# data[].attributes.body
n activities such as mining and construction also results in soil erosion.  Anyhow, another human activity that heavily affects the nutrient intake of plants is intensive agriculture. This activity not only causes soil erosion due to the amount of land farmed and how much farming practices disrupt the ground, the activity also over drains streams and heavily destroyed fresh water supplies on the account of the large amount of fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals that find way to water ways. Synthetic fertilizers have long-term negative effects. Synthetic fertilizers kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that convert dead human and plant remains into nutrient-rich organic matter. Nitrogen- and phosphate-based synthetic fertilizers leach into groundwater and increase its toxicity, causing water pollution. Synthetic fertilizers also increase the nitrate levels of soil. Plants produced from such soil, upon consumption, convert to toxic nitrites in the intestines. Furthermore, power plants and factories hold a significant impact on plant growth. They produce oil spill, sewage leakage as well as smoke stacks which all contribute to different kind pollution. Oil spill from factories causes various chemicals to seep into the soil and strip it from any nutritional content. These chemicals also damage plant cells and prevent plants from obtaining nutrients and growing.  Sewage leakages discharge into water bodies and contaminate it. Smoke stacks produced from power plants and factories can be said as the most dangerous out of all the waste products as it causes air pollution, which already cause a handful of problems to not only plants but also humans. In addition, smoke stacks produced are the main cause of acid rain as it contains a lot of sulphur dioxide. When this rain reaches earth’s surface, it causes damage to the soil, water, and plants. Not only does direct exposure to acid rain directly damage the plants, it damages leaves and makes it harder for the plant or tree to photosynthesize and regulate the exchange of gasses. The acid rain also affects the quality of the soils, as it pollutes the soils and damages plants by dissolving and washing away the nutrients and minerals from the soil on which the plants rely.  Most factories and power plants also burn a handful of fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels from various industrial processes adds nitrogen and nitrous oxide compounds to the atmosphere, which upsets the balance of natural nitrogen, polluting ecosystems and altering the ecology of entire regions. When nitrous oxides flow into the soil, it loses nutrients such as calcium and potassium which are essential to maintain a balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss of these compounds, soil fertility declines. Also, soils become significantly more acidic, as do stream systems and lakes as the nitrogen feeds into the water supply. Moreover, the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, chlorine and bromine containing compounds are also mainly produced from factories and power plants. The increased in greenhouse gases leads to the depletion of the ozone layer or called ozone holes. Holes in the upper atmosphere allow an excess ultraviolet light to pass through the atmosphere leading to plant damage. In the lower atmosphere, ozone damages plants by preventing photosynthesis and obstructing stomata, restricting respiration and stunting plant growth. Another human activity that seems good but is in fact harmful in the long term is genetic modifications on plants. The main effect of genetic modifications is changing the natural ways of competition or predation. Besides that, soil microorganisms regulating the flow of nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and other important nutrients for plants are also impacted.

♥ Group 1 (3K5) ~~♥
♥ Group 1 (3K5) ~~♥

𝙁𝙖𝙧𝙯𝙖𝙣𝙖, 𝙎𝙤𝙛𝙚𝙖, 𝙔𝙖𝙨𝙢𝙞𝙣, 𝙉𝙖𝙯𝙞𝙧, 𝙎𝙝𝙖𝙢𝙞𝙚𝙧, 𝙉𝙖𝙯𝙢𝙞𝙣, 𝙄𝙯𝙯𝙪𝙙𝙙𝙞𝙣
(っ◔◡◔)っ

MICRONUTRIENT
-Copper(Cu)
Enzyme Component
Nitrogen metabolism and photosynthesis
Reproductive growth and flower       formation in plants
-Iron(Fe)
Cofactor in synthesis of chlorophyll
Essential for young growing parts
-Manganese(Mn)
Activators of enzymes in photosynthesis, respiration of nitrogen metabolism
-Molybdenum(Mo)
Nitrogen fixing
Reduction of nitra
-Zinc(Zn)
growth hormone production and internode elongation.
-Boron(B)
 used with calcium in cell wall synthesis and is essential for cell division (creating new plant cells). 







MACRONUTRIENT
-Nitrogen (N)
part of proteins and nucleic acid, used to synthesize vitamins
-Phosphorus (P)
used to synthesize nucleic acid and phospolipids, enables food energy to be converted into chemical energy
-Potassium (K)
helps to regulate stomatal opening and closing which mantains a healthy water balanced
-Sulphur (S)
part of amino acids such as cysteine and methionine 
-Calcium (Ca)
regulates nutrient transport and supports enzyme functions
-Magnesium (Mg) 
used in the photosynthetic process
-Carbon (C)
Required for the plant to form carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, among other compounds; the most abundant  element in plant cells, accounting for about 50 percent of the cell
-Hydrogen (H)
Used with oxygen to form water
-Oxygen (O)
Used with hydrogen for cellular respiration; required to store energy in the form of ATP
MICRONUTRIENT

MICRONUTRIENT
-Iron(Fe)-Mangan
-Iron(Fe)
-Manganese(Mn)
-Molybdenum(Mo)
-Zinc(Zn)
-Boron(B)
MACRONUTRIENTS


MACRONUTRIENTS
Group 2 3K5
Group 2 3K5
Dania,Nurin,Aina,Hana,Adam,Danish+


MACRONUTRIENTS
- Macronutrients are elements required by plants in relatively large amounts

1.Malnutrients of sulphur ( dania )
- General yellowing of the affected leaves or the entire plant ( deficiency )
- Reduce a plant’s uptake of other nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, boron, copper, iron, or zinc, resulting in deficiencies of these nutrients ( excessive ) 
2.  Magnesium:  nurin

Deficiency:
Older leaves turn yellow at the edges leaving green arrowhead shape in the center of the leaf.

Excessive:
A little extra magnesium is not particularly harmful. When growing in soil, excessive quantities of magnesium do not appear quickly. Too much magnesium inhibits the uptake of calcium, and the plant displays general symptoms of an excess of salts; stunted growth, and dark-colored  vegetation.  When too much magnesium contributes to a deficiency in calcium, the result is limited fruit production and poor storage root production. 




MICRONUTRIENTS
- MIcronutrients are elements required by plants in small quantities.

1. Malnutrients of Boron ( dania )
- death of terminal buds, abnormal plant growth, leaves become thick,curled and brittle ( deficiency )
- Yellowing or browning of foliage, leaf tips become dry ( excessive )
2。 Magnesium:

Deficiency:
Older leaves turn yellow at the edges leaving green arrowhead shape in the center of the leaf.

Excessive:
A little extra magnesium is not particularly harmful. When growing in soil, excessive quantities of magnesium do not appear quickly. Too much magnesium inhibits the uptake of calcium, and the plant displays general symptoms of an excess of salts; stunted growth, and dark-colored  vegetation.  When too much magnesium contributes to a deficiency in calcium, the result is limited fruit production and poor storage root production. 


tively large amounts. The
tively large amounts. These macronutrients are:
1. Carbon (C)
2. potassium (K)
3. hydrogen (H)
4. calcium (Ca)
5. magnesium (Mg)
6. nitrogen (N)
7. su
Group 3 3K2
GROUP 1 3K2
GROUP 1 3K2
Amalia, Azalea, Athifa, Umie, Adra, Jannah, Izazi, Iman, Ziyad

MACRONUTRIENTS
- Macronutreints are elements required by plants in relatively large amounts. These macronutrients are:
1. Carbon (C)
-Important in sugar synthesis
2. potassium (K)
-Protect plats against disease
-Stimulates cell division
-Activates many enzymes
-To form starch granules
3. hydrogen (H)
-Key in the conversion of light energy to ATP 
4. calcium (Ca)
-Controls the partial permeability of cell membrane
-Helps in middle lamella and cell wall formation
5. magnesium (Mg)
-Helps in chlorophyll synthesis
-Helps in protoplasm formation
Activates respiratory enzymes
6. nitrogen (N)
-Helps in chlorophyll and protein synthesis
7. sulphur (S)
-Helps in protein and nucleic acid synthesis
-Helps in protoplasm formation
-Activates respiratory enzymes
MICRONUTRIENTS
-Elements required in a small amount and required mainly for the formation of the pigments  and enzymes
1.Boron (B)
-Helps in organic compounds synthesis
-Important in cell wall formation
-Developments of fruits and seeds
2.Zinc (Zn)
-Helps in auxin synthesis
-Acts as an enzyme cofactors
-Activates certain enzymes
3.Iron (Fe)
-Helps in chlorophyll synthesis
-Helps in respiratory enzymes formation
4.Molybdenum (Mo)
-Involves in nitrogen fixation metabolism
-Important to form the certain enzyme in nitrogen metabolism
5.Copper (Cu)
-Important component of enzymes in photosynthesis and respiration
-Important in chlorophyll formation
-Important in plant reproduction
6.Manganese (Mn)
-Activates certain enzymes in carbohydrates and nitrogen metabolism
-Helps in photosynthesis and respiration


Group 1 3K4
Group 1 3K4
Aiman & 'Ammar

Definition of macronutrient: 
a chemical element or substance (such as potassium or protein) that is essential in relatively large amounts to the growth and health of a living organism

Definition of micronutrients:
Micronutrients are compounds that are only required in minimal amounts which aid in the growth, development, and maintenance of the body.

Function of macronutrients: 
Macronutrients are those nutrients required in large amounts that provide the energy needed to maintain body functions and carry out the activities of daily life. There are 3 macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Function of micronutrients:
Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.
Group 3 (3K7)
Group 3 (3K7)
Humaira, Safwan, Thaqif, Danish, Alif.

# data[].attributes.body
Nimes, Jenn, Afham, Mardhiyah, Fatin
#Role of Calvin Cycle
Definition : light-independent reactions/dark reactions , a series of reactions that reduce carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrate glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

use ATP & NADPH made by light depend reactions

3 steps occur; Carbon Fixation, Reduction, Regeneration of RuBP

Final product : glucose

Carbon Fixation
-Carbon dioxide attached to five-carbon molecule (Ribulose 1, 5-biphosphate, RuBP)
-With help from RuBisCO
-The 6-carbon molecule split into 2, 3-carbon molecules
- Creates 2 (3-phosphoglycerate, PGA)
Reduction
- Requires NADPH and some ATP
- Convert the 3-PGA molecules (from the carbon fixation stage) into a three carbon sugar known (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, G3P)
- ATP add group of 2 phosphate to each 3-PGA molecules (ATP changes into ADP)
- turn to two 1,3 biphosphoglycerate
- 1,3 biphosphoglycerate receives two electrons from NADPH and lose 1 phosphate each molecules
- become glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, G3P
-NADPH change to NADP+

These process repeat 3 times creates 6 G3P

5 Re-form while 1 remaining will turn to glucose, fatty acid or glycerol.

Regeneration of RuBP

- RuBP is regenerated from G3P
-5 G3P will re-form and turn to first phase where turn back to Ribulose 1, 5-biphosphate by receives, gain and lose electron from NADH and ATP process again.
- The cycle will turn again

-  From 1 remaining G3P in reduction phase ,it can :
times 2 and become glucose  (6 times Calvin Cycle).
Then it(glucose) can removes the phosphate and add fructose to become sucrose which is will be use to transport carbohydrate among the plant system. Glucose is also a starting molecule for synthesize starch & cellulose.

# data[].attributes.body
Hana, Aina, Nazir, Yasmin, Aiman, Izzuddin, Nurin

Task 1: Compare and contrast the different ways of gaseous exchange in plants.

**updated**
S = stomata
L = lenticels
R = roots

// location organelle
S: minute pores in the epidermis of the leaf or the stem of plant, forming slits of variable width, which allow the movement of gases in and out of the inter cellular space.
L: the many raised pores in the stem of a woody plant, allowing gas exchange between the atmosphere and the internal tissues.

// location of gaseous exchange
S: mainly occur in the lower epidermis of the leaf
L: occur in the epidermis of woody trunks or stem

// opening & closing
S: open and closes based on the requirements of the plant
L: is always remained opened

// occurring time of gaseous exchange
S: occur during primary growth
L: occur during secondary growth

// presence of guard cells
S: guard cells are present and they determine the size of each stoma
L: do not contain guard cells

// amount of water vapour transpired
S: transpire a large amount of water vapour
L: transpire a small amount of water vapour

(why no Roots?)

# data[].attributes.body
Nurin, Hana, Aina, Aiman, Izzuddin, Nazir
Task 1 : Compare and contrast the ways of gaseous exchange

Stomata:

Respiration in leaves takes place through stomata that is present as tiny pores in the leaves of a plant.

Oxygen gets diffused in stomata and reaches other cells of the leaves.

The carbon dioxide produced in the process of respiration also gets diffused with stomata and moves out of the leaves.

takes places at both day and night time

Lenticels:

A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells with large intracellular shapes in the periderm of secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody stems and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants.

It functions as a pore providing a gateway for direct exchange of gases between the internal tissues.

Root:

Roots of the plant take oxygen from the air that is present in-between the particles of soil.

Root-hair, which is an extension of the epidermal cells of a root, is in direct contact with the soil.

Oxygen diffuses in root hair and reaches all the other cells of the roots.

It is through root hairs that only carbon dioxide gets diffused into them and is expelled from the roots of a plant.

Thus, respiration in roots of the plant occurs by diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through root hairs.

Also, many a times we have noticed that plants die if they are waterlogged for long. This is because due to water logging air is expelled from in-between the particles of soil and thus, oxygen becomes unavailable to the roots of the plants. Under such condition plant respire anaerobically which produces alcohol and kills them.

Task 2:

How are respiration and photosynthesis interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both process.

(How are respiration and photosynthesis interrelated in plants? ) - No answer

Similarities

Both involve in production of energy

Both involve the exchange of gases

Both the process takes place in cell organelle which was considered as endosymbiotic organism. They are chloroplast and Mitochondria, Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

At critical condition both have alternate pathway.

Differences

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast, where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

Photosynthesis involve production of carbohydrate and respiration involve breaking of carbohydrate.

Photosynthesis occur only during presence of sunlight where as respiration occurs all the time.

In photosynthesis process Oxygen is released where as in respiration Oxygen is utilised.

# data[].attributes.body
Nabihah . Sofea

Task 1: Identify the ways how plants respire

1. Stomata

Oxygen from the air enters into a leaf through stomata and reaches all the cells by the process of diffusion.

