclusively full-time students displayed the highest completion rates and exclusively part-time students showed the highest proportion of students who dropped out, regardless of race and ethnicity (Figure 9).

Figure 6. Six-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity (N=2,824,569)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 8.
Figure 7. Six-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity and Gender (N=2,315,562)*

Note: Students with missing gender data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 9.

Figure 8. Six-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity and Age at First Entry (N=2,425,594)*

Note: Students with missing age data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 10.

Figure 9. Six-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity and Enrollment Intensity (N=2,426,077)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 11. Completion Patterns by Race and Ethnicity for Students Who Started at Four-Year Public Institutions
Figures 10 through 13 present the six‐year outcomes of students who started at four‐year public institutions. Asian students had the highest completion rate (71.7 percent), followed by white (67.2 percent), Hispanic (54.9 percent), and black (45.9 percent) students. Large differences in completion rates across race and ethnicity categories are driven by the differences in completion rates at the starting institution. For example, there is a 26 percentage point gap between completion rates at the starting institution of Asian and black students (61.4 percent and 35.3 percent, respectively) while their completion rates elsewhere are nearly identical (10.3 percent and 10.6 percent, respectively).

The stop-out rates were highest among black students (35.3 percent), compared to Asian (14.2 percent), Hispanic (27.1 percent), and white (21.4 percent) students. When examined by gender, the pattern stayed consistent for male and female students separately. Black men had the highest stop-out rate (41.1 percent) and Asian women had the lowest (11.2 percent). Traditional-age students had the highest completion rates, followed by delayed entry students, and adult learners within each race and ethnicity category. (Figure 12). Among traditional-age students, however, black students had the lowest completion rate (49.4 percent), followed by Hispanic students (58.2 percent), white students (70.7 percent), and Asian students (73.7 percent). Race and ethnicity by enrollment intensity patterns revealed that regardless of race and ethnicity category, exclusively full-time students were more likely to complete within six years than mixed enrollment or exclusively part-time students (Figure 13). Further, mixed enrollment students were most likely to be still enrolled after six years than exclusively full- or part-time students.

Figure 10. Six-Year Outcomes for Students Who Started at Four-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity (N=1,236,815)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 14.
Figure 11. Six-Year Outcomes for Students Who Started at Four-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Gender (N=1,004,591)*

Note: Students with missing gender data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 15.

Figure 12. Six-Year Outcomes for Students Who Started at Four-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Age at First Entry (N=1,050,243)*

Note: Students with missing age data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 16.

Figure 13. Six-Year Outcomes for Students Who Started at Four-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Enrollment Intensity (N=1,050,235)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 17. Completion Patterns by Race and Ethnicity for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions
Figures 14 through 18 display the six‐year outcomes for students who started at two‐year public institutions. Among students who started at two-year public institutions, white and Asian students were more likely to graduate with a degree or certificate (45.1 and 43.8 percent completion rate, respectively) after six years than black or Hispanic students (25.8 and 33.0 percent, respectively). Asian students had the lowest stop-out rate (32.0 percent), followed by white (41.5 percent), Hispanic (44.8 percent), and black (56.7 percent) students. The total completion rate at four-year institutions (with or without first receiving an associate degree or certificate from a two-year institution) for Asian and white students (23.0 percent 19.2 percent, respectively) almost doubled the completion rate of black (8.6 percent) and Hispanic (10.8 percent) students ( Figure 15). Overall, most students who eventually transfer to and earn a degree from a four-year institution has done so without a degree or certificate from a two-year institution. This pattern was true for Asian, white, and black students. However, practically half of Hispanic students who eventually earn a four-year degree had also completed a two-year credential. When examined by gender, black men had the lowest completion rate at the starting institution, 16.9 percent, as well as the lowest completion rate elsewhere, 6.7 percent, adding up to the lowest overall completion rate, 23.7 percent. Further, black men who began their postsecondary studies at a two-year institution were also the most likely to have discontinued enrollment at the end of six years in comparison to any other gender, race, or ethnic group (60.9 percent).

Race and ethnicity by age completion patterns in Figure 17 show that, overall, traditional-age students tend to have higher completion rates than delayed-entry students and adult learners. Traditional-age white students were the most likely to complete a degree or certificate (48.4 percent), whereas traditional-age Asian students were least likely to stop out after six years (25.7 percent). Regardless of the age category, however, over half of black students who started at two-year public institutions dropped out of college by the end of the study period.

In terms of the completion rates by race and ethnicity, and enrollment intensity, the results revealed that, overall, students who were enrolled exclusively full time had higher completion rates than students who had mixed enrollment or enrolled exclusively part time ( Figure 18). However, even among exclusively full-time students, black students had much lower completion rate (36.0 percent) than Hispanic, white, and Asian students (52.6 percent, 59.9 percent, and 70.6 percent, respectively).

Figure 14. Six-Year Outcomes and First Completion for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity (N=1,089,776)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 20.
Figure 15. Completions at Four-Year Institutions for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity (N=1,089,776)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 20.
Figure 16. Six-Year Outcomes and First Completion for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Gender (N=908,861)*

Note: Students with missing gender data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 21.

Figure 17. Six-Year Outcomes and First Completion for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Age at First Entry (N=958,301)*

Note: Students with missing age data were excluded from the above figure.
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 22.

Figure 18. Six-Year Outcomes and First Completion for Students Who Started at Two-Year Public Institutions by Race and Ethnicity and Enrollment Intensity (N=958,653)*
*This figure is based on data shown in Appendix B, Table 23.

Discussion

This is the first-ever report by the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center with breakdowns by race and ethnicity. Previously, in our High School Benchmarks report (NSCRC, 2016a), we reported on postsecondary access and completion outcomes of graduates from different types of high schools: low income versus higher income, low minority versus high minority. The findings from that report showed both access and completion gaps: the first fall enrollment in college immediately after high school graduation was 57 percent for students from high minority schools and 68 percent for those from low minority schools. However, we observed a much larger gap in the completion rates: six years after high school, only 28 percent of the graduates of high minority high schools had completed a college degree, compared to 48 percent for those from low minority schools.

The findings from this report show that the completion gaps do not disappear or become narrower when first-time-in-college students are the focus as opposed to high school graduates. Using the latest available student-level data in this report allowed a more nuanced analysis enabling us to identify areas where the gaps are the largest and there is more room for improvement.

