# data[].attributes.body
mind map 3

# data[].attributes.body
mind map 2

# data[].attributes.body
mind map

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A number of researchers at Penn have strong interests in memory and learning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

Memory is one of the most fundamental mental processes. Neuroscientists study this process by using extremely diverse strategies. Two different approaches aimed at understanding learning and memory were introduced in this symposium. The first focuses on the roles played by synaptic plasticity, especially in long-term depression in the cerebellum in motor learning, and its regulatory mechanism. The second approach uses an elegant chick-quail transplantation system on defined brain regions to study how neural populations interact in development to form behaviorally important neural circuits and to elucidate neurobiological correlates of perceptual and motor predispositions.

The brain is the organ that is responsible for what we call the mind. It is the basis for thinking, feeling, wanting, perceiving, learning and memory, curiosity, and behavior. Memory is a fundamental mental process, and without memory we are capable of nothing but simple reflexes and stereotyped behaviors. Thus, learning and memory is one of the most intensively studied subjects in the field of neuroscience. Various approaches have been used to understand the mechanisms underlying this process. In this session, T.H. and E.B. presented their original approaches toward understanding learning and memory.

We define memory as a behavioral change caused by an experience, and define learning as a process for acquiring memory. According to these definitions, there are different kinds of memory. Some memories, such as those concerning events and facts, are available to our consciousness; this type of memory is called "declarative memory." However, another type of memory, called "procedural memory," is not available to consciousness. This is the memory that is needed, for example, to use a previously learned skill. We can improve our skills through practice. With training, the ability to play tennis, for example, will improve. Declarative memory and procedural memory are independent. There are patients with impaired declarative memory whose procedural memory is completely spared. Because of this fact, neuroscientists believe that there must be separate mechanisms for each type of memory that probably also require separate brain areas as well. The cerebrum and hippocampus are considered important for declarative memory, and the cerebellum for procedural memory. In any case, neuroscientists think that memory must require alterations to occur in the brain. The most popular candidate site for memory storage is the synapse, where nerve cells (neurons) communicate ( 1). In other words, a change in the transmission efficacy at the synapse (synaptic plasticity) has been considered to be the cause of memory. A particular pattern of synaptic usage or stimulation, called the conditioning stimulation, is believed to induce synaptic plasticity. Many questions remain to be answered, such as how synaptic plasticity is induced and how synaptic plasticity is implicated in learning and memory. Many studies concerning these issues are now in progress.

In the cerebellum, the combined activation of two different synaptic inputs to a particular neuron (called a Purkinje neuron) depresses the transmission efficacy at a synapse. This depression is persistent and is called long-term depression (LTD) ( 2, 3). The LTD in the cerebellum has been considered to be the cellular basis of motor learning. Hirano and colleagues succeeded in inducing cerebellar LTD in culture ( 4). Cellular and molecular analyses of the induction mechanism of LTD have been performed with culture and slice preparations, and a number of molecules implicated in the LTD mechanism have been identified ( 5). A widely used strategy for identifying molecules implicated in synaptic plasticity has been to inhibit the plasticity by blocking the function of a particular molecule. These studies have relied on tools such as inhibitory drugs or on more specific molecular tools, such as antibodies.

Another frontier in the study of synaptic plasticity is to clarify the role of plasticity in learning and memory. The strategy has been to examine the correlation between synaptic plasticity and learning by inhibiting the plasticity in a living animal. To do this, investigators have used inhibitors for certain molecules that are required for synaptic plasticity. Recently, another set of very useful tools has become available. These tools are genetically engineered mutant mice such as knockout or transgenic mice. A knockout mouse is a mutant mouse that is deficient in a specific native molecule. By using mutant mice, the relationship between synaptic plasticity and learning ability has been examined ( 6). One model behavior that has been used to analyze the relationship between synaptic plasticity and learning is the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). The VOR is the reflex that moves the eyes in the opposite direction to head motion, allowing the animal to fixate on the visual image ( 7). The efficacy of the VOR is modifiable and results in adjustments in its gain. For example, the gain of VOR increases if the subject wears magnifying spectacles. It has been proposed that the cerebellar LTD is implicated in such VOR adaptations. The merits of studying the VOR adaptation as a model case for motor learning are as follows. First, the neural circuit for the VOR is simple. Second, both the input (head motion) and the output (eye movement) can be quantified. Efforts are underway to analyze the relationship between the changes in neuronal activity and the VOR adaptation.