The carbon dioxide produced  diffuses out from the leaf into the air through same stomata.

2. Lenticels

It appears as a lens-shaped spot ( pores) found on stems.

Provides a pathway for the direct exchange of gases between the internal tissues and atmosphere through the stem.

Almost all plants close stomata at night because there is no sunlight

Lenticel will take place and absorp oxygen.

Carbon dioxide is released as repiration only need oxygen

3. Roots

The roots of a plant take up air from the spaces between the soil particles.

Root hairs are in contact with the air in the soil particles.

Oxygen from the air in soil particles diffuse into root hair and reach all the cells of the root where it is utilised in respiration.

Carbon dioxide produced in the cells of the root during respiration goes out through the same root hair by the process of diffusion.

Task 2: How plants carry out respiration? How many types of respiration are found in plants?

How plants carry out respiration?

When the stomata are open, they connect the air spaces within the leaves to the atmosphere.

Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses into the air spaces and then dissolves in the film of water around the mesophyll cells.

Oxygen is then used in aerobic respiration.

The concentration of oxygen in the cells become lower than the concentration of oxygen in the air spaces.

The difference in concentration gradient allows oxygen to diffuse continuously from the air spaces into the cells.

During the day, the carbon dioxide produced during aerobic respiration is used in photosynthesis.

The excess carbon dioxide diffuses into the air spaces and then through the stomata into the atmosphere.

How many types of respiration?

Aerobic respiration

Takes place in the mitochondria.

In the presence of oxygen, glucose is oxidized to release energy, CO2 and water.

Most of the energy is kept as ATP molecules and part of it is released as heat energy.

C ₆ H ₁₂ O ₆ + 6O ₂  -> 6CO ₂ + 6H ₂ O + energy

Anaerobic respiration

Occur during the absence of oxygen.

When there is a flood, the supply of oxygen is cut off.

In anaerobic respiration, glucose is partially broken down into ethanol and CO₂

A lot of energy is stil locked up in the ethanol molecule.

When anaerobic situation prolongs, the concentration of ethanol increases and poisons the plants.

Therefore, plants that are not adapted to prolonged flooding will die.

Rice plants are planted in the mud of flooded paddy fields.

When the concentration of oxygen in the waterlogged soil falls too low, the root cells respire anaerobically.

C ₆ H ₁₂ O ₆  -> 2C ₂ H ₅ OH + 2CO ₂ + energy

# data[].attributes.body
Nurin, Hana, Aina, Aiman, Izzuddin, Nazir, Yasmin
Task 1 : Compare and contrast the ways of gaseous exchange

Stomata:

Respiration in leaves takes place through stomata that is present as tiny pores in the leaves of a plant.

Oxygen gets diffused in stomata and reaches other cells of the leaves.

The carbon dioxide produced in the process of respiration also gets diffused with stomata and moves out of the leaves.

takes places at both day and night time

Lenticels:

A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells with large intracellular shapes in the periderm of secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody stems and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants.

It functions as a pore providing a gateway for direct exchange of gases between the internal tissues.

Root:

Roots of the plant take oxygen from the air that is present in-between the particles of soil.

Root-hair, which is an extension of the epidermal cells of a root, is in direct contact with the soil.

Oxygen diffuses in root hair and reaches all the other cells of the roots.

It is through root hairs that only carbon dioxide gets diffused into them and is expelled from the roots of a plant.

Thus, respiration in roots of the plant occurs by diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through root hairs.

Also, many a times we have noticed that plants die if they are waterlogged for long. This is because due to water logging air is expelled from in-between the particles of soil and thus, oxygen becomes unavailable to the roots of the plants. Under such condition plant respire anaerobically which produces alcohol and kills them.

Task 2:

How are respiration and photosynthesis interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both process.

Similarities

Both involve in production of energy

Both involve the exchange of gases

Both the process takes place in cell organelle which was considered as endosymbiotic organism. They are chloroplast and Mitochondria, Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

At critical condition both have alternate pathway.

Differences

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast, where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

Photosynthesis involve production of carbohydrate and respiration involve breaking of carbohydrate.

Photosynthesis occur only during presence of sunlight where as respiration occurs all the time.

In photosynthesis process Oxygen is released where as in respiration Oxygen is utilised.

# data[].attributes.body
Dania, Farhana, Adam, Nazmin, Shamier, Danish

Task 1 : Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants.

1)Flood

Excessive moisture in soil decreases oxygen levels. Flooding impedes respiration in the roots leading to the build-up of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen gases. If leaves and stems are submerged, photosynthesis can be inhibited and plant growth can slow or even stop.Plants that are suffering from excessive-water stress are more prone to infection by disease-causing organisms such as fungi or insects.

2)Haze

Dust accumulation on leaf surfaces induces water stress-like conditions, such as a reduction of stomata conductance, photosynthesis and transpiration and increased leaf temperature.

3)Global warming

Global warming will increase the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. CO₂ levels rise, it amps up photosynthesis. Plants in this hotter, CO₂-rich environment grow bigger, with more leaves because of increasing rate of photosynthesis

4)Drought

Drought stress results when water loss from the plant exceeds the ability of roots to absorb water and when the plant's water content is reduced, the plant's stomata will shut and the plant will be deprived of CO². Carbon dioxide concentration will directly affect the rate of photosynthesis

Photosynthetic rate, stomata conductance and transpiration rate were significantly declined by water stress, while the intercellular CO ₂ concentration was changed only slightly at the initiation of stress treatment. The maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem 2 and apparent photosynthetic electron transport rate were not changed by water stress.
5)Acid rain

Acid rain removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow. At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees' foliage, leaving them with brown or dead leaves and needles

Task 2 :  Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at the condition of balance and imbalance.

i) balance

Equilibrium is the state in which all processes are in balance and there is no accumulation of wastes.

Oxygen is maintained at a fairly stable 21% in our atmosphere, at higher concentrations, combustion proceeds more quickly and consumes oxygen. This is an example of a negative feedback – a process that acts to cancel its own trigger.

Plants will not be able to respire and produce their food. It will also cause lack of carbon dioxide level.

ii) imbalance

Respiration higher than photosynthesis

Higher rate of respiration leads to more consumption of the oxygen and if the food production/photosynthesis is less then the plant can't get energy as it is consuming more oxygen and it takes more energy so the plant will be starved.

Photosynthesis is higher than respiration

Aerobic respiration continues all the time in plant cells (in light and in darkness), using up oxygen and making carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis, in contrast, occurs only in light and uses up carbon dioxide and makes oxygen. The more light there is, the more oxygen is produced.

# data[].attributes.body
Dania,Farhana,Adam,Nazmin,Shamier. Danish

Task 1 : Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants.

1)Flood

Excessive moisture in soil decreases oxygen levels. Flooding impedes respiration in the roots leading to the build-up of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen gases. If leaves and stems are submerged, photosynthesis can be inhibited and plant growth can slow or even stop.Plants that are suffering from excessive-water stress are more prone to infection by disease-causing organisms such as fungi or insects.

2)Haze
3)Global warming
4)Drought
5)Acid rain

Task 2 :  Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at the condition of balance and imbalance.

i) balance
ii) imbalance

# data[].attributes.body
Munirah . Aisyah . Fiya . Izzaty . Aqilah . Dihar

Task 1 : Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants.

1) Haze

Particles and chemicals in the haze affect plants reproductive and photosynthesis capabilities. It may clog the stomata and lower the efficiency of gaseous exchange in plants.

2) Wildfire

The smoke particles are particulate pollution which can coat the leaf surface, reducing photosynthesis. These particulates can also clog stomatal pores, reducing gas exchange in the leaf.

3) Flood

Excessive moisture in soil decreases oxygen levels. If leaves and stems are submerged, photosynthesis can be inhibited and plant growth can slow or even stop. Plants that are suffering from excessive-water stress are also more prone to infection by disease-causing organisms such as fungi or insects.

4) Greenhouse Gases

Holes in the upper atmosphere allow an excess ultraviolet light to pass through the atmosphere leading to plant damage. In the lower atmosphere, ozone damages plants by preventing photosynthesis and obstructing stomata, restricting respiration and stunting plant growth.

5) Acid Rain

Direct exposure to acid rain directly damages the plants, but it also damages leaves and makes it harder for the plant or tree to photosynthesize and regulate the exchange of gasses. Once a plant has been weakened, it makes them more susceptible to disease and insect infestation.

6) Drought

The small pores on the leaves called stomata that allow for leaf/air gas exchange may be closed, triggered by the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA). When plants close their stomata to conserve water, then they effectively cut off the main supply of CO₂ for photosynthesis.

Task 2: Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at the condition of

i) balance
The rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration

- Phototrophic organisms will not be able to compensate - lack of carbon dioxide levels.
- Phototrophs will not be able to produce their food - form of glucose &  will not be able to respire too.

ii) imbalance
The rate of respiration is more than the rate of photosynthesis
- energy consumed will be more than the energy produced.
- autotrophs & no external source of nutrition for gaining this energy
- It will die

The rate of photosyntesis is more than the rate of respiration
- Daytime- produces oxygen & glucose faster than respiration consumes it
- Photosynthesis- uses carbon dioxide faster than respiration produces it
- Oxygen surplus is released into the air & unused glucose stored in the plant for later use.

# data[].attributes.body
Cahaya . Raja . Afiq . Arief

Task 1: Compare and contrast on ways of gaseous exchange.

Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface.

[Stomata]

Gaseous exchange occur at stomata

The stomata opening and closing depends on the change in the turgor of the guard
cell.

When water flow into the guard cell by osmosis their turgor increases and expand.

If the guard cells loose water the opposite happens and the pore closes.

The guard cells lower their water potential to draw in water from the surrounding
epidermal cells, by actively accumulating potassium ions. This requires energy in
the form of ATP which, is supplied by the chloroplasts in the guard cells.

[Lenticel]

A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells with large intercellular spaces
in the periderm of the secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody stems
and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants.

It functions as a pore, providing a pathway for the direct exchange of gases
between the internal tissues and atmosphere through the bark, which is otherwise
impermeable to gases

[Roots]

In leaves respiration takes place by diffusion of oxygen through stomata into the
cells of the leaf from where the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

The exchange of gases in roots of a plant takes place by the process of diffusion.
During diffusion, oxygen diffuses into the root hairs and passes into the root
cells, from where the carbon dioxide moves out into the soil.

Task 2: How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both processes.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected through an important relationship. This relationship enables life to survive as we know it. The products of one process are the reactants of the other. Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis:

Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. While water is broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the released oxygen that is used by us and most other organisms for cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which is carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen allows cellular respiration to proceed. Cellular respiration works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much less ATP would be produced.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during photosynthesis (Figure below) and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels.

# data[].attributes.body
Danisya, Ummi, Athirah, Irfan

Task 1: Identify the ways how plants respire?(gaseous exchange)

Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion mainly through stomata and lenticels

Stomata
-open mostly when there is light and close in the dark
-respiratory gases enter and leave plants via the stomata in the epidermis of the leaves

Lenticels
-raised pores found on the stems and roots of plants
-Cells around lenticels are arranged loosely to allow the diffusion of gases into and out of the stems and roots tissues
-plays the stomata role in night

ROOTS????

PATHWAY OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE
a)When stomata are open,they connect the air spaces with the atmosphere
b)Oxygen from atmosphere diffuses into the air spaces and dissolve in the film of water around the mesophyll cells.
c)Oxygen used for aerobic respiration
d)Concentration of oxygen in cells lower,than the concentration of oxygen in air spaces
e)Different in concentration gradient allow oxygen to diffuses continuously(air spaces -> cells)
f)During day, CO2 produced during aerobic respiration used for photosynthesis
g)Excess carbon dioxide diffuses into the air spaces and go through the stomata into atmosphere

Task 2: How plant carry out respiration? How many types of respiration are found in plant?

Plant carry out respiration through:

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration

1. Aerobic respiration occurs throughout the day and night in all living plant cells.    C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + (energy)                     The energy released is used to carry out cellular activities.

1. During the day, the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration

2. The carbon dioxide produced during aerobic respiration is used by the plant cells for photosynthesis

3. There is net diffusion of carbon dioxide into plants and oxygen out of plants

1. During the night,  only respiration occurs. Photosynthesis does not occur.

Anaerobic Respiration

1. Many plant can only carry out anaerobic respiration for relatively short periods

2. This is because a high concentration of ethanol is often toxic to plant cell C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + (energy)

1. rice plant are able to grow in water logged, muddy field that contain little oxygen

2. this is because the root of rice plants can carry out anaerobic respiration

1. rice plant are able to tolerate the ethanol level that accumulate in cell

2. during flooding, certain plants can survive for several days completely submerged in water. Again, this is because they have the ability to respire anaerobically and thus generate the energy required for their cellular needs

3. anaerobic respiration also occurs during the initial stages of germination when the embryo is completed enclosed within the airtight seed coat

# data[].attributes.body
Cahaya . Raja . Afiq . Arief

Task 1: Compare and contrast on ways of gaseous exchange.

Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface.

Stomata
(what are the comparisons and similarities????)

Task 2: How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both processes.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected through an important relationship. This relationship enables life to survive as we know it. The products of one process are the reactants of the other. Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis:

Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. While water is broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the released oxygen that is used by us and most other organisms for cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which is carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen allows cellular respiration to proceed. Cellular respiration works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much less ATP would be produced.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the pathways through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during photosynthesis (Figure below?) and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels.

# data[].attributes.body
Task 1 : Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants

1) Flood
Excessive moisture in soil decreases the oxygen level. This impedes respiration in the roots leading to the build up of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen gases. Results, the roots can suffocate and die.

2) Haze
Dust or other chemical substance in air might clogged the stomata and lenticels in plants. This affects the efficiency of respiration in plants.

3) Air pollution
High carbon dioxide levels in the air will thicken the leaves, thus reducing the surface area of the leave, and decreasing the rate of gaseous exchange in plants.

Task 2 :  Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at the condition of balance and imbalance

1) Balance condition.
During respiration, carbon dioxide is released. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is used. Therefore, when the carbon dioxide released during respiration is used completely in photosynthesis, the condition is balanced. Compensation point is reached.

2) Imbalance condition.
During daytime, the light intensity is high. Therefore, the rate of photosynthesis will be higher than the rate of respiration. This means that the carbon dioxide needed to use is more than the carbon dioxide released, so, the plants will be able to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to do photosynthesis.