About the Cohort

The differences among the racial and ethnic groups appeared long before the end of the six-year completion tracking window. Black students tended to be older when they entered college, and blacks and Hispanics were more likely to have started in community colleges. Among white, Hispanic, and Asian students at least four in five students were traditional-age at first entry. Just about 70 percent of black students were traditional-age and more than one in five were adult learners. Among white and Asian students, 45.9 percent and 45.1 percent, respectively, started in a four-year public institution. Just slightly over one-third of black and Hispanic students (36.6 percent and 36.3 percent, respectively) started in a four-year public institution. The pattern reversed when we looked at two-year public institutions. Half of Hispanic students and just about half of black students (50.8 percent and 48.5 percent, respectively) started in a two-year public institution while slightly over one-third of Asian and white students did so (37.8 percent and 35.6 percent, respectively).
Overall Completion Rates
The overall completion rates regardless of what type of institutions students started were the highest for Asian and white students (63.2 percent and 62.0 percent, respectively) followed by Hispanic students (45.8 percent) and black students (38 percent).

As the results above show, there is a 24 percentage point gap in the completion rates of black and white students. The gap is narrower at 16 percent, but still sizable between Hispanic and white students (45.8 percent and 62.0 percent, respectively). The pattern stays unchanged when examined for women and men separately.

When examined by age, the gaps between racial groups tend to shrink as the students grow older. Among traditional-age students, there was a 24 percentage point gap in the completion rates of black and white students (42.7 percent and 66.8 percent, respectively) and 17.5 percentage points gap in the completion rate of Hispanic and white students (49.3 percent and 66.8 percent, respectively). The completion rate gap between black and white students in the delayed entry group was only 14.4 percentage points (35.4 percent and 21.0 percent, respectively) and much smaller still between Hispanic and white students (6.4 percentage points). Finally, among adult learners the gap was 12.3 percentage points (42.0 percent and 29.7 percent, respectively) between black and white students and 9.1 percentage points between Hispanic and white students (42.0 percent and 32.9 percent, respectively).

Completion Rates at Four-Year Public Institutions

Among students who started in four-year public institutions, black students had the lowest six-year completion rate (45.9 percent). Hispanic students had an almost 10 percentage point higher completion rate than black students (55.0 percent). Over two-thirds of white and Asian students completed a degree within the same six-year period (67.2 percent and 71.7 percent, respectively). White students had the highest completion rate elsewhere: 14.8 percent of white students who started in four-year public institutions completed at an institution other than the starting institution. The completion rate elsewhere for Asian students was very similar to that of Hispanic and black students (10.3 percent, 11.3 percent, and 10.6 percent, respectively). As these results demonstrate, the differences in the completion rates of white and black students, and white and Hispanic students were equally driven by the differences in completions both at the starting institution and elsewhere. This was not the case for the completion gaps between Asian and Hispanic as well as Asian and black students: the completion rate was much higher for Asian students than for black and Hispanic students at the starting institution, but was very similar in terms of completions elsewhere.

When disaggregated by gender, black men had the lowest completion rate (40.0 percent) and the highest stop-out rate (41.1 percent) and Asian women had the highest completion rate (75.7 percent) and the lowest stop-out rate (11.2 percent). Within each race and ethnicity category, women outperformed men. The largest gap was among black students, with women having a 10 percentage point higher completion rate than men (50.5 percent and 40.0 percent, respectively) and the smallest gap was among Asian students: female Asian students' completion rate was 6.6 percentage points higher than male Asian students.

When disaggregated by age, within each race category, there was a 19 or more percentage point gap in the completion rates of traditional-age students and adult learners. The largest gap was among white students: with a high overall completion rate of 70.7 percent, traditional-age students' rate was 29.3 percentage points higher than that for the adult learners. The smallest gap was among black students: slightly less than half of the traditional-age students had a degree or certificate within six years, which was 18.9 percentage points higher than that for the adult learners.

A higher proportion of Asian and white students enrolled exclusively full time (45.2 percent and 47.2 percent) while a higher proportion of black and Hispanic students had mixed enrollment patterns that included both full- and part-time terms. Having mixed enrollments is a decision the student makes as a result of the changing circumstances, switching from full- to part-time or vice-versa. The changes might be related to academic reasons or financial aid, or non-academic reasons, such as the student's work or family circumstances. Mixed enrollment seems to be a good strategy to stay on track to completion for all students, regardless of their race and ethnicity. While students in this category have lower completion rates than exclusively full-time students, many of them were still enrolled at the end of the study period. For example, among black students, the completion rate was 69.2 percent for exclusively full-time students. Only 7 percent were still enrolled in the last year of the study, with 23.8 percent stopping out. Black students with mixed enrollment had a much lower completion rate at 35.3 percent. However, 27.5 percent of them were still enrolled at the end of the study period, making the stop-out rate 37.3 percent. A similar pattern was observed among Hispanic students with exclusively full-time (73.8 percent completion rate with only 4.5 still enrolled) and mixed enrollments (37.0 percent completion rate with 27.3 percent still enrolled). While the stop-out rate is still higher for mixed enrollment students than for exclusively full-time students, it is much lower than that for exclusively part-time students. At least three in four students in the latter group stopped out without any degree by the end of the study period within each of the four race and ethnicity categories.
Completion Rates at Two-Year Public Institutions
The overall completion rate for students who started in two-year public institutions was much higher for white and Asian students (45.1 percent and 43.8 percent, respectively) than Hispanic and black students (33 percent and 25.8 percent, respectively). The total completion rate at a four-year institution (with or without receiving an associate's degree first) was dramatically different for students of different racial and ethnic groups. While almost one in four Asian students and one in five white students completed at a four-year institution by the end of the study period, just one in 10 Hispanic students and about one in 12 black students were able to do so.

When disaggregated by gender within each race and ethnicity category, we observed differences in completion rates between men and women within each race and ethnicity category, as well as differences by race and ethnicity within each gender category. In every race and ethnicity category women outperformed men. The gap in completion rates between men and women ranged from 5.4 percentage points among black students to 9.9 percentage points among Asian students.

Black men and women both have lower rates than men and women in other race and ethnicity categories. The outcomes of black men are particularly alarming: less than one out of four black men who begin their postsecondary studies at a community college eventually complete a degree or certificate and just about 61 percent end up stopping out or dropping out at the end of six years. Among black women, 29.0 percent completed a degree or certificate at the end of the study period and half of them stopped out or dropped out. Hispanic men had a 29.9 percent completion rate within six years and almost half of them (48.3 percent) stopped out. More than one-third of Hispanic women completed a degree or certificate and 40.7 percent stopped out.