Learning does not only involve changes in synaptic efficacy resulting from the convergence of several kinds of concurrent environmental stimulation. We previously described their work on naturalistic models such as song learning in birds, suggesting that brain systems produce unlearned biases that also contribute in important ways to the learning process ( 8). Such biases can appear in both sensory and motor aspects of learned behaviors. For instance, one taxonomic group of birds, the oscines or true songbirds, all learn to sing by imitation. To produce biologically functional songs, they need to hear examples of species songs during development, which they commit to memory. They subsequently perfect their song performance by ear and are capable of using both memorized material as well as songs of birds they can hear to produce an acceptable species song ( 9).

Although it is likely that social information is important when a young songbird selects models for learning, experiments by Marler et al. ( 10) have demonstrated that two closely related species of North American sparrows can choose species-appropriate models in the absence of social information. In work on one of these species, the swamp sparrow Melospiza georgiana, Balaban ( 11, 12) studied learned intraspecific geographic song variation correlated with population genetic differences and found consistent geographic differences in female sexual responses to songs that appeared to be unaffected by developmental exposure to songs of different types. Such work suggested the existence of brain mechanisms that biased birds' attention and memory toward songs with particular characteristics.

Experiments on the songs of birds reared in various degrees of acoustic isolation also suggested that there might be biases in the motor system that produces singing. By using species differences in the normal songs of song sparrows ( Melospiza melodia) and the above-mentioned swamp sparrow as a yardstick, Marler et al. ( 13) found that many of the structural differences in the individual acoustic units of the songs, differences in song temporal characteristics, and differences in large-scale song organization also were found in the songs of birds reared with no exposure to normal species songs. Some differences in song temporal characteristics and song organization also were retained in the highly abnormal songs of birds deafened in early infancy. Both sensory and motor predispositions are just that-biases that can be overridden by experience ( 14). Their subtlety makes them useful for guiding learning (inflexible biases would be self-defeating in a learning process) but has proven something of an obstacle to neurobiological work.

Balaban et al. ( 15) described a system for studying neurobiological correlates of perceptual and motor predispositions. Transplants of defined portions of tissue that will later become the central nervous system between the embryos of two bird species (the domestic chicken, Gallus gallus spp., and the Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica) are performed at early stages of development, and transplanted host embryos are allowed to hatch. The resulting animals, called chimeras, have selected central nervous system regions made up from cells of the donor species. Donor and host regions of the central nervous system can be identified in subsequent histological examination, which allows the identification of regions of the brain that evolution changes to change perceptual and motor behavior. It also provides an experimental system for studying how brain regions interact in development to form behaviorally important neural circuits.

Work on a motor predispositions using species differences in sound production and head movement during the "crowing" vocalization has demonstrated that this difference is caused by changes in several anatomically distinct cell groups in different parts of the brain that have independent effects on the behavioral components of crowing (ref. 16 and Fig. 1). We also described more recent work on auditory perceptual preferences using species differences in an alerting vocalization parents give to young, the "maternal call" ( 17). These studies suggest that early-developing parts of the brain may influence developmental decisions in later-developing parts to change the operating characteristics of cells involved in complex behavioral circuits in many different parts of the brain. Elucidating these developmental interactions will be a major focus of continuing studies.

Acknowledgments

E.B.'s work is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health and Neuroscience Research Foundation.

Footnotes

↵ † To whom reprint requests should be addressed. E-mail: okano{at}nana.med.osaka-u.ac.jp .

This paper is a summary of a session presented at the second annual Japanese-American Frontiers of Science symposium, held October 1-3, 1999, at the International Conference Center, Tsukuba, Japan.

Article published online before print: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 10.1073/pnas.210381897.