(What about when respiration is higher than photosynthesis???)

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GROUP 2 3K4
Arif, Goh, Ain, Aisyah

Q: Compare and contrast on ways of gaseous exchange

Stomata

→ located near the surface of leaves

→ open during the day, when the rate of photosynthesis is the highest

→ surrounded by 2 guard cells (one on each side)

→these guard cells are responsible on the opening and closing of stomata

→ when guard cells have a high water content and are turgid

→ CO2 take in O release

→ when guard cells are dry they close the pores

Lenticel

→ Almost all plants close stomata at night because there is no sunlight
→ Lenticel will take place and absorp oxygen.
→ Carbon dioxide is released as repiration only need oxygen

Roots

→ roots of a plant take up air from the spaces between the soil particles.
→ Root hairs are in contact with the air in the soil particles.
→ Oxygen from the air in soil particles diffuse into root hair and reach all the cells of the root
→ Carbon dioxide produced during respiration goes out through the same root hair by diffusion

Q: How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plant. Compare and contrast both process

(How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plant????)

Similarities :

→ Both involve in production of energy

→ Both involve the exchange of gases

→ Both the process takes place in cell organelle which was considered as endosymbiotic organism. They are chloroplast and Mitochondria, Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→ At critical condition both have alternate pathway.

Differences :

→Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast, where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→Photosynthesis involve production of carbohydrate and respiration involve breaking of carbohydrate.

→ Photosynthesis occur only during presence of sunlight where as respiration occurs all the time.

→ In photosynthesis process Oxygen is released where as in respiration Oxygen is utilised

# data[].attributes.body
Maya, Diana, Naziha, I’rine

How plants respire?

Stomata - on leaves and young stems, where more than 90% of the total intake of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place

lenticels - old woody tree trunks and roots

roots - oxygen diffuses from the air spaces been the soil particles into the root tissues by diffusion

How plants carry out respiration? Types of respiration?

Plants carry out respiration with aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

takes place in the presence of oxygen

takes place in the mitochondria of plant cells

in the presence of oxygen, glucose is oxidised to release energy, carbon dioxide and water

Most of the energy is kept as the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules and part of it is released as heat energy.

Anaerobic Respiration

takes place in the absence of oxygen

Certain green plants do carry out respiration in the absence of oxygen for a certain period of time

when there is a flood, the supply of oxygen to the roots is cut off, forcing the root cells to respire anaerobically

in anaerobic respiration glucose is partially broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide

a lot of energy is still locked up in the ethanol molecule

when anaerobic situation prolongs, the concentration of ethanol increases and poisons the plants

therefore, plants that are not adapted to prolonged flooding finally die

rice plants are planted in the mud of flooded paddy fields

when the concentration of oxygen in the waterlogged soil falls too low, the root cells (of rice seedlings only) respire anaerobically, producing ethanol

# data[].attributes.body
Arif, Goh, Ain, Aisyah

Q: Compare and contrast on ways of gaseous exchange

Stomata

→ located near the surface of leaves

→ open during the day, when the rate of photosynthesis is the highest

→ surrounded by 2 guard cells (one on each side)

→these guard cells are responsible on the opening and closing of stomata

→ when guard cells have a high water content and are turgid

→ CO2 take in O release

→ when guard cells are dry they close the pores

Lenticel

→ Almost all plants close stomata at night because there is no sunlight

→ Lenticel will take place and absorp oxygen.

→ Carbon dioxide is released as repiration only need oxygen

Q: How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plant. Compare and contrast both process

Similarities :

→ Both involve in production of energy

→ Both involve the exchange of gases

→ Both the process takes place in cell organelle which was considered as endosymbiotic organism. They are chloroplast and Mitochondria, Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→ At critical condition both have alternate pathway.

Differences :

→Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast, where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→Photosynthesis involve production of carbohydrate and respiration involve breaking of carbohydrate.

→ Photosynthesis occur only during presence of sunlight where as respiration occurs all the time.

→ In photosynthesis process Oxygen is released where as in respiration Oxygen is utilised

# data[].attributes.body
Sufia, Aliah, Afifah, Jannah, Khairul, Afham

Task 1: Ways how plants respire (gaseous exchange)

- Gaseous exchange between plant cells and the environment occurs by diffusion mainly through the stomata, lenticels and roots.

Stomata:
- Respiratory gases enter and leave plants via the stomata in the epidermis of the leaves and the stems of herbaceous plants.
- The stomata of most plants open when there is light and close in the dark.
Lenticels:
- Raised pores found on the stems and roots of plants.
- The cells around the lenticels are arranged loosely to allow the diffusion of gases into and out of the stem and root tissues.
Roots:
answers????

Task 2: How plants carry out respiration? How many types of respiration are found in plants?

How plants respire?
1. When the stomata are open, they connect the air spaces within the leaves to the atmosphere.
2. Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses into the air spaces and then dissolves in the film of water around the mesophyll cells.
3. Oxygen is then used in aerobic respiration.
4. The concentration of oxygen in the cells become lower than the concentration of oxygen in the air spaces.
5. The difference in concentration gradient allows oxygen to diffuse continuously from the air spaces into the cells.
6. During the day, the carbon dioxide which is produced during aerobic respiration is used in photosynthesis.
7. The excess carbon dioxide diffuses into the air spaces and then through the stomata into the atmosphere.

How many types of respiration?

1. Aerobic respiration
- It carried out by all plants throughout the day and night.
- Glucose is oxidized to form energy, carbon dioxide and water.
- Equation:
C ₆ H ₁₂ O 6  + 6O 2  →  6H ₂ O + 6CO 2 + energy
- During daytime, oxygen produced by photosynthesis and used for aerobic respiration.
- Conversely, carbon dioxide produced by aerobic respiration then used in photosynthesis.
- However, the photosynthesis rate is faster then the respiration rate.
- More oxygen is produced than used up.
- The excess oxygen is released out of the leaf through the stomata.
- At night, stomata closed and photosynthesis stop but respiration continues.

2. Anaerobic respiration
- Glucose is broken down to energy, ethanol and carbon dioxide.
- Equation:
C ₆ H ₁₂ O 6   → 2C ₂ H ₅ OH + 2CO 2  + energy
- The high concentration of ethanol produced may cause the plants to be poisoned and eventually die.

# data[].attributes.body
Aiman, 'Ammar

Q1: Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants.

1) Flood
-will cause excessive water and blocking the plants lenticels and stem
2) Haze
-dusts  will block pores in the stomata and lenticels in plants

Q2: Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at condition of balance or imbalance

Balance
-Compensation Point
The point reached in a plant when the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration.
-This is when the plant releases and uses carbon dioxide at the same level

Imbalance

-If the rate of respiration exceeds the rate of photosynthesis, the plant will be using more oxygen than it can produce. Thus, the plant will be starved of food supply and finally die of starvation

- while the rate of photosynthesis is higher that rate of respiration, it will produce more oxygen and glucose that will be used for the plant's growth at a higher rate.

# data[].attributes.body
Arif, Goh, Ain, Aisyah

Q: Compare and contrast on ways of gaseous exchange

Q: How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plant. Compare and contrast both process

Similarities :

→ Both involve in production of energy

→ Both involve the exchange of gases

→ Both the process takes place in cell organelle which was considered as endosymbiotic organism. They are chloroplast and Mitochondria, Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→ At critical condition both have alternate pathway.

Differences :

→Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast, where as respiration takes place in mitochondria.

→Photosynthesis involve production of carbohydrate and respiration involve breaking of carbohydrate.

→ Photosynthesis occur only during presence of sunlight where as respiration occurs all the time.

→ In photosynthesis process Oxygen is released where as in respiration Oxygen is utilised

# data[].attributes.body
Task 2
Jenn, Aqilah, Nimex, Ariz, Daniel, Jared

Predict the condition when respiration and photosynthesis is at the condition of balance and imbalance

1. Balance
Respiration releases carbon dioxide and photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide. When all the carbon dioxide released during respiration is used completely during photosynthesis, the compensation point is reached and it is balance.

2. Imbalance
In the afternoon, the light intensity is higher and the rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration. The amount of carbon dioxide used during photosynthesis is more than the amount that is released during respiration. Therefore, the plant will absorb the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
(so what will happen to the plants?)

At night, the light intensity is lower and the rate of photosynthesis is lower than the rate of respiration. The amount of carbon dioxide used during photosynthesis is lesser than the amount that is released during respiration. Therefore, the extra ????
(so what will happen to the plants?)

Task 1
Mother nature impact on gaseous exchange in plant

1.Haze
When there is haze,dust will clogged the stomata and cause the respiration to be not so efficent.

2.Flood
Flood will cause the excessive moisture in soil and decrease the oxygen level of the soil.It will also cause the root to suffocate and die.

*How paddy survive contained water ?

Although paddy is a grass, it is semi-aquatic which is adapted to survive in very wet to waterlogged conditions. Paddy has a special trait that it has special air channels called aerenchyma which connect the roots to the shoots  and it allows oxygen to transport to submerged tissues. It also has another trait that it has a very thin layer of air is trapped which allows the plants to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the surrounding water when the leaves are submerged.

# data[].attributes.body
Ziyad, Sharizat, Athifa, Evelyn, Rashid, Amier

Q: Predict the condition when    respiration and photosynthesis is at balance and imbalance

BALANCE
- When the amount of carbon dioxide released and used is at the same level,  this results in a compensation point.
- Phototrophic organism will not be able to compensate for lack of carbon dioxide level. Phototrophs will not be able to produce their food in the form of glucose and hence will not be able to respire too. This will result in lack of overall available food from phototrophs and lack of available oxygen for respiration. This will result in decline of organism on Earth.

IMBALANCE
* when respiration is higher than photosynthesis
- The energy consumed will be more than the energy produced. Since, plants are autotrophs and they don't have external source of nutrition for gaining this energy. It will die.

* when photosynthesis is higher than respiration
- photosynthesis will produce more glucose and oxygen. Glucose will be used to carry out other living processes in plants. Thus, the plants will grow at a higher rate.

# data[].attributes.body
ADRA, NAUFAL, FYNA, JANNAH

How photosynthesis and respiration are interrelated in plant? compare and contrast both processes.

While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen, cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.

The products of one process are the reactants of the other. The equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis:

photosynthesis 🥦
6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2

cellular respiration 🥬
C6H1206 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20

Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The glucose is then turned back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis.

While water is broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined with hydrogen to form water.

Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle. While cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere

# data[].attributes.body
ALYSSA, IZAZI, AZALEA UMIE

Task 1 - How plants respire (gaseous exchange) ?
= mainly through the stomata and lenticels by simple diffusion
-The intake of oxygen by plants during respiration :
Day Time:
1. When the photosynthesis rate exceed respiration rate, oxygen which released by chloroplast will be used for cellular respiration in mitochondria
2. Oxygen intake from atmosphere is low or stopped because the space between cells contained high concentration of oxygen. Some of the oxygen is released to atmosphere.

Night Time:
1. Stomata closed and no gases exchange occurs through stoma.

2. Oxygen is absorbed via lenticles and root.

Task 2 - How plants carry out respiration and how many types of respiration are found in plants?

2 Types of respiration
- Aerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration

1. Aerobic respiration
- occurs during day and night
- energy released is used to carry out cellular activities
DAY
-rate of photosynthesis exceeds rate of respiration
-CO2 is used photosynthesis
NIGHT
-photosynthesis does not occur

2. Anaerobic respiration
- many plants can carry out respiration in a short of time
- has a high concentration of ethanol is toxic to plant cells
- some plants can carry out respiration using their roots
(waterlogged) muddy fields that contain little oxygen such as rice plants.
example : plants are able to tolerate the ethanol levels that accumulate in cells.

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 2
Thaqif, Safwan, Ilyana, Humaira, Fadhlin

(how photosynthesis & respiration interrelated?)

# data[].attributes.body
1. Mother nature impacts on gaseous exchange in plants

Global warming
- During gloal warming, the stoma of plants close to prevent excessive water loss. So, the closing of stoma will reduce the efficiency of respiration
- Stop water from evaporating (temperature)

Drought
- The stoma of plants will be less  open due to the lack of water
- To prevent the decrease of humidity of plants

Bushfire
- Ash produced by the bushfire will block the stoma and lenticels of plants. It is because, when there are too much ash particles, the immune system of plants cannot cope with it. Therefore, blockage occurs and respiration eventually cannot occurs

Volcano
- Suphur dioxide gas emitted by volcano promotes excessive opening of the stomata . More water will be evaporated and therefore plants will wilt

2. Predict the conditions when respiration and photosynthesis is at  conditions of :

i) balance
- Respiration rate is equal to photosynthesis rate
- The carbon dioxide produced during respiration will be uptaked during photosythesis, while the oxygen gas produced during photosynthesis will be uptaked by plants during respiration
- So, the net production of gas is zero
compensation point is reached.

ii) imbalance
-  Respiration rate is more than photosynthesis rate
- When respiration rate is more than photosynthesis rate, the excessice carbon dioxide
- Photosynthesis rate is more than respiration rate

(lack of explanation of what will happen to the plants in  imbalance conditions!!!)

# data[].attributes.body
Arisha, Amira, Balqis, Afiq, Danish

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Black and White Inspired Travel Presentation

# data[].attributes.body
Ain, Mardhiyah, Fatin, Naque, Hemma

TASK 1:
Compare and contrast the ways of gaseous exchange:
# Day light - Stomata
- It will open during day, when the rate of photosynthesis is the highest and absorb oxygen through simple diffusion.
- Diffusion happen when plants take oxygen(from high quantity environment) and respiration happen through it.
-During the day, the carbon dioxide which is produced during aerobic respiration is used in photosynthesis but the excess carbon dioxide will diffuse into air spaces then trough stomata into atmosphere

# Day Night - Lenticel
- Near every plant , the stomata will be closed during the night
-Stoma will close as there is no sunlight to absorp.
- Lenticel will take place and absorp oxygen.
- Carbon dioxide is released as repiration only need oxygen.

ROOTS???

Task 2:
How are respiration and photosynthesis interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both process.