When examined by age, among Asian and white students there was a large gap in the completion rates of traditional-age students and adult learners. With a 47.0 percent completion rate traditional-age Asian students had a 13.9 percentage point higher rate than adult learners. Among white students, traditional-age students and adult learners had 7.5 percentage points gap in the completion rates (48.4 percent and 40.9 percent, respectively). This gap was only 3.5 percentage points among Hispanic students (34.6 percent and 31.1 percent, respectively). Among black students, the pattern was reversed with adult learners having a slightly higher completion rate than traditional-age students (27.9 percent and 26.4 percent, respectively).
Implications for Policymaking
Important patterns emerged from the findings with implications for institutional and public policymaking, a few of which are mentioned here. Counting students who graduate at transfer institutions does not close the overall racial completion gaps as the pattern of transfer-completion rates is similar to the pattern of starting institution completion rates. This means that there is much work for institutions to do to improve minority students' postsecondary outcomes regardless of the pathway they pursue: whether they are native to the institution, transferring in or transferring out.

In a number of recent reports, the Research Center has discussed the contributions of community colleges to student success, including baccalaureate degree attainment (NSCRC, 2016b). This report provides additional evidence that community colleges facilitate access to postsecondary education, especially for black and Hispanic students: almost half of the students in each of these two groups started in a two-year public institution. However, we also found very low success rates for underrepresented minority students starting at two-year public institutions, particularly for black students. Among black students, low completion rates and high stop-out rates were observed regardless of the subgroup we examined, even those who ordinarily have high attainment rates: traditional-age and exclusively full-time students.

Bachelor's completion rates for students who started at two-year public institutions are also very low for underrepresented minorities. It is worth noting that six years is a somewhat aggressive timeline for any community college student to transfer and finish a bachelor's degree, and, in absolute terms, this rate was low for all students, regardless of race and ethnicity. However, black and Hispanic students' four-year completion rates are dramatically lower than those of white and Asian students. This is particularly troubling in light of the growing expectation that community colleges serve as lower-cost starting points for students seeking bachelor's degrees.

Adult learners are at a disadvantage in comparison with the traditional-age students regardless of the race and ethnicity category. While the completion gap still exists between black and white, and Hispanic and white adult learners, it is not as large as the completion gap among traditional-age students across race and ethnic categories. Perhaps this can be explained by the challenges adult learners share: balancing work and family responsibilities with school work. There seem to be a need for both four-year public schools and community colleges to enhance these students' experiences and establish pathways that work better for them and, ultimately, keep them on track to completion.

Appendix A: Technical Notes and Methodology
OVERVIEW
This study examined six-year completion outcomes, including degree and certificate completion, of students by race and ethnicity using a stratified random sample of students who started their postsecondary studies in the fall of 2010. A total of 924,251 students from 647 schools were included in the sample. College completion outcomes for the full population of the fall 2010 cohort, without the race and ethnicity breakdowns, were reported in Signature Report 12, released in December, 2016 (N= 2.9M students), as well as in a state-level supplement, released in March 2017.

The methodological notes provided here cover only the points relevant to the sample, including sample design, weighting, and estimated standard errors and confidence intervals. For the first-time cohort identification, data decisions, and definitions of outcomes see Appendix A in Signature Report 12.
Description of the Sampling Procedures
The National Student Clearinghouse Research Center worked with the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at the University of Chicago to design a representative sample of schools for conducting college success studies using student race and ethnicity data. Schools have been submitting race and ethnicity data to the Clearinghouse with their regular enrollment reporting files since 2009. As they are optional data elements, however, not all institutions participated and the coverage rates for these data have grown slowly over the years. At the start of this project in 2016, only about half of all records in the Clearinghouse data included a race and ethnicity value. Because of the potential biases in such a dataset (e.g., schools that opted to send the race and ethnicity data might have been the ones with the most resources), we were unable to use them for research purposes. To remedy this, we initiated a targeted recruitment project to encourage a representative sample of schools to provide race and ethnicity data to the Clearinghouse. Race and ethnicity values were appended to students' prior enrollment data that had already been provided to the Clearinghouse. In other words, no recruitment of students took place within this project. NORC constructed its institution sampling frame using the list of schools already participating in the Clearinghouse enrollment reporting service, which included 96.5 percent of all enrollments in Title-IV, degree-granting institutions and 99.5 percent of enrollments in all public institutions. The final sample drawn from this population included 800 schools. NORC also produced an additional list of 247 schools for a second round of recruiting to replace sampled schools that did not respond to the first recruiting round.

Additional data collection was needed to ensure sufficient data coverage for the fall 2010 entering student cohort and the next five cohorts, from 2011 to 2015. In some cases, when sampled schools were missing data for a small subset of students, the data were augmented by pulling student race and ethnicity from regular Clearinghouse enrollment files and other Clearinghouse services. At the end of the project, 647 schools had complete race and ethnicity data for the fall 2010 cohort.
Weighting
All estimates in this report were weighted to represent the full population described in the overview and description of the sample.

Ideally, the selected sample is fully representative of the population with respect to all the variables measured in the survey. However, this is usually not the case because the sample is not selected with equal probability and not all sample units respond to the survey with the same propensity. These differences cause some groups to be over or underrepresented in the responding sample. If such problems occur, no reliable conclusions can be drawn from the observed survey data, unless the sample is adjusted to correct for the lack of representativeness. A commonly applied correction technique is weighting adjustment, which is applied to the school sample.

NORC computed a final weight for each responding school to support unbiased sample estimates. These weights were used in order for the sample to represent the underlying population of schools. The purpose of the weights was to adjust for potential bias in the sample estimates due to differences in selection probabilities and response rates. The final weight can be interpreted as the number of schools that each responding school represents in the study population.