Article and publication date are at www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.210381897

Abbreviations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Memory is one of the most fundamental mental processes. Neuroscientists study this process by using extremely diverse strategies. Two different approaches aimed at understanding learning and memory were introduced in this symposium. The first focuses on the roles played by synaptic plasticity, especially in long-term depression in the cerebellum in motor learning, and its regulatory mechanism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Funding for this site is provided by readers like you.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires following the rules of logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules. This is a misconception. Critical thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-the-box", challenging consensus and pursuing less popular approaches.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Can thinking be taught in the classroom? I believe that students already have the tools they need to think for themselves. However, they need help learning how to apply it. To do this, use some of these ways to teach your students how to think.

Be Honest When You Don't Have the Answer

As teachers, we often feel that we need to be the person that students can turn to for all the answers. We don't want to look stupid or lose authority by admitting that we don't know something. In actuality, telling students when you don't have the answer can have a positive impact on them. They realize that it's okay not to know the answer. It's okay to think differently from others. So, if you don't know an answer or have a different answer than your students, be honest with them and let them know.

Encourage Students to Ask Questions

With the Internet, there's a lot of opinions floating around. It's important for students to question everything and find answers on their own. Teach students that they shouldn't accept everything as truth. Encourage students to ask questions. Then, push them to conduct research and discover the truth for themselves.

Allow Students to Make Choices

Part of thinking for yourself involves making your own choices about your education. This could involve allowing students to choose their own writing prompt, project, or essay topic. Think about ways to provide students with options, so they can practice thinking for themselves and taking responsibility for their own learning.

Choose Alternative Assessments Instead of Tests

For most tests, students memorize information and repeat it back to you. It doesn't require them to think critically. To get students to really apply what they've learned, find alternate ways to assess their learning. Projects, essays, class activities, and other methods can be just as effective while pushing students to think about what they're learning in a new way.

Have Students Try New Things

Encourage students to step outside of their comfort zone and try new things. Some of the things they could do include:

Writing poems

Acting in a play

Making something new

Serving others

As students stretch themselves beyond what they thought they were capable of, they'll have the opportunity to learn about themselves and think a little deeper.

Provide Opportunities for Meditation

To get students thinking, why not create a time to think during class? Opportunities for meditation could allow students to think about how they think. For example, have students plan out projects and other activities before they do it. After they're done, they can meditate to reflect on what they did and how they would do things differently.

Can thinking be taught in the classroom? Maybe not. But with the right planning and lessons, you can create an environment that encourages them to think critically on their own.

By the way, sign up for our 1 Week Free Trial to try out Magoosh Praxis Prep!

About Jamie Goodwin

Jamie graduated from Brigham Young University- Idaho with a degree in English Education. She spent several years teaching and tutoring students at the elementary, high school, and college level. She currently works as a contract writer and curriculum developer for online education courses. In her free time, she enjoys running and spending time with her boys!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Student Critical Thinking: Can Thinking Be Taught in the Classroom?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Can thinking be taught in the classroom? I believe that students already have the tools they need to think for themselves. However, they need help learning how to apply it. To do this, use some of these ways to teach your students how to think.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The brain is an organ that's made up of a large mass of nerve tissue that's protected within the skull. It plays a role in just about every major body system.

Some of its main functions include:

processing sensory information

regulating blood pressure and breathing

releasing hormones

Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It's divided into two halves, called hemispheres. The two hemispheres are separated by a groove called the interhemispheric fissure. It's also called the longitudinal fissure.

Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into broad regions called lobes. Each lobe is associated with different functions:

Frontal lobes. The frontal lobes are the largest of the lobes. As indicated by their name, they're located in the front part of the brain. They coordinates high-level behaviors, such as motor skills, problem solving, judgment, planning, and attention. The frontal lobes also manage emotions and impulse control.

Parietal lobes. The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes. They're involved in organizing and interpreting sensory information from other parts of the brain.

Temporal lobes. The temporal lobes are located on either side of the head on the same level as the ears. They coordinate specific functions, including visual memory (such as facial recognition), verbal memory (such as understanding language), and interpreting the emotions and reactions of others.

Occipital lobes. The occipital lobes are located in the back of the brain. They're heavily involved in the ability to read and recognize printed words, along with other aspects of vision.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located in the back of the brain, just below the occipital lobes. It's involved with fine motor skills, which refers to the coordination of smaller, or finer, movements, especially those involving the hands and feet. It also helps the body maintain its posture, equilibrium, and balance.