They are similar according to these factors:
- Involve the exchange of gases
- Take place in the organelles of the cell
- Have emergency pathways
- Involve redox reactions
- Utilizes and synthesizes ATP

They are different according to these factors:

Where it occurs

- Photosynthesis happens in all plants

- Respiration happens In all
living organisms

When it occurs
- Photosynthesis occurs during the day
- Respiration occurs during day and  night

purposes

- Photosynthesis stores energy

- Respiration release energy

Raw materials (Reactants)

- Photosynthesis has water and carbon dioxide as its raw materials

- Respiration has glucose and oxygen as its raw materials

Products

- Photosynthesis has glucose and oxygen as its products

- Respiration has energy, water and carbon dioxide as its products

Energy requirement

- Photosynthesis requires light energy

- Respiration does not require light energy

Site

- Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts

- Respiration takes place in the mitochondria

Type of metabolism
- Photosynthesis uses Anabolism, the building of large molecules using smaller ones
- Respiration uses Catabolism, the breaking down of large molecules to form smaller ones

Chemical equation

- Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water –(sunlight+chlorophyll)-> glucose + oxygen

- Respiration: oxygen + water -> carbon dioxide + water + energy

# data[].attributes.body
Group 1: Ayesha, Aliyah, Insyirah, Alisa, Zainal

Task 1 - How plants respire (gaseous exchange) ?
= Intake of oxygen for respiration

1) in plants, gaseous exchange occurs between plant cells and environments by diffusion through stomata and lenticles.
2) stomata allow diffusion of gasses in and out of leaves and stem, while lenticles allow diffusion in and out of stem and roots. 3)gaseous exchange occurs through the thin walls of root hairs and young roots.
4)
-inside the leaves, stem and roots of plants, there are many continuous intercellular air spaces.

-upon entering a plant through stomata, lenticles or root hairs, oxygen diffuses into these intercellular air space.

- it then dissolves in the surface moisture of the cell walls and difuses into cells along a diffusion (concentration) gradient

- in contrast, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells in the opposite direction, along a concentration gradient, until it eventually leaves the plant through stomata s, lenticles or root hairs.

Task 2 - How plants carry out respiration and how many types of respiration are found in plants?

Types of respiration
- Aerobic respiration
- Anaerobic respiration

1. Aerobic respiration
-The breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce more amount of energy is called as aerobic respiration.

-equation:
C6H1206 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20+ 38ATP
Glucose + Oxygen gives Carbon dioxide +water + energy

-it occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria
-high amount of energy is produced
-occurs throughout day and night
-energy released is used to carry out cellular activities

DAY
-rate of photosynthesis exceeds rate of respiration
-CO2 is used in photosynthesis

NIGHT
-photosynthesis does not occur

2. Anaerobic respiration
-The breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce energy is called as anaerobic respiration.

-equation: C6H1206 = 6CO2 + 2C2H5OH + 2 ATP
Glucose gives carbon dioxide + Lactic acid + energy
-it occurs in cytoplasm only
-less amount of energy produced
-has a high concentration of ethanol and often toxic to plant cells.
-some plants can carry out respiration using roots
-plants that use roots to respire are able to grow in waterlogged,muddy fields that contain little oxygen such as rice plants.
eg:-rice plants are able to tolerate the ethanol levels that accumulate in cells.

# data[].attributes.body
Farhana . Nabihah . Aiman

Q: How effects of human activities affect the nutrients intake by plant.

1. Vehicle emission is one of the many ways humans can affect the nutrition cycle of plants.Vehicle usage and ownership has been having a steep increase, and has now caused significant emissions that have negative impacts to the environment. Vehicle emissions include the release of substances such as Mono-nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂),  Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide, and other hazardous air pollutants. The extensive release of these substances affects the amount of the elements, such as nitrogen and carbon, in the atmosphere and in turn affect and result in changes to their nutrient cycles.            -Nabihah

2. Overgrazing occurs when farmers stock too many animals such as sheep, cattle or goats on their land.  The animals damage the soil surface by eating the vegetation and either digging into wet soil or compacting dry soil with their hooves.  This can prevent grass growing and slow down the percolation of water through the soil.  This leads to the damaging of the soil structure as the level of nutrients is removed and the air between peds is compressed out.  This then can reduce the amount of water between the soil crumbs as the weight and movement of the animals flattens and compresses the soil.  Soils with less vegetation become exposed, drier and prone to further erosion by the wind and rain.  Soils that become drier tend to be vulnerable to the winds blowing the top soil away.  The Sahel region of Africa is an example of soil erosion caused both by overgrazing and population growth. - Far

3. Physical disturbances also can effect the source nutrients of the plants. Humans are very greedy and always think the good for themselves only, they harm the nature like it was nothing. They are the cause of deforestation, making the plants does not have enough nutrient to live a normal growth of plant. -Aiman Hensem

# data[].attributes.body
Relatively large amounts. These macronutrients are:
1. Carbon (C)
2. potassium (K)
3. hydrogen (H)
4. calcium (Ca)
5. magnesium (Mg)
6. nitrogen (N)
7. sulphur (S)
Group 3 3K2

# data[].attributes.body
Aina, Dania, Hana, Nurin, Adam & Danish

Q: What will happen if plants are having malnutrition? Include examples.

𝗠𝗔𝗖𝗥𝗢𝗡𝗨𝗧𝗥𝗜𝗘𝗡𝗧𝗦

Macronutrients are elements required in plants in relatively large amounts. So, what will happen if malnutrition occurs? Or there are excessive amounts of them in plants?

Note that,
malnutrition, ➤
excessive nutrients, ➢

𝗦𝗨𝗟𝗣𝗛𝗨𝗥
➤ General yellowing of the affected leaves or the entire plant.
➢ Reduce a plant's uptake of other nutrients such as phosphorus, magnesium and many others resulting in deficiency of these nutrients.

𝗕𝗢𝗥𝗢𝗡
➤ death of terminal buds
➤ abnormal plant growth
➤ leaves become curled, thick & brittle.
➢ yellowing or browning of foliage
➢ leaf tips become dry

𝗠𝗔𝗚𝗡𝗘𝗦𝗜𝗨𝗠
➤ Older leaves turn yellow at the edges leaving an arrowhead shape at the center of the leaf.
➢ A little extra magnesium is not particularly harmful. Too much magnesium may lead to stunted growth, and dark colored vegetation. It also results into limited fruit production and poor storage root production.

𝗠𝗔𝗡𝗚𝗔𝗡𝗘𝗦𝗘
➤ Yellowing between the veins of young leaves, but pattern is not as distinct as with iron.

➤ Reduction in size of plant parts (leaves, shoots, fruit) generally.
➢ Like boron toxicity, manganese toxicity causes necrotic spots to appear on the older leaves of the vine. Manganese toxicity also frequently causes chlorosis (pale or yellow colour), most severe on the younger leaves, due to an induced iron deficiency.

𝗜𝗥𝗢𝗡
➤ leaves pale, no spots,  major  veins green
➢ bronzing & stippling of leaves

𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗥𝗢𝗚𝗘𝗡
➤ stunted growth,  extremely pale colour, upright leaves with light green/yellowish, appear burnt in extreme deficiency
➢  the plants become more attractive to insects and diseases. It can also cause excessive growth and reduce the strength of the stems.

𝗖𝗔𝗟𝗖𝗜𝗨𝗠
➤ new leaves become distorted or irregularly shaped
➢ red & orange spots appear on leaves
➢ plant growth will be stunted

𝗣𝗛𝗢𝗦𝗣𝗛𝗢𝗥𝗨𝗦
➤ leaf tips look burnt
➤ older leaves turn dark green or reddish-purple
➢ interfere with a plant’s absorption of iron, manganese and zinc, resulting in yellowing of leaves and poor health of the plant.

𝗠𝗢𝗟𝗬𝗕𝗗𝗘𝗡𝗨𝗠
➤ general yellowing of older leaves
➤ the rest of the plant often turns light green
➢ It is very rare, although in a few rare cases there has been report golden yellow appearance of the leaves.

𝗭𝗜𝗡𝗖
➤ yellowing occurs between the veins of the new leaves
➢ chlorosis of the newer leaves, necrotic leaf tips, retarded growth of the entire plant, and/or reduced root growth.

𝗖𝗢𝗣𝗣𝗘𝗥
➤ plants become wilt
➤ the leaves are dropped easily
➢ restrict root growth by burning the root tips and thereby causing excess lateral root growth.

𝗣𝗢𝗧𝗔𝗦𝗦𝗜𝗨𝗠
➤ dark spots appear on the leaves
➢ lead to stunt the growth of the plant & lead to chlorosis, a yellowing of the foliage that first appears on older growth lower on the stem.
➢ the veins on the leaves will have a red tint.

# data[].attributes.body
Amalia, Azalea, Athifa, Umie, Adra, Jannah, Izazi, Iman, Ziyad

MACRONUTRIENTS
- Macronutreints are elements required by plants in relatively large amounts. These macronutrients are:
1. Carbon (C)
-Important in sugar synthesis
2. potassium (K)
-Protect plats against disease
-Stimulates cell division
-Activates many enzymes
-To form starch granules
3. hydrogen (H)
-Key in the conversion of light energy to ATP
4. calcium (Ca)
-Controls the partial permeability of cell membrane
-Helps in middle lamella and cell wall formation
5. magnesium (Mg)
-Helps in chlorophyll synthesis
-Helps in protoplasm formation
Activates respiratory enzymes
6. nitrogen (N)
-Helps in chlorophyll and protein synthesis
7. sulphur (S)
-Helps in protein and nucleic acid synthesis
-Helps in protoplasm formation
-Activates respiratory enzymes
MICRONUTRIENTS
-Elements required in a small amount and required mainly for the formation of the pigments  and enzymes
1.Boron (B)
-Helps in organic compounds synthesis
-Important in cell wall formation
-Developments of fruits and seeds
2.Zinc (Zn)
-Helps in auxin synthesis
-Acts as an enzyme cofactors
-Activates certain enzymes
3.Iron (Fe)
-Helps in chlorophyll synthesis
-Helps in respiratory enzymes formation
4.Molybdenum (Mo)
-Involves in nitrogen fixation metabolism
-Important to form the certain enzyme in nitrogen metabolism
5.Copper (Cu)
-Important component of enzymes in photosynthesis and respiration
-Important in chlorophyll formation
-Important in plant reproduction
6.Manganese (Mn)
-Activates certain enzymes in carbohydrates and nitrogen metabolism
-Helps in photosynthesis and respiration

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𝙁𝙖𝙧𝙯𝙖𝙣𝙖, 𝙎𝙤𝙛𝙚𝙖, 𝙔𝙖𝙨𝙢𝙞𝙣, 𝙉𝙖𝙯𝙞𝙧, 𝙎𝙝𝙖𝙢𝙞𝙚𝙧, 𝙉𝙖𝙯𝙢𝙞𝙣, 𝙄𝙯𝙯𝙪𝙙𝙙𝙞𝙣
(っ◔◡◔)っ

MICRONUTRIENT

-Copper(Cu)

Enzyme component

Nitrogen metabolism and photosynthesis

Reproductive growth and flower formation in plants

-Iron(Fe)

Cofactor in synthesis of chlorophyll

Essential for young growing parts

-Manganese(Mn)

Activators of enzymes in photosynthesis, respiration of nitrogen metabolism

-Molybdenum(Mo)

Nitrogen fixing

Reduction of nitrates during protein synthesis

-Zinc(Zn)

Leaf formation

Synthesis of auxin

Cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism

-Boron(B)

Aid  in calcium ions uptake by roots, translocation of sugars, carbohydrate metabolism, gemination of pollen grains

Required for normal mitotic division

A cofactor in chlorophyll

MACRONUTRIENT
-Carbon (C) ~[MAIN]

Required for the plant to form carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, among other compounds; the most abundant  element in plant cells, accounting for about 50 percent of the cell

-Hydrogen (H) ~[MAIN]

Used with oxygen to form water

-Oxygen (O) ~[MAIN]

Used with hydrogen for cellular respiration; required to store energy in the form of ATP

-Nitrogen (N)

part of proteins and nucleic acid

used to synthesize vitamins

-Phosphorus (P)

used to synthesize nucleic acid and phospolipids

enables food energy to be converted into chemical energy

-Potassium (K)

helps to regulate stomatal opening and closing which maintains a healthy water balanced

-Sulphur (S)

part of amino acids such as cysteine and methionine

-Calcium (Ca)

regulates nutrient transport and supports enzyme functions

-Magnesium (Mg)

used in the photosynthetic process

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Rashid, Amier & Evelyn

Q:  What are the effects of human

activities on plant nutrient
intake ?

The earth is undergoing rapid environmental changes because of human actions. The same thing can be said for plants and their nutrient intake.

Human activities are known to be unfriendly towards plants and the environment. Plant growth and development largely depend on the combination and concentration of mineral nutrients available in the soil. Plants often face significant challenges in obtaining an adequate supply of these nutrients to meet the demands of basic cellular processes due to their relative immobility. A deficiency of any one of them may result in decreased plant productivity and/or fertility.

Deforestation is the cutting down of large areas of forests leaving an open, exposed landscape.  Deforestation occurs for many reasons such as the sale of wood, charcoal or as a source of fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity (drying of soil).  This human activity quickly accelerates natural erosion in two ways.  Firstly the removal of trees is a removal of nutrients and minerals from the soil as the source of humus is greatly reduced.  The natural dead organic material that supplies the soil with its humus is generally leaves that have fallen from the trees, animal droppings, tree fruit or decaying trees in the soil.  Secondly, deforestation accelerates soil erosion by leaving large areas exposed to heavy rainfall (which can cause leaching or flash floods) or wind erosion.   Without the roots of the trees to keep the soil structure in place the soil is loose and easier to erode.  The tropical rainforests of Brazil are seeing huge areas of forest being cut down each day.  Each year about 13 million hectares of the world’s forests are lost due to deforestation.

Organic matter is a small fraction of soil, mainly present on the soil surface. Erosion gradually depletes organic matter and decreases soil productivity.

Soil erosion leads to degradation of soil structure leading to hard , compact and cloddy soil. This results in poor soil aeration. Water holding capacity and soil permeability are also decreased.

Decreased aeration results in less oxygen availability for plant roots.
Decreased water content results in results in less water availability for healthy plant growth.
Decreased water permeability results in a great deal of run off water.

Beneficial organisms that suppress diseases and breakdown of organic residues do not function well due to reduced nutrient storage and supply ability of the soil.

Thus soil erosion affects healthy plant growth.