The survey weight was computed in two steps:

1. The base weight was computed to compensate for schools not selected into the sample;

2. The base weight was adjusted to compensate for sample schools that did not complete the survey.

Calculation of the Base Weight
The base weight was computed as the inverse of the probability of selection under the sample design. This survey used a stratified survey design with three strata:

Four-year public institutions

Two-year public institutions

Private institutions

Within each stratum, each school in the frame had an equal probability of selection into the sample. Thus, for each stratum, the probability of selection was computed as the ratio of the number of sampled schools to the total number of schools on the frame. The base weight per school was the inverse of its selection probability. Within each stratum, all sample schools had the same base weight and, across all sample schools, the base weight summed up to the number of schools in the frame.
Adjustment for Nonresponse
The purpose of the nonresponse adjustment was to account for the differences in response rates across subgroups of the population. The weighting class method was adopted to compute the nonresponse adjustments. First, the sample was divided into a set of mutually exclusive groups, called weighting classes, where the classes were formed by crossing the original sampling strata with the four-category region variable. States were divided into four regions, following the practice of the U.S. Census Bureau. This cross-classification defined a total of 12 weighting classes. For example, one of the weighting classes was four-year public schools in the West Region. Second, within each weighting class, the nonresponse adjustment factor was computed as the ratio of the total base weight across all schools to the total base weight of responding schools. Following standard practice, we excluded schools from the nonresponse adjustments, if they were determined to be out of scope of the survey.

The final weight was then computed as the product of the base weight and the nonresponse adjustment factor. For student-level analysis, the school weight was used for all students belonging to the particular school.
Bias Analysis
We conducted bias analysis by comparing the weighted demographic statistics, enrollment intensity, and starting institution type distributions from the representative sample with the same statistics from the full population. The assumption here was that if the selected sample was representative of the population, then the demographic distributions should have been very similar to the demographic distribution in the full population. The analysis revealed that the distributions from the sample and the full population were consistent with the exception of age, where the weighted representative sample had a higher proportion of traditional age students than the full population. This may be due to the smaller proportion of students who started at four-year for-profit schools in the selected representative sample than the full population, which was expected because the original sampling methodology did not stratify the sample based on for-profit schools.

For more details see Appendix C.
Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals
Since the study used students from a sample of schools as opposed to the entire universe of first-time students in fall 2010, the estimates are subject to sampling and nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors were due to a number of causes, including nonresponse and data entry errors. Race/ethnicity data used in this study also come from multiple sources that may have differed in how they collect, store, and report these data.

Sampling errors exist in all sample-based datasets, which means that estimates calculated from this sample will differ from estimates calculated from other possible samples, even if all the samples were based on the fall 2010 cohort and designed in the same way.

Tables 8a, 14a, and 20a in Appendix C provide the estimated standard errors for the sample estimates presented in Tables 8, 14, and 20 in Appendix B.

The tables also report the 95 percent confidence intervals for completion rate estimates for the whole cohort and disaggregated by those who began at a four- or two-year public institution. For example, for the overall completion rate for the whole cohort, regardless of the starting institution, the point estimate was 56.2 percent. The upper level of the 95 percent confidence interval was 58.20 and the lower level was 54.25. This indicates that, statistically, there is only a five percent chance that the range 54.25 to 58.20 excludes the true average completion rate. For this particular data point, the completion rate for full fall 2010 cohort (the focus of Signature Report 12) was 54.8 percent, which fell within the 95 percent confidence interval.

References

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National Student Clearinghouse Research Center [NSCRC]. (2016b). The role of community colleges in postsecondary success: Community colleges outcomes report. Retrieved from https://studentclearinghouse.info/onestop/wp-content/uploads/Comm-Colleges-Outcomes-Report.pdf

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Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Wakhungu, P.K., Yuan, X., Nathan, A. & Hwang, Y. (2016, November). Completing College: A National View of Student Attainment Rates - Fall 2010 Cohort (Signature Report No. 12). Herndon, VA: National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. Retrieved from https://nscresearchcenter.org/signaturereport12/

Sólorzano, D. G., Villalpando, O., & Oseguera, L. (2005). Educational inequities and Latina/o undergraduate students in the United States: A critical race analysis of their educational progress. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4(3), 272-294.

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Completing College - National by Race and Ethnicity - 2017 - National Student Clearinghouse Research Center

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This supplement to our Signature Report 12 provides six-year completion rates disaggregated by race and ethnicity for students who began postsecondary education in fall 2010. Suggested Citation: Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Huie, F., Wakhungu, P., Yuan, X., Nathan, A & Hwang, Y., A. (2017, April).

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First generation college students: College access, persistence, and postbachelor’s outcomes 

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First-Generation Students - College Access, Persistence, and Postbachelor’s Outcomes

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Links updated, November 2021
This information in Spanish

The mental health of our children is a natural and important concern for us all. The fact is, many mental disorders have their beginnings in childhood or adolescence, yet may go undiagnosed and untreated for years. ( 1)

We refer to mental disorders using different "umbrella" terms such as emotional disturbance, behavioral disorders, or mental illness. Beneath these umbrella terms, there is actually a wide range of specific conditions that differ from one another in their characteristics and treatment. These include (but are not limited to):

anxiety disorders;

bipolar disorder (sometimes called manic-depression);

conduct disorders;

eating disorders;

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); and

psychotic disorders.

You may be reading this fact sheet with one of these specific disorders in mind, or you may be looking for information about emotional disturbances in general. In either case, keep reading to find out what different emotional distubances have in common, how they are defined in federal law, and where to find more detailed information on specific disorders.
Quick-Jump Menu
Definition
IDEA defines emotional disturbance as follows:
We've chosen to use the term "emotional disturbance" in this fact sheet because that is the term used in the nation's special education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

"...a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems." ( 2)

As defined by IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance. ( 3)

Characteristics

As is evident in IDEA's definition, emotional disturbances can affect an individual in areas beyond the emotional. Depending on the specific mental disorder involved, a person's physical, social, or cognitive skills may also be affected. The National Alliance on Mental Illness of Southern Arizona puts this very well:

Mental illnesses are medical conditions that disrupt a person's thinking, feeling, mood, ability to relate to others and daily functioning. Just as diabetes is a disorder of the pancreas, mental illnesses are medical conditions that often result in a diminished capacity for coping with the ordinary demands of life. ( 4)

Some of the characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have an emotional disturbance include:

Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness);

Aggression or self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting);

Withdrawal (not interacting socially with others, excessive fear or anxiety);

Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills); and

Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).

Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings.

Many children who do not have emotional disturbance may display some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers.

Causes

No one knows the actual cause or causes of emotional disturbance, although several factors-heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning-have been suggested and vigorously researched. A great deal of research goes on every day, but to date, researchers have not found that any of these factors are the direct cause of behavioral or emotional problems.