Diencephalon

The diencephalon is located at the base of the brain. It contains the:

The thalamus acts as a kind of relay station for signals coming into the brain. It's also involved in consciousness, sleep, and memory.

The epithalamus serves as a connection between the limbic system and other parts of the brain. The limbic system is a part of the brain that's involved with emotion, long-term memory, and behavior.

The hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis. This refers to the balance of all bodily functions. It does this by:

maintaining daily physiological cycles, such as the sleep-wake cycle

controlling appetite

regulating body temperature

controlling the producing and release of hormones

Brain stem

The brain stem is located in front of the cerebellum and connects to the spinal cord. It consists of three major parts:

Midbrain. The midbrain helps control eye movement and processes visual and auditory information.

Pons. This is the largest part of the brain stem. It's located below the midbrain. It's a group of nerves that help connect different parts of the brain. The pons also contains the start of some of the cranial nerves. These nerves are involved in facial movements and transmitting sensory information.

Medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain. It acts as the control center for the function of the heart and lungs. It helps regulate many important functions, including breathing, sneezing, and swallowing.

Use this interactive 3-D diagram to explore the brain.

The brain is one of your most important body parts, so it's important to know how to recognize signs that there may be a problem.

Brain injury symptoms

Brain injury symptoms depend on the type and severity of the injury. While they sometimes appear immediately after a traumatic event, they can also show up hours or days later.

General brain injury symptoms may include:

headache

nausea or vomiting

feeling confused or disoriented

dizziness

feeling tired or drowsy

speech problems, including slurring

sleeping more or less than usual

dilation of one or both pupils

fluid draining from your nose or ears

sensory problems, such as blurry vision or a ringing in your ears

trouble remembering things or difficulty concentrating

mood swings or unusual behavior

Cerebrovascular injury symptoms

Symptoms tend to come on suddenly and include:

severe headache

loss of vision

inability to speak

inability to move or feel a part of the body

drooping face

coma

Brain tumor symptoms

Brain tumor symptoms depend on the size, location, and type of tumor.

General brain tumor symptoms may include:

headache

nausea or vomiting

loss of motor coordination, such as trouble walking

feeling sleepy

feelings of weakness

appetite changes

convulsions or seizures

issues with your vision, hearing, or speech

difficulty concentrating

mood swings or behavior changes

Neurodegenerative symptoms

Neurodegenerative diseases cause damage to nervous tissue over time, so their symptoms may get worse as time goes on.

General neurodegenerative symptoms include:

memory loss or forgetfulness

changes in mood, personality, or behavior

issues with motor coordination, such as difficulty walking or staying balanced

speech issues, such as slurring or hesitation before speaking

Psychological symptoms

Symptoms of psychological conditions can be very different from person to person, even when they involve the same condition.

Some general symptoms of a psychological condition include:

excessive feelings of fear, worry, or guilt

feeling sad or dejected

confusion

difficulty concentrating

low energy

extreme stress that gets in the way of daily activities

extreme mood swings

withdrawal from loved ones or activities

delusions or hallucinations

suicidal ideation

Follow these tips to keep your brain in good health and to reduce your risk of certain brain conditions:

Use it or lose it

Improve your mental fitness by regularly reading, learning, or doing activities that make you think, such as crossword puzzles. All of these help stimulate your nerve cells, and may even lead to the development of new brain cells.

Protect your head

Always wear a helmet when playing contact sports. Be sure to buckle up when you get in the car. Both of these can go a long way when it comes to avoiding brain injuries.

Exercise

Doing regular cardio workouts stimulates blood flow throughout your body, including your brain.

Quit smoking

While smoking is bad for your overall health, it can also lead to cognitive decline.

Listen to your thoughts

Try to check in from time to time with your thoughts or feelings. Keeping a diary is a good way to get into this habit. Look for any thought patterns or emotions that seem to be impacting your day-to-day life. They could be a sign of an underlying, treatable psychological condition.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Brain: Function and Anatomy of Parts, Diagram, Conditions, Health Tips

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The brain is one of your most important organs. Without it, you couldn't breathe or walk. We'll go over the different parts of the brain and explain what each one does. You'll also learn about common brain conditions and how to improve the health of your brain.