Also, human activities are causing air pollution. Air pollutants have a negative impact on plant growth, primarily through interfering with resource accumulation. Since leaves are in close contact with the atmosphere, many air pollutants, such as O₃ and NO₃, affect the metabolic function of the leaves and interfere with net carbon fixation by the plant canopy. Pollutants that are first deposited on the soil, such as heavy metals, first affect the functioning of roots and interfere with soil resource capture by the plant. These reductions in resource capture (production of carbohydrate through photosynthesis, mineral nutrient uptake and water uptake from the soil) will affect plant growth through changes in resource allocation to the various plant structures.

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Munirah,Ummi,Cahaya

🏃‍♂️What are the effects of human activities on nutrient intake of plants?

Nutrient intake of plants will be very unbalanced because of human activities. One of the reasons for this is because of climate change. Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will affect plant growth and suppress the levels of zinc, iron and protein in plants. This will result in plants not having enough protein for growth.

Another reason why human activities will cause deficiency in nutrient intake of plants is because of pollution. There are 3 major pollution in the world which is air, water and land pollution. Air pollution comes from smoke from factories, car exhaust or off gassing from paint or producing plastic. The chemicals responsible include carbon, sulfur and nitrogen oxides. Plants usually show damage in a variety of ways, including visible signs of damage like necrotic lesions, stunted plant growth, or changing in color including chlorosis.

Land pollution comes from sources like oil spills, landfills, pesticides or illegal dumping. These chemicals seep into the soil and strip the land from any nutritional content, and fill the soil with chemicals or metals that damage plant cells and keep plants from obtaining nutrients and growing.
Furthermore, plants can be poisoned by the toxic substances stored in contaminated soils.

Water pollution comes from sewage leakage, industrial spills or biological contamination. Pollution and contamination of water has many negative effects on plants. Sometimes there is an excess of nutrients in the water which causes an excess in plant growth. Other times this excess in nutrients in the water causes a fluctuation in acidity and damages or kills the plant.

Other reason why human activities results in nutrient deficiency in plants is because of global warming. The damage that extreme UV levels have on plants is one that our eyes do not see much, but humans can feel the impact. Plant growth, as well as its physiological and developmental processes, are all affected negatively. These include the way plants form, the timing of development and growth, distribution of plant nutrients and metabolism, etc. These changes can have important implications for plant competitive balance, animals that feed on these plants, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.

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Aqilah . Raja . Aisyah . Alzam . Dihar . Irfan . Arief

Macronutrients

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by Haziman, Naufal, Sharizat, Alyssa, & Afrina

Q: What will happen if plants are having malnutrition? Include examples.

🌿 Malnutrition is having lack or excess of proper nutrients, which leads to many complications for the plants.

MACRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCY 🌵

N: Stunted growth (StG), weak stem, & chlorosis (yellow)

P: StG, lack of DNA + ATP, dark green leaves, & red/purple spots on old leaves

K: StG, yellow spots on leaves, & poor flower growth

Ca: Distorted leaves, StG, & yellow areas in between leaf veins

Mg: Chlorosis, red spots on leaves, & StG

S: Poor root development & leaves drop easily

MACRONUTRIENT EXCESSIVE 🍃

N: More attractive to insects and diseases

P: Clorosis

K: Stunted growth & chlorosis

Mg: Poor storage root production

S: Toxic to plants

MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCY 🌵

B: Stunted + abnormal growth, terminal buds death, & thick + brittle + curled leaves

Cu: Brown spots on leaf tips, death of tips of young shoots, & StG

Fe: Chlorosis of leaves

Mn: Small leaves & brown spots of leaves

Mo: Chlorosis in between leaf veins & StG

Zn: Mottled leaves with irregular areas of chlorosis & StG

MICRONUTRIENTS EXCESSIVE 🍃

B: Dry leaf tips & yellow/brown foliage

Cu: Stunted growth & reduce crop yields

Fe: Browning & stippling of leaves

Mn: Chlorosis (yellow) & necrotic spots on old leaves

Mo: Chlorosis (yellow/brown) & depressed tillering

Zn: Toxic to plants

🌱 This shows that all elements are important to be received in adequate quantities for optimal growth and maintenance.

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Izzaty, Fiya, Athirah, Nurin, Danisya, Afiq.

Q: What will happen if plants are having malnutrition? Include examples.

🌱 MACRONUTRIENTS 🌱

🌿 Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
- stunted growth but rarely happens

🌿 Nitrogen (N)
- chlorosis in which the leaves turn yellow
- stunted growth

🌿 Phosphorus (P)
- leaves are dark green
- stunted growth
- plants mature slowly
- fruits ripen slowly

🌿  Magnesium (Mg)
- Chlorosis
- Parts of leaves or whole leaves die

🌿 Sulphur (S)
- Chlorosis
- Stunted growth

🌿 Potassium (K)
- poor root growth
- stunted growth
- older leaves are dark green with red spots
- young leaves turn yellow

🌿 Calcium (Ca)
- yellow and brown leaf margins
- premature death

🌱 MICRONUTRIENTS 🌱

🌿 Boron (B)
- Growth of shoots and roots

🌿 Molybdenum (Mo)
- Stunted growth

🌿 Zinc (Zn)
- stunted growth
- spotted leaves

🌿 Manganese (Mg)
- leaves have yellow patched

🌿 Copper (Cu)
- leaves turn yellow
- growth is not normal

🌿 Iron (Fe)
- veins of young leaves turn yellow

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Nazmin, Izzuddin, Shamier, Nazir, Farzana, Yasmin, Sofea

Grana are stacks of structures called thylakoids, which are little disks of membrane on which the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place. Thylakoids that make up grana contain important light-absorbing pigments, such as chlorophyll. When light strikes these pigments, they split water, releasing oxygen as a byproduct in the process of photolysis.

Stroma commonly refers to the fluid filled inner space of chloroplasts surrounding thylakoids and grana. The stroma is essential for carbon fixation, it also manages the chloroplast response to cellular stresses and signaling between various organelles. It plays an important role in both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in photosynthesis that together carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons. Photosystems are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria.

There are two types of photosystem :/

Photosystem I -

The electrons from photosystem II lost energy when they pumped H+ across the membrane

Light gives electrons energy again

Then, they go through another ETC (electron transport chain)

Here, they are used to make NADPH which goes on to the next set of reactions

Photosystem II -

Uses light to break up water molecule into energized electrons, H+, and 1/2 O2 (photolysis)

H+ stays inside of the thlakoid membrane

Electrons are used in chlorophyll replacing the electrons used in the electron transport chain (ETC)

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Aqilah . Raja . Aisyah . Alzam . Dihar . Irfan . Arief

Micronutrients

Boron
= Aids in calcium ion uptake by roots and translocation of sugars
= Involved in carbohydrate metabolism
= Aids in the germination of pollen grains
= Required for normal mitotic cell division in the meristems
= Act as a cofactor for chlorophyll synthesis

Copper
= An important component of enzymes
= Involved in nitrogen metabolism and photosynthesis
= Important for reproductive growth and flower formation in plants

Molybdenum
=Involved in nitrogen fixation.
=Reduction of nitrates during protein synthesis

Zinc
=Formation of leaves.
Synthesis of auxin (a type of growth hormone in plants)
=Acts as a cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism.

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Dania, Aina,  Hana, Nurin, Adam, Danish

Calvin cycle or the light-independent reactions are the chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose.
The light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle can be organized into three basic stages:
1)Fixation
2)Reduction
3)Regeneration

Fixation
CO ₂ --> the chloroplast through the stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast. , two other chemicals are present, an enzyme abbreviated Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase ( RuBisCO ), and the molecule ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). RuBP has five atoms of carbon and a phosphate group on each end.
RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO₂ and RuBP, which forms a six-carbon compound that is immediately converted into two three-carbon compounds, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA)

Reduction
ATP and NADPH are used to convert the six molecules of 3-PGA into six molecules of a chemical called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).
This is a reduction reaction because it involves the gain of electrons by 3-PGA.
Recall that a reduction is the gain of an electron by an atom or molecule. Six molecules of both ATP and NADPH are used.
For ATP, energy is released with the loss of the terminal phosphate atom, converting it to ADP; for NADPH, both energy and a hydrogen atom are lost, converting it into NADP⁺.
Both of these molecules return to the nearby light-dependent reactions to be reused and reenergized.

Regeneration
At this point, only one of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle and is sent to the cytoplasm to contribute to the formation of other compounds needed by the plant. Because the G3P exported from the chloroplast has three carbon atoms, it takes three “turns” of the Calvin cycle to fix enough net carbon to export one G3P. But each turn makes two G3Ps, thus three turns make six G3Ps. One is exported while the remaining five G3P molecules remain in the cycle and are used to regenerate RuBP, which enables the system to prepare for more CO₂ to be fixed. Three more molecules of ATP are used in these regeneration reactions.

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RASHID | AMIER | EVELYN

Q: What is the mechanism of NADPH in reduction process?

NADPH (find full name) is the typical coenzyme used in reduction reactions, seen in the anabolic pathways of organisms. For example, when sugars are created during photosynthesis, carbon molecules are chained together using the energy from sunlight. NADPH function in transferring electrons and a hydrogen displaced by the energy of sunlight. The NADPH first accepts the electrons and hydrogen when special enzymes transfer these particles to the molecule NADP+. In this reaction the NADP+ becomes reduced when it accepts the electrons and hydrogen, going from a positive electrical state to a more negative neutral state as a NADPH molecule. Then, the NADPH molecule is oxidized by another enzyme. NADPH works with a wide variety of enzymes, and is considered one of the universal electron carriers.

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Nabihah . Farhana . Aiman

Q: What is NADPH?

NADPH stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen. This molecule plays a crucial role in some of the chemical reactions that make up the process of photosynthesis. NADPH is a product of the first stage of photosynthesis and is used to help fuel the Calvin cycle that take place in the second stage of photosynthesis.

The reactions in the first stage of photosynthesis require light in order to proceed. The main objective of this stage is to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy. This stage of photosynthesis involves two sets of molecules known as photosystem I and photosystem II. The reactions of photosystem II happen first; it was named "II" because it was discovered after "I," but it occurs before "I" in the photosynthesis process.

In photosystem II, chlorophyll within the chloroplasts of plant cells absorbs sunlight and transfers the energy to electrons. The electrons undergo a series of reactions as they are transferred from one protein to another in an electron transport chain. The light-dependent reactions break down water molecules, separating into hydrogen ions, oxygen molecules and electrons. Hydrogen ions are transported with the electrons along the chain of reactions. In photosystem I, the electrons are energized, and the energy is stored in molecules of NADP+. During these reactions, the NADP+ molecules are reduced by the addition of electrons. A hydrogen ion is added to NADP+ to form NADPH.

The second stage of photosynthesis (Calvin cycle) uses carbon dioxide to produce molecules of glucose. These reactions do not need light energy to proceed and are sometimes called the light-independent reactions. The Calvin cycle adds one molecule of carbon dioxide at a time, so it must repeat to synthesize the six-carbon structure of glucose. The NADPH produced in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis provides the chemical energy to fuel the Calvin cycle and keep it going.

Q: Importance of NADPH in photosynthesis?

NADPH is important in photosynthesis because it provides high-energy electrons needed to store energy in organic molecules.

Electrons carried by NADPH are used to reduce carbon dioxide to the organic molecule known as glucose. Glucose is a carbohydrate. Glucose contains stored chemical energy and is used by consumers in respiration as an energy source.

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😤✋🏻 Arief . Alzam .  Dihar . Aisyah . Aqilah .  Raja, Irfan

- functional & structural units of protein complexes) = photosystem

- primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons.

-  found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria

- located in the chloroplasts of plants and algae, & in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria.

- photosystems: II and I

_________________________

- a protein that is the site of the light reactions of photosynthesis
- contains pigments such as chlorophyll and phaeophytin
- the pigments absorb light, promoting an electron to a higher energy level within it

_________________________

1. The light reaction of photosynthesis.

2. Occurs in two photosystems (units of chlorophyll molecules).

3. Light energy (indicated by wavy arrows) absorbed by PSII

- the formation of high-energy electrons
- transferred along a series of acceptor molecules in an electron transport chain to PS1.

4. PSII obtains replacement electrons from water molecules = split into (H+) and oxygen atoms.

5. The oxygen atoms combine = (O2) - released into the atmosphere

6. The hydrogen ions - into the lumen.

7. Additional hydrogen ions - pumped into the lumen (electron acceptor molecules)

= High concentration of ions inside the lumen.

8. The flow of hydrogen ions back across - photosynthetic membrane - provides the energy - the synthesis of ATP.

9. High-energy electrons = PS1 - absorbs light energy - for the synthesis of NADPH

10. PS1 - replacement electrons from the electron transport chain.

11. ATP = the energy &  NADPH = the hydrogen atoms needed to for the subsequent photosynthetic dark reaction ( Calvin cycle)

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Ummi, Munirah, Cahaya

WHAT IS NADPH

NADPH stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen. This molecule plays a crucial role in some of the chemical reactions that make up the process of photosynthesis. NADPH is a product of the first stage of photosynthesis and is used to help fuel the reactions that take place in the second stage of photosynthesis.

NADPH ROLE IN ELECTRON REGULATION

-NADPH is the typical coenzyme used in reduction reactions, seen in the anabolic pathways of organisms.

-For example, when sugars are created during photosynthesis, carbon molecules are chained together using the energy from sunlight.

-NADPH function in transferring electrons and a hydrogen displaced by the energy of sunlight.

- The NADPH first accepts the electrons and hydrogen when special enzymes transfer these particles to the molecule NADP+. In this reaction the NADP+ becomes reduced when it accepts the electrons and hydrogen, going from a positive electrical state to a more negative neutral state as a NADPH molecule. Then, the NADPH molecule is oxidized by another enzyme.

- NADPH works with a wide variety of enzymes, and is considered one of the universal electron carriers.

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Izzaty, Fiya, Danisya, Athirah, Nurin, Afiq.

Q : What are the steps in the Calvin Cycle? Elaborate.

There are three main stages in the Calvin Cycle, which is carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration.

CARBON FIXATION

What does it mean to fix something? It can mean to repair something that's broken, like fixing a car or a bike. But that's not the only meaning. You can fix something in place. If you take a thumb tack or push pin and put a piece of paper on a bulletin board it 'fixes' the piece of paper so that it won't fall off.