According to NAMI, mental illnesses can affect persons of any age, race, religion, or income. Further:

Mental illnesses are not the result of personal weakness, lack of character, or poor upbringing. Mental illnesses are treatable. Most people diagnosed with a serious mental illness can experience relief from their symptoms by actively participating in an individual treatment plan. ( 5)

Frequency

Of the 74.5 million children in the United States, an estimated 17.1 million have or have had a psychiatric disorder. ( 6) Half of all psychiatric illness occurs before the age of 14, and 75% by the age of 24. The most common psychiatric disorders in childhood are anxiety disorders, AD/HD and disruptive behavior, depression and bipolar disorders, and eating disorders. ( 7)

Help for School-Aged Children

IDEA requires that special education and related services be made available free of charge to every eligible child with a disability, including preschoolers (ages 3-21). These services are specially designed to address the child's individual needs associated with the disability-in this case, emotional disturbance, as defined by IDEA (and further specified by states). In the 2016 school year, more than 349,000 children and youth with emotional disturbance received these services to address their individual needs related to emotional disturbance. ( 8)

Determining a child's eligibility for special education and related services begins with a full and individual evaluation of the child. Under IDEA, this evaluation is provided free of charge in public schools.
10 Basic Steps in Special Education Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Services Evaluating Children for Disability Developing Your Child's IEP
There is a lot to know about the special education process, much of which you can learn here on the CPIR site. We invite you to read the wide range of publications we offer on the topic, especially:

A Look at Specific Emotional Disturbances

As we mentioned, emotional disturbance is a commonly used umbrella term for a number of different mental disorders. Let's take a brief look at some of the most common of these.

We all experience anxiety from time to time, but for many people, including children, anxiety can be excessive, persistent, seemingly uncontrollable, and overwhelming. An irrational fear of everyday situations may be involved. This high level of anxiety is a definite warning sign that a person may have an anxiety disorder.

The term "anxiety disorder" is a broad term covering several different disabilities that share the core symptom of irrational fear. These include such different disorders as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia), and specific phobias. ( 9)

According to the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric illnesses affecting children and adults. ( 10) They are also highly treatable. Unfortunately, only about 36.9% of those affected receive treatment. ( 11)

Also known as manic-depressive illness, bipolar disorder is a serious medical condition that causes dramatic mood swings from overly "high" and/or irritable to sad and hopeless, and then back again, often with periods of normal mood in between. Severe changes in energy and behavior go along with these changes in mood. ( 12)

For most people with bipolar disorder, these mood swings and related symptoms can be stabilized over time using an approach that combines medication and psychosocial treatment. ( 13)

Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder refers to a group of behavioral and emotional problems in youngsters. Children and adolescents with this disorder have great difficulty following rules and behaving in a socially acceptable way. ( 14) This may include some of the following behaviors:

aggression to people and animals;

destruction of property;

deceitfulness, lying, or stealing; or

truancy or other serious violations of rules. (15)

Treatment will depend on the child's symptoms, age, and general health. It will also depend on how severe the condition is. Treatment may include:

helping the child learn how to better solve problems, communicate, and handle stress, as well as how to control impulses and anger (what's known as cognitive-behavioral therapy);

family therapy;

peer group therapy (to help better social and interpersonal skills); and

medications (although these are not typically used to treat conduct disorder). (16)

Eating disorders are characterized by extremes in eating behavior-either too much or too little-or feelings of extreme distress or concern about body weight or shape. Females are much more likely than males to develop an eating disorder. ( 17)

Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the two most common types of eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation and dramatic loss of weight. Bulimia nervosa involves a cycle of binge eating, then self-induced vomiting or purging. Both of these disorders are potentially life-threatening. ( 18)

Binge eating is also considered an eating disorder. It's characterized by eating excessive amounts of food, while feeling unable to control how much or what is eaten. Unlike with bulimia, people who binge eat usually do not purge afterward by vomiting or using laxatives. ( 19)

According to the National Eating Disorders Association:

Treating an eating disorder generally involves a combination of psychological and nutritional counseling, along with medical and psychiatric monitoring. Treatment must address the eating disorder symptoms and medical consequences, as well as psychological, biological, interpersonal, and cultural forces that contribute to or maintain the eating disorder... Many people utilize a treatment team to treat the multi-faceted aspects of an eating disorder. ( 20)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Often referred to as OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder is actually considered an anxiety disorder (which was discussed earlier in this fact sheet). OCD is characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Repetitive behaviors (handwashing, counting, checking, or cleaning) are often performed with the hope of preventing obsessive thoughts or making them go away. Performing these so-called "rituals," however, provides only temporary relief, and not performing them markedly increases anxiety. ( 21)

A large body of scientific evidence suggests that OCD results from a chemical imbalance in the brain. ( 22) Treatment for most people with OCD should include one or more of the following:

therapist trained in behavior therapy;

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT);

medication (usually an antidepressant). (23)

"Psychotic disorders" is another umbrella term used to refer to severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. Two of the main symptoms are delusions and hallucinations. Delusions are false beliefs, such as thinking that someone is plotting against you. Hallucinations are false perceptions, such as hearing, seeing, or feeling something that is not there. Schizophrenia is one type of psychotic disorder. ( 24) There are others as well.

Treatment for psychotic disorders will differ from person to person, depending on the specific disorder involved. Most are treated with a combination of medications and psychotherapy (a type of counseling). ( 25)

More about School

As mentioned, emotional disturbance is one of the categories of disability specified in IDEA. This means that a child with an emotional disturbance may be eligible for special education and related services in public school. These services can be of tremendous help to students who have an emotional disturbance.

Typically, educational programs for children with an emotional disturbance need to include attention to providing emotional and behavioral support as well as helping them to master academics, develop social skills, and increase self-awareness, self-control, and self-esteem. A large body of research exists regarding methods of providing students with positive behavioral support (PBS) in the school environment, so that problem behaviors are minimized and positive, appropriate behaviors are fostered. (See the resource section at the end of this fact sheet for more information on PBS.) It is also important to know that, within the school setting:

For a child whose behavior impedes learning (including the learning of others), the team developing the child's Individualized Education Program (IEP) needs to consider, if appropriate, strategies to address that behavior, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports.

Students eligible for special education services under the category of emotional disturbance may have IEPs that include psychological or counseling services. These are important related services available under IDEA and are to be provided by a qualified social worker, psychologist, guidance counselor, or other qualified personnel.

Recognizing and Addressing the Impact of COVID-19 | As young people return to in-person schooling in the 2021-2022 school year, they may bring with them the impact of the pandemic's trauma. This makes it essential that schools consider the possibility that many students will need to be re-evaluated to determine if they need additional services, especially behavioral support and mental health services, than they needed prior to COVID-19. Two resources of great relevance to reopening schools and returning students are the following:

Other Considerations

Children and adolescents with an emotional disturbance should receive services based on their individual needs, and everyone involved in their education or care needs to be well-informed about the care that they are receiving. It's important to coordinate services between home, school, and community, keeping the communication channels open between all parties involved.

The Importance of Support

Families often need help in understanding their child's disability and how to address the needs that arise from the disability. Help is available from psychiatrists, psychologists, and other mental health professionals that work in the public or private sector. There is also a network of mental health support operating in every state as well as locally.

To locate systems of support in your community or state, visit the organizations we've listed below. They can connect you with local resources, including support groups that provide connection and understanding, information, referral, and advocacy for those living with emotional disturbance.

There are also support groups available from organizations that address specific mental disorders under the umbrella term of emotional disturbance. See the resources at the end of this fact sheet to identify some of these groups.

Resources of More Information

AACAP | American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | AACAP offers Facts for Families, a series in English, Spanish, and several other languages that includes many briefs on specific mental disorders, including the ones mentioned in this publication.

AACAP also operates different Resource Centers, which offer consumer-friendly definitions, answers to frequently asked questions, clinical resources, expert videos, Facts for Families, and much more. Visit the Resource Center home page if you are concerned with one of the following:

Anxiety Disorders

Autism

Bipolar Disorder

Conduct Disorder

Depression

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

NIMH | National Institute of Mental Health | NIMH is clearly a source of authoritative information on specific mental disorders. Phone: 1.866.615.6464. TTY: 1.866.415.8051

NAMI | National Alliance on Mental Illness | NAMI is an excellent source of information and connection on mental illness, including the individual disorders mentioned in this fact sheet. NAMI's website and toll-free helpline are available in English and Spanish.

SAMHSA is the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration. It offers many resources to consumers, including:.

Detailed information on specific emotional disturbances, or related issues such as positive behavior supports, is also available from these sources:

Anxiety Disorders Association of America | https://adaa.org/

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports | The PBIS Center provides research-based information on how to provide behavioral supports to children who need them. | https://www.pbis.org

Conduct Disorders | A soft place to land for battle-weary parents
https://www.conductdisorders.com/community/

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders | http://www.minddisorders.com/index.html

National Eating Disorders Association
1.800.931.2237 | www.nationaleatingdisorders.org

Something Fishy | (eating disorders)
https://www.something-fishy.org

**Highly Rated Resource! This resource was reviewed by 3-member panels of Parent Center staff working independently from one another to rate the quality, relevance, and usefulness of CPIR resources. This resource was found to be of "High Quality, High Relevance, High Usefulness" to Parent Centers.
________________________________________

References

2 | Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, §300.8(c)(4)(i)

3 | Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, §300.8(c)(4)(ii)

5 | Ibid.

7 | Ibid.

11 | Ibid.

13 | Ibid.

14 | American Academy of Adolescent and Child Psychiatry. (2013, August). Conduct disorder: Facts for families. Washington, DC: Author. Available online at:
http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/Facts_for_Families_Pages/Conduct_Disorder_33.aspx

15 | Ibid.

16 | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. (n.d.). Conduct disorder in children. Baltimore, MD: Author. Online at:
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/mental_health_disorders/conduct_disorder_90,P02560

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Links updated, November 2021 This information in Spanish The mental health of our children is a natural and important concern for us all. The fact is, many mental disorders have their beginnings in childhood or adolescence, yet may go undiagnosed and untreated for years.

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UPDATED REGULARLY ....research-based summaries of best practices, evidence-based practices, and research-based approaches covering a wide variety of client-presenting issues and counseling topics...

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Brief research-based summaries of best practices, evidence-based practices, research-based approaches covering a wide variety of issues and topics.

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Emotional Disturbance - Center for Parent Info and Resources 

# data[].attributes.subject
Emotional Disturbance - Center for Parent Info and Resources 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Links updated, November 2021
This information in Spanish

The mental health of our children is a natural and important concern for us all. The fact is, many mental disorders have their beginnings in childhood or adolescence, yet may go undiagnosed and untreated for years. ( 1)

We refer to mental disorders using different "umbrella" terms such as emotional disturbance, behavioral disorders, or mental illness. Beneath these umbrella terms, there is actually a wide range of specific conditions that differ from one another in their characteristics and treatment. These include (but are not limited to):

anxiety disorders;

bipolar disorder (sometimes called manic-depression);

conduct disorders;

eating disorders;

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); and

psychotic disorders.

You may be reading this fact sheet with one of these specific disorders in mind, or you may be looking for information about emotional disturbances in general. In either case, keep reading to find out what different emotional distubances have in common, how they are defined in federal law, and where to find more detailed information on specific disorders.
Quick-Jump Menu
Definition
IDEA defines emotional disturbance as follows:
We've chosen to use the term "emotional disturbance" in this fact sheet because that is the term used in the nation's special education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

"...a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems." ( 2)

As defined by IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance. ( 3)

Characteristics

As is evident in IDEA's definition, emotional disturbances can affect an individual in areas beyond the emotional. Depending on the specific mental disorder involved, a person's physical, social, or cognitive skills may also be affected. The National Alliance on Mental Illness of Southern Arizona puts this very well:

Mental illnesses are medical conditions that disrupt a person's thinking, feeling, mood, ability to relate to others and daily functioning. Just as diabetes is a disorder of the pancreas, mental illnesses are medical conditions that often result in a diminished capacity for coping with the ordinary demands of life. ( 4)

Some of the characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have an emotional disturbance include:

Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness);

Aggression or self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting);

Withdrawal (not interacting socially with others, excessive fear or anxiety);

Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills); and

Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).

Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings.

Many children who do not have emotional disturbance may display some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers.

Causes

No one knows the actual cause or causes of emotional disturbance, although several factors-heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning-have been suggested and vigorously researched. A great deal of research goes on every day, but to date, researchers have not found that any of these factors are the direct cause of behavioral or emotional problems.