The first stage of the Calvin cycle incorporates carbon from CO2 into an organic molecule, a process called carbon fixation. In plants, atmospheric CO2 enters the mesophyll layer of leaves by passing through pores on the leaf surface called stomata. It can then diffuse into mesophyll cells, and into the stroma of chloroplasts, where the Calvin cycle takes place.

In the first step of the cycle, an enzyme nicknamed rubisco (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase) catalyzes attachment of CO2 to a five-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). The resulting 6-carbon molecule is unstable, however, and quickly splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). Thus, for each CO2 that enters the cycle, two 3-PGA molecules are produced.

REDUCTION

First, each molecule of 3-PGA receives a phosphate group from ATP, turning into a doubly phosphorylated molecule called 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (and leaving behind ADP as a by-product).

Second, the 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate molecules are reduced (gain electrons). Each molecule receives two electrons from NADPH and loses one of its phosphate groups, turning into a three-carbon sugar called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This step produces NADP+ and phosphate  as by-products.

REGENERATION

Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires ATP and involves a complex network of reactions.

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GROUP 3 3K7 (HUMAIRA, DANISH, ALIF, THAQIF, SAFWAN)

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GROUP 3 3K7 (HUMAIRA, DANISH, ALIF, THAQIF, SAFWAN)

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NADPH - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen.

-  A molecule important in some chemical reactions in photosynthesis.

- Produced in Photosystem I during light reaction.

Formation of NADPH

1)  Light energy is absorbed by pigments in Photosystem II and passed down to the reaction centre.

2) The energy excites the electron to high energy level.

3) The high-energy electron then travels down an electron transport chain while slowly losing energy.

4) Chemiosmosis process takes place. ( Involves hydrogen)

5) The electron arrives at Photosystem I.

6) New light energy is absorbed by Photosystem II and some electron are replaced with a new electron. The electron now contains high energy level.

7) The electron travels down the electron transport chain.

8) NADP+ combine with the electron to become NADPH at the end of the electron transport chain.

ROLES OF NADPH

- Plays an important role in Calvin Cycle during light-independent reaction.

- Act as an energy-carrying molecule and provides energy to fuel the Calvin Cycle.

- Used to make sugar during the Calvin Cycle.

- A coenzyme in Calvin Cycle.  It transfers electrons and hydrogen to NADP+.

- Are known as universal electron carriers.

What will happen if ATP and NADPH are already used up at night?

Glucose production will stop.This is because ATP and NADPH are both used in light-dependent reaction where the presence of light is needed to be broken down for food production. Though in Calvin cycle these are also used to break down glucose in the absence of light, still the energy needed here is dependent from sunlight. Thus, ATP and NADPH are needed to synthesize it. And as the question states, ATP and NADPH are already used up, therefore, the plant will not be able to produce its own food which is glucose until the sun shines again.

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Azalea, Umie, Izazi, Amalia, Athifa, Ziyad, Jannah, Adra, Iman I.

Q: What is photosystem?
Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in photosynthesis that together carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons. Photosystems are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria. They are located in the chloroplast of plants and algae, and in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria.

There are 2 types of photosystems:
Photosystem I & Photosystem II

(what is PS I & PS II then???)

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Pang Xin Yue, Zarith Sofia, Noor Arisha, Afiq Arfan, Awangku Mohd Daniel

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a  Humaira, Safwan, Thaqif, Danish, Alif.

HOW EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES  AFFECTS THE NUTRIENTS INTAKE BY PLANT?

What Is the Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live.

How does it work?

A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers.

A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.

The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat just like the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.

During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Effect of greenhouse on plant:

1. Temperature Control

Outdoor temperature is not fixed. It will change between night and day. Plants that are exposed to extreme cold and heat for 24-hour will not grow well like greenhouse plants and stressed plants will become stunted over time.

The enclosed indoor space greenhouses provide is with controlled temperature with heaters and air ventilation for specific plant species, such as food crops. The timers that are connected to the heaters allow you to change the temperature settings depending on the time of day.

By following each plant species' temperature preferences, foliage, flowers and fruit flourish, greenhouse can be controlled to match the preferred (best) condition fot the plants to grow.

2. Reduced Pest and Disease Exposure

Plants in greenhouses grow in containers with specifically chosen soil. Unlike an outdoor garden, greenhouse soil containing harmful diseases and pests is very low.

As a result, greenhouse is practically safe from fungi, bacteria and pests, such as borers.

Without harmful bacteria and pests, the plants can concentrate on being healthy and growth rather than to focus on repair and defense.

The bad effect of greenhouse:

1. Increased level of CO2

The concentration of CO2, which is one of the common greenhouse gases, is not only affecting the marine lives but are also disrupting the photosynthesis process of plants.

How does farming affect the nutrition intake of plants?

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. Humans have tried many ways to increase the output. Many methods are created and most of them are very great for both the plants and humans. However, there are some bad practices.

1)Hydroponics

Hydroponics is a great method in growing plants without soil by instead using mineral nutrient solutions in a water solvent. This practice helped the plants in having enough nutrients for a healthy growth. It is also scientifically proven that plants grow a lot better with their roots in the water or very moist air instead of soil.

This is due to the fact that many plants fail to get enough nutrients from the soil itself. The malnutrition that plants go through will affects their growth in a bad way. That is why hydroponics method is a great alternative to produce a healthy plants that will be eaten by humans themselves.

2)Nitrogen leaching

The wide usage of nitrogenous fertilizers in the cultivation of crops have also affected plants nutrient intake.  It has caused denitrification which means the loss and leaching of nitrogen from the soil into groundwater and spread into other water bodies such as streams, river, lake and sea. Bacteria and algae thrive in these nitrogen-rich waters resulting in rapid growth of aquatic plants such as water lily,  seaweed and water hyacinth. To simplify, nitrogen leaching helps aquatic plants to grow.

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Balqis, Fadhlin, Ilyana, Amira

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HAZIMAN | AFRINA | ALYSSA | SHARIZAT | NAUFAL

Q: What are the steps in the Calvin Cycle? Elaborate.

There are 3 steps in the Calvin Cycle (aka dark reaction):

1. CARBON FIXATION
CO2 molecule from the atmosphere combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule called RuBP  (find the full name).  Six-carbon compound is then split into two molecules of the three-carbon compound. It is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, also known as RuBisCO.

2. REDUCTION PHASE
The 3-PGA molecules are converted into molecules of a simple sugar. This step is called “reduction” because NADPH donates electrons to the 3-phosphoglyceric acid molecules to create glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate (G3P). This process requires the enzyme Ribulose Biphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCo) and both ATP and NADPH.

3. REGENERATION OF RuBP
Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate molecules make:

I) Glucose
II) Recycled to regenerate the five-carbon RuBP compound that is used to accept new carbon molecules.

This requires ATP. This cycle must be repeated six times to make a single molecule of glucose.

Five out of six glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate molecules are regenerated to form RuBP molecules. The sixth exits the cycle to become one half of a glucose molecule. Carbon dioxide that enters the cycle again is fixed by RuBisCo to a 5-carbon sugar called Ribulose Biphosphate (RuBP).

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Question: What will happen if plants are having malnutrition? Include examples.

Macronutrients:
Nitrogen,N: Stems and their growth is stunted.Leaves turn yellowish-green(less).Plant will be more attractive to insect, It also cause excessive growth and reduce the strength of the plant stems.(too much)

Phosphorus,P: Plant stem become thinner and growth is stunted.Leaves turn dark blueish-green(less).Leaves turn yellow and poor health of the plant(too much).

Potassium,K:Plant dont have enough energy to properly grow, their roots are not well formed,and they have weak stems and stalks(less). Stunt the growth of the plant and lead to chlorosis (too much).

Calcium,Ca:Curling of young leaves, poor growth, leaf tip burns, stunted roots, and damage to fruit(less).Calcium is not considered to be toxic to plant but,excess calcium levels in the soil can reduce a plant's uptake of other nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, boron, copper, iron, or zinc(too much).

Magnesium,Mg:Degrade the chlorophyll in the old leave,yellowing between leaf veins(less).A little extra magnesium is not particularly harmful.Stunted growth, and dark-coloured vegetation(too much).

Sulphur,S: Symptoms diffrent between plant species, in corn, sulphur deficiency shows up as interveinal chlorosis; in wheat, the whole plant becomes pale,in potatoes, spotting of leaves might occur(less). Sulphur lowers the soil pH making soil more acidic(too much).

MICRONUTRIENT:

Boron:Boron deficiency commonly results in empty pollen grains, poor pollen vitality and a reduced number of flowers per plant(less).
Plants with too much boron initially display yellowing or browning of foliage,Boron toxicity symptoms are different depending on the plant, and instead of damage to the foliage, some plants may ooze a gummy substance from the branches or trunk. Stunted growth is common, and fruit trees may be less productive(too much).

Copper:Death young shoot tips,brown spot appear on terminal leaves,plant are stunted(less).Excess copper in the growing medium can restrict root growth by burning the root tips and thereby causing excess lateral root growth. High levels of copper can compete with plant uptake of iron and sometimes molybdenum or zinc(too much).

Iron:Yellowing of youn leaves(less).Their chlorophyll fluorescence begins to change. Small amounts of iron are necessary for chlorophyll production, but too much iron can affect the chlorophyll itself, causing it to change and inhibiting the plant's ability to properly absorb energy from sunlight(too much).

Manganese:A network of green vein on a light green back ground,Brown and grey spot between vein(less).Manganese toxicity causes necrotic spots to appear on the older leaves of the vine. Manganese toxicity also frequently causes chlorosis(too much).

Moleybdenum:Chlorosis in the areas between the vein of mature leaves,pale green leaves,reduction in crop yields(less).Yellowing or browning of leaves and depressed tillering(too much).

Zinc:Mottled leaves with irregular areas of chlorosis,retarded growth(less).

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Arisha,Pang, Zarith, Afiq, Awang

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Balqis, Fadhlin, Ilyana, Amira

Q: Identify the micronutrients and macronutrients of plants with functions.

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Fadhlin, Ilyana, Balqis,Amira

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Fadhlin, Ilyana, Balqis,Amira

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Fadhlin, Ilyana, Balqis,Amira

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| Aiman - 'Ammar |
Photosystems
-large complexes of proteins and pigments
Function:
To harvest light
Types:
Photosystem 2
Photosystem 1
Photosystems carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons. Photosystems are found in the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria.
Location:
chloroplast of plants and algae, and in the cytoplasmic membrane of photosynthetic bacteria.

(What is PS I & PS II???)

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Goh, Naziha, Khairul

WHAT IS NADPH
NADPH stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen. NADPH is a cofactor used to donate electrons and hydrogens to reactions catalyzed by some enzymes. NADPH is a reducing agent. This molecule plays a crucial role in some of the chemical reactions that make up the process of photosynthesis (light dependant reaction). NADPH is a product of the first stage of photosynthesis and is used to help fuel the reactions that take place in the second stage of photosynthesis (Calvin Cycle).

FUNCTION OF NADPH
NADPH is the typical coenzyme used in reduction reactions, seen in the anabolic pathways of organisms.
For example, when sugars are created during photosynthesis carbon molecules are chained together using the energy from the sunlight. NADPH function in transferring electrons and a hydrogen displaced by the energy of sunlight to combine carbon dioxide into carbon molecules.

ROLE OF NADPH IN ELECTRON REGULATION
When the electron from the electron transport chain arrives at photosystem I, it is re-energized with another photon captured by chlorophyll. The energy from the electron drives the formation of NADPH from NADP⁺ and a hydrogen ion (H⁺). In this reaction the NADP⁺ becomes reduced going from a positive electrical state to a more negative neutral state as a NADPH molecule. When NADPH gives up its electrons to reduce the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by addition of electrons, it is converted back to NADP+ and is able to pick up electrons again. NADPH works with a wide variety of enzymes, and is considered one of the universal electron carrier.

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{ Sufia, Afifah, Aqilah, Ain, Jannah, Khairul, Ariz }
Photosystem

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Ayesha, Syifa, Sharifah 3K1

The process of The Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle is also called dark reactions or light-independent reactions because it's the part that doesn't need sunlight to happen.

takes place within the stroma of the chloroplast.

- where plants make sugar molecules that they can use to make other essential components, and that all other organisms can use for energy.

The cycle uses ATP and NADPH synthesized in the light-dependant reaction to drive its reactions forward

- so even though they don’t need sunlight, they still depend on Light Reaction to provide ATP and NADPH

There are three stages

1. Carbon fixation.
A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, or Rubisco.

2. Reduction. In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules into molecules of a three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name because NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make G3P.

3. Regeneration. One G3P molecule go to make glucose, while others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires ATP and involves a complex network of reactions, which my college bio professor liked to call the "carbohydrate scramble."

Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle and go towards making glucose. Let’s summarize the quantities of key molecules that enter and exit the Calvin cycle as one net G3P is made.

A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-carbon glucose molecule. It would take six turns of the cycle, or 6CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one molecule of glucose.

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Insyirah, Jacquelyn, Najmi, Aliyah

NADPH is Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen.
-product of the first stage of photosynthesis

What is the mechanism of NADPH in reduction process?
-help fuel the reactions in second stage
=The low-energy electrons leaving photosystem II are shuttled to photosystem I. Within photosystem I, the low energy electrons are reenergized and are passed through an electron transport chain where they are used to reduce the electron carrier NADP+ to NADPH. When the chloroplast is receiving a steady supply of photons, NADPH & ATP molecules are rapidly being provided to the metabolic pathways in the stroma as energy source for the Calvin cycle.

- Plays an important role in Calvin Cycle during light-independent reaction.

NADPH formation.
The net effect of these steps is to convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. The ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used to make sugars in the next stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle. NADP+ combine with the electron to become NADPH at the end of the electron transport chain.

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Respiration in Plants 🌱
Najwa, Adam, Aiman, Sharifah

Q1:  Compare and contrast the ways on gaseous exchange.

In leaves

Leaves comprise tiny pores referred to as stomata. The exchange of gases takes place via stomata through the process of diffusion. Each stoma is controlled by Guard Cells. The opening and closing of the stoma help in the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the interior of leaves.

In stem

In the case of the stem, the air gets diffused in the stomata and passes through various parts of the cell for respiration. The carbon dioxide produced during this stage also diffuses through the stomata. In higher plants or woody plants, the gaseous exchange is carried out by lenticels.

In root
Roots, the underground part of the plants absorb air from the air spaces present between the soil particles. Thus, the oxygen absorbed through roots are used to release energy which is later utilized for the transportation of minerals and salts from the soil.

Q2: How respirational and photosynthesis are interrelated in plants? Compare and contrast both processes.

How respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated in plants:

1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars

2. The sugar can be stored, transported throughout the plant & converted into energy

3. Respiration occurs when glucose (sugar produced in photosynthesis) combines with Oxygen to produce useable cellular energy

4. Product of respiration are Carbon Dioxide and water

5. Without the glucose produced in photosynthesis, plants would not be able to respire. And without these two processes in plants, animals and humans would not obtain Oxygen.

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Najwa, Hureen, Alisa, Dayang, Aiman, Adam, Zainal

photosystem I: comes second in electron flow, where it gets it electrons from photosystem II
photsystem II: comes first in the electron flow, getting its electrons from water molecules (photolysis)  present in the chloroplast
grana: a stack of thylakoids, contains chlorophyll
stroma: gel-like matrix in the chloroplast, site of dark reaction (Calvin cycle)

So WHAT IS PHOTOSYSTEM????

- Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes that together carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis defined by a particular pigment organization and association patterns, for photosynthesis,  whose work the absorption and transfer of light energy, which implies transfer of electrons. Photosystem l is the second photosystem in the photosynthetic light reactions of algae, plants, and some bacteria. Photosystem I  is an integral membrane protein complex that uses light energy to produce the high energy carriers ATP and NADPH. PSI comprises more than 110 cofactors, significantly more than photosystem ll. Photosystem II is a specialized protein complex that uses light energy to drive the transfer of electrons from water to plastoquinone, resulting in the production of oxygen and the release of reduced plastoquinone into the photosynthetic membrane. Plastoquinone is an isoprenoid quinone molecule involved in the electron transport chain in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Mechanism :

1. The photosystems on the membrane of the granum absorbs light energy from the sun. Photosystem II extracts electrons from water molecules using the light energy which leave oxygen gas to bubble away and hydrogen ions. The energised electrons then move through the reaction center, passing its energy to neighbouring pigments and then moving through membrane-bound proteins to the photosystem I.
2. The protein at the end of photosystem I is hard to add an electron to which is why it uses the light energy from the sun to move it through the difficult protein. The high energy produced from this transportation is used to synthesise sugar from carbon dioxide.
3. The grana of chloroplast consists of pigment system made up of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotine and xanthophyll. When light strikes these pigments, they split water, releasing oxygen as a by product in the process of photolysis. The freed electrons from this reaction arrive at photosystem ll and are transferred down an electron transport chain to photosystem l.

4. Stroma contain the enzymes for carbon fixation, manages the chloroplast response to cellular stresses and signalling between various organelles. When the protons from the reaction of photosystem l and ll flow back into the stroma, it powers the formation of ATP molecules. Photosystem l is involved in the formation of reduced coenzyme NADPH.

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Nurin, Dina, Ain, Maya, Diana, I'rine, Aisyah, Arif

THE CALVIN CYCLE

⁃ Occurs in stroma
⁃ NADPH and ATP molecules are rapidly being provided to the metabolic pathways (light rxn) in the stroma
⁃ NADPH and ATP formed during the Light Dependent reaction are used in the stroma to fuel the Calvin Cycle reactions  (repeated)
⁃ Consists of a series of reactions that reduce carbon dioxide to produce the carbohydrates glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate
⁃ Carbon fixation, reduction, regeneration.

CARBON FIXATION

⁃ Carbon dioxide is attached to a five-carbon sugar called RuBP (ribulose 1,5-biphosphate).
- The enzyme that catalyses this process is called Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (or rubisco).
- The product of this reaction is 6 carbon molecule that immediately splits into two 3-carbon sugars, 3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate).

REDUCTION

- Energy is provided for this process when ATP is converted to ADP, and when NADPH is converted to NADP+. They provide energy and electrons to convert the 3-PGA to 6 molecules of G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate).   - Only 1 molecule of G3P exits the cycle to be used in the plant cell (to make glucose and other organic compound). The other 5 molecules are recycled to regenerate RuBP.
- Both of ADP and NADP+ then return to light-dependent reactions to be reused.

REGENERATION

⁃ RuBP is regenerated.
⁃ Every three turns of the cycle, five molecules of G3P are used to re-form molecules of RuBP.

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Manganese:

Deficiency:
- Yellowing between the veins of young leaves, but pattern is not as distinct as with iron.
- Reduction in size of plant parts (leaves, shoots, fruit) generally.

Excessive:
Like boron toxicity, manganese toxicity causes necrotic spots to appear on the older leaves of the vine. Manganese toxicity also frequently causes chlorosis (pale or yellow colour), most severe on the younger leaves, due to an induced iron deficiency. Either one or both of these symptoms may be observed in crops affected by manganese toxicity.
  

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group 3 : How effects of human activities affect the nutrient intakes by plant

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group 3 : How effects of human activities affect the nutrient intakes by plant

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By : Najmi, Aliyah, Jacquelyn, Insyirah 3k1

Combustion of fossil fuels are one of the reservoirs for carbon in the carbon cycle.
Further exacerbating the change in the carbon cycle, other human activities such as the clearing of vegetation, through deforestation or cutting of plants, results in lesser carbon sinks, further increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In addition, forest fire due to deforestation or other causes, also results in the increase of carbon dioxide released. This excessive release of carbon dioxide has led to carbon dioxide being one of the highest green house gas contributing to global warming and climate change nowadays.

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Najwa, Hureen, Alisa, Dayang, Aiman, Adam, Zainal

Functions of macronutrient and micronutrient.

MACRONUTRIENT

Calcium (Ca) :
-To form the middle lamella and cell wall.
-For the growth of shoot tips and root tips.
- To maintain the semi-permeable characteristic of cell membranes.

Sulphur (S) :
-To synthesis certain amino acids.
-Main component of vitamin B and some coenzymes.
-Act as a soil conditioner and help reduce the sodium content of soils.

Nitrogen (N) :
-Synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll and enzymes for photosynthesis and respiration.
-Important for rapid stem and leaf growth.
-Increases seed and fruit yields.

Magnesium (Mg) :
-Activates enzymes in photosynthesis
-Synthesis of chlorophyll
-Involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

Phosphorus (P) :
-To synthesis nucleic acids and phospholipids in the plasma membrane
-Acts as a coenzyme in photosynthesis and respiration.
-Normal growth and maturity

Potassium (K)  :
-To synthesis proteins
-Synthesis of energy (ATP)
-Stimulates the formation of flowers
-Builds defense against infections by diseases

MICRONUTRIENTS:

Boron  (B) :
-Required for a normal mitotic cell division in the meristems.
-Involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
-Aids in the germination of pollen grains.

Iron (Fe) :
-Cofactor in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
-Essential for young growing plants.
-Necessary for some enzyme functions in many plants.

Manganese (Mn) :
-Activates enzymes in photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen metabolism.

Molybdenum (Mo) :
-Involved in nitrogen fixation.
-Reduction of nitrates during protein synthesis

Zinc (Zn) :
-Essential for plant growth & development.
-Formation of leaves.
-Act as a cofactor in carbohydrate metabolism

Copper (Cu) :
-Important component of enzymes.
-For reproductive growth and flower formation in plants.
-Involved in nitrogen metabolism and photosynthesis.

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group 3 : How effects of human activities affect the nutrient intakes by plant

By : Najmi, Aliyah, Jacquelyn, Insyirah 3k1

Combustion of fossil fuels are one of the reservoirs for carbon in the carbon cycle.
Further exacerbating the change in the carbon cycle, other human activities such as the clearing of vegetation, through deforestation or cutting of plants, results in lesser carbon sinks, further increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In addition, forest fire due to deforestation or other causes, also results in the increase of carbon dioxide released. This excessive release of carbon dioxide has led to carbon dioxide being one of the highest green house gas contributing to global warming and climate change nowadays.

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by Syifa, Ayesha & Sharifah

Q: What will happen if plants are having malnutrition? Include examples.

Macronutrients

Deficiency:

Nitrogen, N : stunted growth, Chlorosis - in which the synthesis of chlorophyll is inhibited, results in pale yellow leaves

Phosphorus, P : poor root growth, formation of dull, dark green leaves, red or purple spots on old leaves

Potassium, K : reduced protein synthesis, yellow-edged leaves, premature death of plants

Calcium, Ca : stunted growth, leaves become distorted and cupped, areas between leaf veins become yellow.

Magnesium, Mg : yellowing of the regions between the veins of mature leaves (chlorosis), red spots on leaf surfaces, leaves become cupped

Sulphur, S : general yellowing of the affected leaves or the entire plant

Micronutrients

Deficiency:

Boron : death of terminal buds, abnormal plant growth, leaves become thick, curled and brittle

Copper : death of young shoot tips, brown spots appear on terminal leaves, plants are stunted

Iron : yellowing of young leaves

Manganese : a network of green veins on a light green background, brown or grey spots between the veins

Molybdenum : chlorosis in the areas between the veins of mature leaves, pale green leaves, reduction in crop yields

Zinc : mottled leaves with irregular areas of chlorosis, retarded growth

Macronutrient over-efficiency

Nitrogen, N : Insects and diseases are more attracted to plants

Phosphorus, P : Leaves turn yellow

Potassium, K : Leaf veins will have a red tint

Calcium, Ca : red & orange spots appear on leaves

Magnesium, Mg : Stunted growth and dark coloured vegetation

Sulphur, S : Deficiency in nutrients such as phosphorus and magnesium

Micronutrients Over-efficiency

Boron : Leaf tips turn dry

Manganese : Leaf tips turn dry

Iron : Bronzing and stippling of leaves

Molybdenum : Leaves have a golden-ish yellow appearance

Zinc : Reduced root growth

Copper : Restricted root growth

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-Iron(Fe)
-Manganese(Mn)
-Molybdenum(Mo)
-Zinc(Zn)
-Boron(B)

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{ Sufia, Afifah, Aqilah, Ain, Jannah, Khairul, Ariz }

PHOTOSYSTEM

Definition: protein complexes:  arrangements of chlorophyll a with other pigments, including chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids, which capture light energy to energize an electron removed from a water molecule. In plants, photosystems are located in the thykaloid membrane within the chloroplast.

Types: photosystem I and photosystem II

- Photosystem 1: Uses light energy to convert NADP+ to NADPH. It involves the P700, chlorophyll and other pigments.

- Photosystem 2: Protein complex that absorbs light energy, involving P680, chlorophyll (a&b) and accessory pigments and transfer electrons from water to plastoquinone and thus works in dissociation of water molecules and produces protons (H+) and O2.

Comparison:

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Complete the cycle properly
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Nimex, Jenn, Fatin, Mardhiyah, Afham
# Role of Calvin Cycle

1.Carbon Fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regenaration of RuBp

- Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate molecules go to make glucose.
- Others will be recycled to generate 5 carbon RuBp (ribuluse biphosphate) compound that will accept new electron
- This process require ATP and it inlvove many steps
- It takes 6 carbon molecule to make glucose and it repeated 6 times to make a single molecule of glucose.
- 5 out of 6 glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate molecule will created through Calvin cycle.
- Left molecule will exit the cycle to become one half of glucose molecule.
- 3 turn of celvin cycle to create glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
- Each turn of the Calvin cycle also uses up 3 ATP and 2 NADPH in the processes of reducing (adding electrons to) 3-phosphoglyceric acid to produce glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate, and regenerating RuBP so that they can accept a new atom of carbon from CO2 from the air.
- single molecule = 18 ATP & 12 NADPH
- FORMULA :

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Nurin, Dina, Ain, Maya, Diana, Irine, Aisyah, Arif

THE CALVIN CYCLE

the calvin cycle
⁃ occurs in stroma
⁃ NADPH and ATP molecules are rapidly being provided to the metabolic pathways in the stroma
⁃ NADPH and ATP formed during the Light Dependent reaction are used in the stroma to fuel the Calvin Cycle reactions
⁃ Consists of a series of reactions that reduce carvon dioxide to produce the carbohydrates glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate
⁃ carbon fixation, reduction, regeneration

carbon fixation

⁃ carbon dioxide is attached to ribulose 1,5-biphosphate resulting in six carbon molecule that splits into two three carbon molecules

reduction

⁃ the sequence of reactions using electrons from NADPH and some of the ATP reduce carbon dioxide

regeneration

⁃ ribulose 1,5 biphosphate is regenerated
⁃ every three turns of the cycle, five molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are used to re-form molecules of ribulose 1,5 biphosphate

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Sufia, Aqilah, Alya Afifah, Ain, Jannah, Ariz, Khairul  Anwar

MACRONUTRIENTS
1. Nitrogen
- Synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll and enzymes for photosynthesis and respiration
- Important for rapid stem and leaf growth
- Increases seed and fruit yields
2. Phosphorus
- Synthesis of nucleic acids, adenosine triphosphates (ATP), and phospholipids of plasma membranes
- Acts as coenzyme in photosynthesis and respiration
3. Potassium
- Protein synthesis
- Carbohydrate metabolism
- A cofactor for many enzymes
- Maintain turgidity in plants
4. Carbon
- Basic element in all organic compounds of plants
- Important in the synthesis of sugars
5. Calcium
- A major constituent of the middle lamella of cell walls
- Formation of spindle fibres during cell division
6. Magnesium
- Activates many plant enzymes
- Synthesis of chlorophyll
- Involved in carbohydrate metabolism
7. Sulphur
- Synthesis of certain amino acids and nucleic acids
- Synthesis of vitamin B and some coenzymes

MICRONUTRIENTS
1. Copper
- Component of enzymes in respiration
- Has an indirect role in chlorophyll formation
- Essential for reproduction in plants
2. Molybdenum
- A component of enzymes involved in the  metabolism of nitrogen fixation
3. Iron
- Chlorophyll synthesis
4. Manganese
- Required for some enzymes in the breakdown of carbohydrates and nitrogen metabolism
- Photosynthesis and respiration
5. Boron
- Component of the cell wall
- Transport of sugars
- Development of fruits and seeds
- Pollen germination and pollen tube growth
6. Zinc
- Activators for certain enzymes
- Enzyme cofactors
- Synthesis of auxin (plant growth hormone)
- Protein synthesis and maturation of seed

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Nimex,Mardhiyah,Afham,Fatin，Jenn