According to NAMI, mental illnesses can affect persons of any age, race, religion, or income. Further:

Mental illnesses are not the result of personal weakness, lack of character, or poor upbringing. Mental illnesses are treatable. Most people diagnosed with a serious mental illness can experience relief from their symptoms by actively participating in an individual treatment plan. ( 5)

Frequency

Of the 74.5 million children in the United States, an estimated 17.1 million have or have had a psychiatric disorder. ( 6) Half of all psychiatric illness occurs before the age of 14, and 75% by the age of 24. The most common psychiatric disorders in childhood are anxiety disorders, AD/HD and disruptive behavior, depression and bipolar disorders, and eating disorders. ( 7)

Help for School-Aged Children

IDEA requires that special education and related services be made available free of charge to every eligible child with a disability, including preschoolers (ages 3-21). These services are specially designed to address the child's individual needs associated with the disability-in this case, emotional disturbance, as defined by IDEA (and further specified by states). In the 2016 school year, more than 349,000 children and youth with emotional disturbance received these services to address their individual needs related to emotional disturbance. ( 8)

Determining a child's eligibility for special education and related services begins with a full and individual evaluation of the child. Under IDEA, this evaluation is provided free of charge in public schools.
10 Basic Steps in Special Education Questions Often Asked by Parents about Special Education Services Evaluating Children for Disability Developing Your Child's IEP
There is a lot to know about the special education process, much of which you can learn here on the CPIR site. We invite you to read the wide range of publications we offer on the topic, especially:

A Look at Specific Emotional Disturbances

As we mentioned, emotional disturbance is a commonly used umbrella term for a number of different mental disorders. Let's take a brief look at some of the most common of these.

We all experience anxiety from time to time, but for many people, including children, anxiety can be excessive, persistent, seemingly uncontrollable, and overwhelming. An irrational fear of everyday situations may be involved. This high level of anxiety is a definite warning sign that a person may have an anxiety disorder.

The term "anxiety disorder" is a broad term covering several different disabilities that share the core symptom of irrational fear. These include such different disorders as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia), and specific phobias. ( 9)

According to the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric illnesses affecting children and adults. ( 10) They are also highly treatable. Unfortunately, only about 36.9% of those affected receive treatment. ( 11)

Also known as manic-depressive illness, bipolar disorder is a serious medical condition that causes dramatic mood swings from overly "high" and/or irritable to sad and hopeless, and then back again, often with periods of normal mood in between. Severe changes in energy and behavior go along with these changes in mood. ( 12)

For most people with bipolar disorder, these mood swings and related symptoms can be stabilized over time using an approach that combines medication and psychosocial treatment. ( 13)

Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder refers to a group of behavioral and emotional problems in youngsters. Children and adolescents with this disorder have great difficulty following rules and behaving in a socially acceptable way. ( 14) This may include some of the following behaviors:

aggression to people and animals;

destruction of property;

deceitfulness, lying, or stealing; or

truancy or other serious violations of rules. (15)

Treatment will depend on the child's symptoms, age, and general health. It will also depend on how severe the condition is. Treatment may include:

helping the child learn how to better solve problems, communicate, and handle stress, as well as how to control impulses and anger (what's known as cognitive-behavioral therapy);

family therapy;

peer group therapy (to help better social and interpersonal skills); and

medications (although these are not typically used to treat conduct disorder). (16)

Eating disorders are characterized by extremes in eating behavior-either too much or too little-or feelings of extreme distress or concern about body weight or shape. Females are much more likely than males to develop an eating disorder. ( 17)

Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the two most common types of eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation and dramatic loss of weight. Bulimia nervosa involves a cycle of binge eating, then self-induced vomiting or purging. Both of these disorders are potentially life-threatening. ( 18)

Binge eating is also considered an eating disorder. It's characterized by eating excessive amounts of food, while feeling unable to control how much or what is eaten. Unlike with bulimia, people who binge eat usually do not purge afterward by vomiting or using laxatives. ( 19)

According to the National Eating Disorders Association:

Treating an eating disorder generally involves a combination of psychological and nutritional counseling, along with medical and psychiatric monitoring. Treatment must address the eating disorder symptoms and medical consequences, as well as psychological, biological, interpersonal, and cultural forces that contribute to or maintain the eating disorder... Many people utilize a treatment team to treat the multi-faceted aspects of an eating disorder. ( 20)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Often referred to as OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder is actually considered an anxiety disorder (which was discussed earlier in this fact sheet). OCD is characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Repetitive behaviors (handwashing, counting, checking, or cleaning) are often performed with the hope of preventing obsessive thoughts or making them go away. Performing these so-called "rituals," however, provides only temporary relief, and not performing them markedly increases anxiety. ( 21)

A large body of scientific evidence suggests that OCD results from a chemical imbalance in the brain. ( 22) Treatment for most people with OCD should include one or more of the following:

therapist trained in behavior therapy;

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT);

medication (usually an antidepressant). (23)

"Psychotic disorders" is another umbrella term used to refer to severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. Two of the main symptoms are delusions and hallucinations. Delusions are false beliefs, such as thinking that someone is plotting against you. Hallucinations are false perceptions, such as hearing, seeing, or feeling something that is not there. Schizophrenia is one type of psychotic disorder. ( 24) There are others as well.

Treatment for psychotic disorders will differ from person to person, depending on the specific disorder involved. Most are treated with a combination of medications and psychotherapy (a type of counseling). ( 25)

More about School

As mentioned, emotional disturbance is one of the categories of disability specified in IDEA. This means that a child with an emotional disturbance may be eligible for special education and related services in public school. These services can be of tremendous help to students who have an emotional disturbance.

Typically, educational programs for children with an emotional disturbance need to include attention to providing emotional and behavioral support as well as helping them to master academics, develop social skills, and increase self-awareness, self-control, and self-esteem. A large body of research exists regarding methods of providing students with positive behavioral support (PBS) in the school environment, so that problem behaviors are minimized and positive, appropriate behaviors are fostered. (See the resource section at the end of this fact sheet for more information on PBS.) It is also important to know that, within the school setting:

For a child whose behavior impedes learning (including the learning of others), the team developing the child's Individualized Education Program (IEP) needs to consider, if appropriate, strategies to address that behavior, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports.

Students eligible for special education services under the category of emotional disturbance may have IEPs that include psychological or counseling services. These are important related services available under IDEA and are to be provided by a qualified social worker, psychologist, guidance counselor, or other qualified personnel.