Malnutrition in Plant

Nutrient deficiencies cause symptoms such as leaf yellowing or browning, sometimes in distinctive patterns. This may be accompanied by stunted growth and poor flowering or fruiting.
Yellow or reddish coloured leaves, stunted growth and poor flowering are all common symptoms of nitrogen, magnesium or potassium deficiency.
Lack of borom will cause stem and root to grow poorly.Terminal buds mau die and witches brooms will be form.
If the plant lack of copper,it will grow stuntedly.The condition of the leaves will be poor as it is drying and curled.The seed stalk also will bend over
Beside,if a plant is lack of phosphorus,it will cause root to grow poorly,formation of dull and green leaves and formation of red and purple spot on old leaves.
Lack of calcium will cause plant grow slower and the leaves would be seen distorted and cupped,yellowish area between leaf vein would form.
If plant is lack of sulphur,it  would produce general yellowing around affected area or the entire plant.
Iron lacking will cause the yellowing of young leaves
Lack of manganese
will produce a network of green veins on a light green background
Brown or grey spots would be form between the veins

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Naziha, Khairul, Goh

As we all know, plants are living beings, just like humans. So logically speaking, they also require nutrients for their growth as well to sustain their lifespan. These nutrients are easily acquired by plants from the air, water and soil. However, in recent years, various human activities have stunted the nutrient intake of plants. One such activity is the massive amount of logging conducted by humans. Logging removes trees that protect the ground from soil erosion. The tree roots that hold the soil together and the tree canopy that protects the soil from hard falling rain are also gone due to the effects of logging. As stated before, soil is an essential source for plant nutrients. Soil erosion is the displacement of the top layer of soil that gives rise to the degradation of soil structure leading to hard, compact and lumpy soil. This results in poor soil aeration which causes less oxygen to be provided for plant roots. Water holding capacity and soil permeability are also decreased which leads to less water availability. The tree roots hold the soil together and the tree canopy protects the soil from hard falling rain. Besides logging, other human activities such as mining and construction also results in soil erosion.  Anyhow, another human activity that heavily affects the nutrient intake of plants is intensive agriculture. This activity not only causes soil erosion due to the amount of land farmed and how much farming practices disrupt the ground, the activity also over drains streams and heavily destroyed fresh water supplies on the account of the large amount of fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals that find way to water ways. Synthetic fertilizers have long-term negative effects. Synthetic fertilizers kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that convert dead human and plant remains into nutrient-rich organic matter. Nitrogen- and phosphate-based synthetic fertilizers leach into groundwater and increase its toxicity, causing water pollution. Synthetic fertilizers also increase the nitrate levels of soil. Plants produced from such soil, upon consumption, convert to toxic nitrites in the intestines. Furthermore, power plants and factories hold a significant impact on plant growth. They produce oil spill, sewage leakage as well as smoke stacks which all contribute to different kind pollution. Oil spill from factories causes various chemicals to seep into the soil and strip it from any nutritional content. These chemicals also damage plant cells and prevent plants from obtaining nutrients and growing.  Sewage leakages discharge into water bodies and contaminate it. Smoke stacks produced from power plants and factories can be said as the most dangerous out of all the waste products as it causes air pollution, which already cause a handful of problems to not only plants but also humans. In addition, smoke stacks produced are the main cause of acid rain as it contains a lot of sulphur dioxide. When this rain reaches earth’s surface, it causes damage to the soil, water, and plants. Not only does direct exposure to acid rain directly damage the plants, it damages leaves and makes it harder for the plant or tree to photosynthesize and regulate the exchange of gasses. The acid rain also affects the quality of the soils, as it pollutes the soils and damages plants by dissolving and washing away the nutrients and minerals from the soil on which the plants rely.  Most factories and power plants also burn a handful of fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels from various industrial processes adds nitrogen and nitrous oxide compounds to the atmosphere, which upsets the balance of natural nitrogen, polluting ecosystems and altering the ecology of entire regions. When nitrous oxides flow into the soil, it loses nutrients such as calcium and potassium which are essential to maintain a balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss of these compounds, soil fertility declines. Also, soils become significantly more acidic, as do stream systems and lakes as the nitrogen feeds into the water supply. Moreover, the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, chlorine and bromine containing compounds are also mainly produced from factories and power plants. The increased in greenhouse gases leads to the depletion of the ozone layer or called ozone holes. Holes in the upper atmosphere allow an excess ultraviolet light to pass through the atmosphere leading to plant damage. In the lower atmosphere, ozone damages plants by preventing photosynthesis and obstructing stomata, restricting respiration and stunting plant growth. Another human activity that seems good but is in fact harmful in the long term is genetic modifications on plants. The main effect of genetic modifications is changing the natural ways of competition or predation. Besides that, soil microorganisms regulating the flow of nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and other important nutrients for plants are also impacted.

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Aliah, Daniel, Hemma, Naque

Deforestation disrupts the natural cycle of nutrients. The level of atmospheric carbon dioxide rises as less carbon dioxide in the air is removed by plants during photosynthesis.  The level of atmospheric oxygen drops as less oxygen is released by plants during photosynthesis. The recycling of nitrates and other ions slows down.
Tree roots bind soil particles together, and the tree canopy reduces the force of rain beating down on the soil. Deforestation, therefore, causes the loss of nutrients though leaching and run-offs. - daniel

Synthetic fertilisers that boost plant growth are the main contributors to humans’ influences on the affected nutrients intake of plants. Synthetic fertilizers kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that convert dead human and plant remains into nutrient-rich organic matter. Besides that,sometimes plants may not be able to utilise all of the phosphate fertiliser applied, which results in the phosphate fertilisers being transferred through the water run-off to water bodies in that area which in turns causes water pollution.In certain lakes and ponds, this extra phosphate may be redissolved and recycled as a problem nutrient. -Jared

Human activities, particularly our industrial activities, which involves the burning of coal and the internal combustion engine results in the production of sulphur dioxide, causing an impact on the sulphur cycle. Sulphur dioxide when released in their unnaturally excessive amounts can cause several damage to the environment. Sulphur dioxide can precipitate onto surfaces where it can be oxidised to sulphate in the soil, which is toxic to some plants. Sulphur dioxide can also be reduced to sulphide in the atmosphere or be oxidised to sulphate in the atmosphere as sulphuric acid, which is a principal component of acid rain. Acid rain, causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations and many sensitive forest soils, in turn resulting to changes in certain components of other nutrient cycles as well. As sulphur compounds play an important role in the climate system and any changes made to them or to their availability in the environment and result in changes to the whole system. -Aliah

Plants need nitrogen (N) as it is essential to live. N limitation is common because the parent materials in which soils form contain almost no N. Rather, the chemically stable form of nitrogen is atmospheric N2, which is usable only by N-fixing plants via microbial symbionts. Non-N-fixing plants obtain N as nitrate, ammonium, or organic N.

One of the human activities that disrupt the nitrogen cycle is the burning of fossil fuels, that produces nitrous oxides. As nitrous oxides filter into soil, it loses nutrients like calcium and potassium, which are essential for maintaining a balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss of these compounds, soil fertility declines. Also, soils become significantly more acidic, as do stream systems and lakes as the nitrogen feeds into the water supply.

In conclusion, fossil fuel burning affects the nitrogen intake of plants by disrupting the nitrogen cycle.-Hemma

The greenhouse effects
DISADVANTAGES

1. Water Level Rising
: Because of the melting of polar ice caps .
2. Earth will be warmer
: Hurricanes becomes more common outside of Malaysia .
3. Marine life and ecosystems would be destroyed
: Oceans absorb carbon dioxide thereby affecting the level of
alkalinity.
4. Disturb economy
: Mostly in agriculture and tourism like Kedah and Terengganu.

ADVANTAGES

1. Helps maintain earth temperature.
2. Helps block the harmful sun radiation like filter and bounce the
radiation back. Boing boing.
3. Produce a lot of ozone that acts as a layer for earth to absorb all the
harmful ultra-violet (UV)
-Naque

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GROUP 2 3K4

Arif, Ain, Aisyah, Diana, Dina, I'rine, Maya, Nurin

. DEFICIENCY OF MACRONUTRIENTS .

Deficiency of Potassium - unable to sythesise proteins, leaves turn yellowish, plant growth is stunted.

Deficiency of Magnesium - Older leaves turn yellow at the age leaving a green arrow head shape in the center of the leaf

Deficiency of Calcium - Irregular shaped leaves, Tips of stems and roots die

Deficiency of Phosphorus - Leaves turn dark green, Roots become small, Delayed ripening of fruits

Deficiency of Nitrogen - Chlorosis (Yellowing or bleaching of plant tissues due to the loss of chlorophyll or failure of chlorophyll synthesis)

. DEFICIENCY OF MICRONUTRIENTS .

Deficiency of Manganese - Yellowing between the veins of young leaves, Reduction in size of plant parts generally

Deficiency of Boron - The terminal buds die and the formation of flowers is disrupted

Deficiency of Zinc - The plant growth is stunted, yellowing occurs between the veins of new leaves and leaves become small and in irregular shape

Deficiency of Copper - Yellowing of leaves (chlorosis), Stunted growth and pale green leaves that wither easily

Deficiency of Molybdenum - General yellowing of older leaves with the rest of the plant light green, The plant growth is stunted and irregular-shaped leaves

Deficiency Iron - The yellowing between the veins on the youngest leaves but the veins remain green

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Daniel, Aliah, Hemma, Naque
What is NADPH
-NADPH is a cofactor, used to donate electrons and a hydrogens to reactions catalyzed by some enzymes. Typically enzymes involved in anabolic pathways that create large molecules use NADPH, while enzymes involved in the breakdown of molecules use the analog NADH.

Chloroplasts in plants also use NADPH as part of the pathway to synthesize sugars from sunlight and carbon dioxide. As in other reactions, NADPH helps carry electrons and protons driven by sunlight into new carbon-carbon bonds, creating sugar molecules.

Role of NADPH in electron regulation
-When the low energy electrons leaving photosystem 2 are shuttled to photosystem 1 where they are reenergized and are passed through electron transport chain where they are lost to convert NADP+ to NADPH.
-The electron in NADPH molecule are used to reduce carbon dioxide and NADPH is converted back to NADP+ where it is ready to accept new electrons and repeat the process

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Naziha, Khairul, Goh

As we all know, plants are living beings, just like humans. So logically speaking, they also require nutrients for their growth as well to sustain their lifespan. These nutrients are easily acquired by plants from the air, water and soil. However, in recent years, various human activities have stunted the nutrient intake of plants. One such activity is the massive amount of logging conducted by humans. Logging removes trees that protect the ground from soil erosion. The tree roots that hold the soil together and the tree canopy that protects the soil from hard falling rain are also gone due to the effects of logging. As stated before, soil is an essential source for plant nutrients. Soil erosion is the displacement of the top layer of soil that gives rise to the degradation of soil structure leading to hard, compact and lumpy soil. This results in poor soil aeration which causes less oxygen to be provided for plant roots. Water holding capacity and soil permeability are also decreased which leads to less water availability. The tree roots hold the soil together and the tree canopy protects the soil from hard falling rain. Besides logging, other human activities such as mining and construction also results in soil erosion.  Anyhow, another human activity that heavily affects the nutrient intake of plants is intensive agriculture. This activity not only causes soil erosion due to the amount of land farmed and how much farming practices disrupt the ground, the activity also over drains streams and heavily destroyed fresh water supplies on the account of the large amount of fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals that find way to water ways. Synthetic fertilizers have long-term negative effects. Synthetic fertilizers kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that convert dead human and plant remains into nutrient-rich organic matter. Nitrogen- and phosphate-based synthetic fertilizers leach into groundwater and increase its toxicity, causing water pollution. Synthetic fertilizers also increase the nitrate levels of soil. Plants produced from such soil, upon consumption, convert to toxic nitrites in the intestines. Furthermore, power plants and factories hold a significant impact on plant growth. They produce oil spill, sewage leakage as well as smoke stacks which all contribute to different kind pollution. Oil spill from factories causes various chemicals to seep into the soil and strip it from any nutritional content. These chemicals also damage plant cells and prevent plants from obtaining nutrients and growing.  Sewage leakages discharge into water bodies and contaminate it. Smoke stacks produced from power plants and factories can be said as the most dangerous out of all the waste products as it causes air pollution, which already cause a handful of problems to not only plants but also humans. In addition, smoke stacks produced are the main cause of acid rain as it contains a lot of sulphur dioxide. When this rain reaches earth’s surface, it causes damage to the soil, water, and plants. Not only does direct exposure to acid rain directly damage the plants, it damages leaves and makes it harder for the plant or tree to photosynthesize and regulate the exchange of gasses. The acid rain also affects the quality of the soils, as it pollutes the soils and damages plants by dissolving and washing away the nutrients and minerals from the soil on which the plants rely.  Most factories and power plants also burn a handful of fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels from various industrial processes adds nitrogen and nitrous oxide compounds to the atmosphere, which upsets the balance of natural nitrogen, polluting ecosystems and altering the ecology of entire regions. When nitrous oxides flow into the soil, it loses nutrients such as calcium and potassium which are essential to maintain a balance in plant ecosystems. With the loss of these compounds, soil fertility declines. Also, soils become significantly more acidic, as do stream systems and lakes as the nitrogen feeds into the water supply. Moreover, the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, chlorine and bromine containing compounds are also mainly produced from factories and power plants. The increased in greenhouse gases leads to the depletion of the ozone layer or called ozone holes. Holes in the upper atmosphere allow an excess ultraviolet light to pass through the atmosphere leading to plant damage. In the lower atmosphere, ozone damages plants by preventing photosynthesis and obstructing stomata, restricting respiration and stunting plant growth. Another human activity that seems good but is in fact harmful in the long term is genetic modifications on plants. The main effect of genetic modifications is changing the natural ways of competition or predation. Besides that, soil microorganisms regulating the flow of nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and other important nutrients for plants are also impacted.

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Aiman & 'Ammar

Definition of macronutrient:
a chemical element or substance (such as potassium or protein) that is essential in relatively large amounts to the growth and health of a living organism

Definition of micronutrients:
Micronutrients are compounds that are only required in minimal amounts which aid in the growth, development, and maintenance of the body.

Function of macronutrients:
Macronutrients are those nutrients required in large amounts that provide the energy needed to maintain body functions and carry out the activities of daily life. There are 3 macronutrients – carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Function of micronutrients:
Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.