Recognizing and Addressing the Impact of COVID-19 | As young people return to in-person schooling in the 2021-2022 school year, they may bring with them the impact of the pandemic's trauma. This makes it essential that schools consider the possibility that many students will need to be re-evaluated to determine if they need additional services, especially behavioral support and mental health services, than they needed prior to COVID-19. Two resources of great relevance to reopening schools and returning students are the following:

Other Considerations

Children and adolescents with an emotional disturbance should receive services based on their individual needs, and everyone involved in their education or care needs to be well-informed about the care that they are receiving. It's important to coordinate services between home, school, and community, keeping the communication channels open between all parties involved.

The Importance of Support

Families often need help in understanding their child's disability and how to address the needs that arise from the disability. Help is available from psychiatrists, psychologists, and other mental health professionals that work in the public or private sector. There is also a network of mental health support operating in every state as well as locally.

To locate systems of support in your community or state, visit the organizations we've listed below. They can connect you with local resources, including support groups that provide connection and understanding, information, referral, and advocacy for those living with emotional disturbance.

There are also support groups available from organizations that address specific mental disorders under the umbrella term of emotional disturbance. See the resources at the end of this fact sheet to identify some of these groups.

Resources of More Information

AACAP | American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | AACAP offers Facts for Families, a series in English, Spanish, and several other languages that includes many briefs on specific mental disorders, including the ones mentioned in this publication.

AACAP also operates different Resource Centers, which offer consumer-friendly definitions, answers to frequently asked questions, clinical resources, expert videos, Facts for Families, and much more. Visit the Resource Center home page if you are concerned with one of the following:

Anxiety Disorders

Autism

Bipolar Disorder

Conduct Disorder

Depression

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

NIMH | National Institute of Mental Health | NIMH is clearly a source of authoritative information on specific mental disorders. Phone: 1.866.615.6464. TTY: 1.866.415.8051

NAMI | National Alliance on Mental Illness | NAMI is an excellent source of information and connection on mental illness, including the individual disorders mentioned in this fact sheet. NAMI's website and toll-free helpline are available in English and Spanish.

SAMHSA is the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration. It offers many resources to consumers, including:.

Detailed information on specific emotional disturbances, or related issues such as positive behavior supports, is also available from these sources:

Anxiety Disorders Association of America | https://adaa.org/

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports | The PBIS Center provides research-based information on how to provide behavioral supports to children who need them. | https://www.pbis.org

Conduct Disorders | A soft place to land for battle-weary parents
https://www.conductdisorders.com/community/

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders | http://www.minddisorders.com/index.html

National Eating Disorders Association
1.800.931.2237 | www.nationaleatingdisorders.org

Something Fishy | (eating disorders)
https://www.something-fishy.org

**Highly Rated Resource! This resource was reviewed by 3-member panels of Parent Center staff working independently from one another to rate the quality, relevance, and usefulness of CPIR resources. This resource was found to be of "High Quality, High Relevance, High Usefulness" to Parent Centers.
________________________________________

References

2 | Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, §300.8(c)(4)(i)

3 | Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, §300.8(c)(4)(ii)

5 | Ibid.

7 | Ibid.

11 | Ibid.

13 | Ibid.

14 | American Academy of Adolescent and Child Psychiatry. (2013, August). Conduct disorder: Facts for families. Washington, DC: Author. Available online at:
http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/Facts_for_Families_Pages/Conduct_Disorder_33.aspx

15 | Ibid.

16 | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. (n.d.). Conduct disorder in children. Baltimore, MD: Author. Online at:
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/mental_health_disorders/conduct_disorder_90,P02560

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Links updated, November 2021 This information in Spanish The mental health of our children is a natural and important concern for us all. The fact is, many mental disorders have their beginnings in childhood or adolescence, yet may go undiagnosed and untreated for years.

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Words I tend to confuse

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Top 30 Commonly Confused Words (Homophones) in English | Grammarly

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Everyone knows the problem with spell-check: your word might be spelled right, but it may be the wrong word. English is full of confusing words that sound alike but are spelled differently. It's also full of words that share similar (but not identical) meanings that are easy to misuse. Below are some of the most commonly confused and misused words in English.

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Affect/Effect Affect is usually a verb: Chester's humming affected Posey's ability to concentrate. Effect is usually a noun: Chester was sorry for the effect his humming had. If you find yourself stumped about which one to use in a sentence, try substituting the word "alter" or "result." If "alter" fits (Chester's humming altered Posey's ability to concentrate), use affect. If "result" fits (Chester was sorry for the result his humming had), use effect.

Among/Between Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of several items: Chester found a letter hidden among the papers on the desk. Between expresses the relationship of one thing to another thing or to many other things: Posey spent all day carrying messages between Chester and the other students. The idea that between can be used only when talking about two things is a myth-it's perfectly correct to use between if you are talking about multiple binary relationships.

Disinterested/Uninterested Disinterested means impartial: A panel of disinterested judges who had never met the contestants before judged the singing contest. Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with something: Posey was uninterested in attending Chester's singing class.

Flaunt/Flout Flaunt means to show off: Chester flaunted his stylish new outfit. Flout means to defy, especially in a way that shows scorn: Posey flouted the business-casual dress code by wearing a tiara and flip-flops.

Gaff/Gaffe A gaff is a type of spear or hook with a long handle: Chester completed his sailor costume with a gaff borrowed from his uncle's fishing boat. A gaffe is a faux pas or social misstep: Posey made a gaffe when she accidentally called Chester by the wrong name.

It's is a contraction of "it is": Posey needs to pack for her trip because it's only two days away. Its is a possessive pronoun that means "belonging to it": Chester is obsessed with both the book and its author.

To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is that there is an a in both to lay and to place: Posey will lay out her outfit before she goes to bed. To lie means to recline. One way to remember this is that there is an e in both to lie and to recline: Chester will lie down for a nap. Be careful, though. The past tense of to lay is laid: Posey laid out her outfit. The past tense of to lie is lay: Chester lay down for a nap over an hour ago.

Inquiry/Enquiry Inquiry and enquiry both mean "a request for information." Inquiry is the standard American English spelling. Enquiry is the British spelling.

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Top 30 Commonly Confused Words in English

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Everyone knows the problem with spell-check: your word might be spelled right, but it may be the wrong word. English is full of confusing...

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2019 Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United States: Historical Trend Report

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2019 Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United States: Historical Trend Report

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