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Valak is a man!!

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7 Internet Dangers

1. Pornography–Warping the minds of youth

Repeatedly viewing pornography, especially from a young age, can radically shape one’s sexual attitudes and beliefs. Frequent exposures to sexually explicit material is closely linked to more permissive attitudes about sex, such as having multiple sexual partners, “one night stands,” cynicism about the need for affection between sexual partners, casual sexual relations with friends, and even mimicking behaviors seen in pornography.

More than 1 in 8 web searches are forerotic content.

79% of youth’s unwanted exposures to Internet porn take place in the home.

Before the age of 18, 83% of boys and 57% of girls have seen group sex online.

2. Sexting–The unsafe ‘safe sex’

Sexting is sending or receiving nude or partially nude photos or videos through the Internet or cell phones. When teens engage in this risky behavior, many things can go wrong. These images are easy to forward on to others. At times, these images can be considered “child pornography,” and some teens have already been given felony charges.

Nearly 1 in 5 teens who receive a sextshare it with someone else.

20% of teens have sent or posted a nude or semi-nude image of themselves.

Of those who have sent sexts, 76% of girls and 57% of guys sent it to get someone else to like them.

3. Cyberbullying–The mean way kids treat each other online

Bullying happens on both the playground and in the digital world. Hurtful words are exchanged. Rumors start easily and spread quickly. Profiles and e-mails are hacked. And these types of activities are common today:

20% of teens say their peers are “mostly unkind” to each other on social networks.

24% of teens and young adults saysomeone has written something about them online that wasn’t true.

9% say someone has threatened to use electronic communication (Facebook, e-mail, text messages, etc.) to tell others private things about them as a form of blackmail.

4. Predators–Those seeking to ensnare our children

The Internet is a perfect forum to meet new people, but some with malicious intent can use it to “befriend” your child. Internet predators are expert manipulators, able to foster a relationship of dependence with a teenager. Most prey on a teen’s desire to be liked, their desire for romance, or their sexual curiosity. Often a predator “grooms” a child through flattery, sympathy, and by investing time in their online relationship. These can then turn into offline relationships or, in extreme cases, opportunities for kidnapping or abduction.

76% of predators are 26 or older.

47% of offenders are 20 years old than their victims.

83% of victims who met their offender face-to-face willingly went somewhere with them.

5. Gaming–More risks of exposure to sexual media and interactions

While online and console games can be very fun, educational, and interactive, there are also hidden dangers. Much of the content of some games include sexual content, violence, and crude language. Plus, Internet-connected games enable kids to interact with strangers, some of which can be bad influences or mean your kids harm.

82% of children say they are current gamers.

One-third of teen gamers (ages 15-17) report playing games with people they first met online.

13% of underage teenagers were able to buy Mature-rated games between November 2010 and January 2011.

6. Social Networks–Redefining privacy

Social networks like Facebook are very popular online activities. But parents should be aware of the image their teens are projecting as well as the influences they are absorbing online.

Despite the 13-year-old minimum, over half of parents of 12-year-olds say their child has a Facebook account, and three-quarters of these helped their child create the account.

40% of teens have seen pictures on social networks of their peers getting drunk, passed out, or using drugs, and half of these first saw these pictures when they were 13 or younger.

More than 11% of teens are “hyper-networkers,” spending more than three hours per school day on social network sites.

7. YouTube–’Broadcast yourself’ culture means anything goes

YouTube is the world’s largest video sharing website. But because anyone can upload anything to YouTube, often videos can break the Community Guidelines for YouTube, and even those that do not can still be full of sexual innuendo, provocative content, and foul language.

48 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube every minute (about 8 years of content uploaded every day).

Over 3 billion videos are viewed every day on YouTube.

Users upload the equivalent of 240,000 full length films every week.

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T3 GROUP 2              The uses that are possible with internet connection:  √communication    √research    √education    √financial transaction  √real time updates    √leasure              √online booking      √job search    √blogging                        Examples:    √jobstreet.com    √blogspot.com  √cinema - gsc    √y8games.com  √schoology.com    √twitter.com      √skype      √google.com    √wikipedia.com

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T3 GROUP 2              The uses that are possible with internet connection:  √communication    √research    √education    √financial transaction  √real time updates    √leasure              √online booking      √job search    √blogging                        Examples:    √jobstreet.com    √blogspot.com  √cinema - gsc    √y8games.com  √schoology.com    √twitter.com      √skype      √google.com    √wikipedia.com

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Uses of internet
-communication
-shop online
-real time updates
-book tickets
-research
-e-banking
-data sharing
-online free lancer
-education (reference books

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Uses of the internet

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Disadvantages of the Internet
There are certain cons and dangers relating to the use of Internet that can be summarized as:

Personal Information: If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your name, address, etc. can be accessed by other people. If you use a credit card to shop online, then your credit card information can also be ‘stolen’ which could be akin to giving someone a blank check.
Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet, especially when it comes to young children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet that can be easily found and can be a detriment to letting children use the Internet.
Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve no purpose and unnecessarily clog up the entire system.
If you come across any illegal activity on the Internet, such as child pornography or even spammers, then you should report these people and their activities so that they can be controlled and other people deterred from carrying them out. Child pornography can be reported to:

Your Internet service provider
Local police station
Cyber Angels (program to report cyber crime)
Such illegal activities are frustrating for all Internet users, and so instead of just ignoring it, we should make an effort to try and stop these activities so that using the Internet can become that much safer. That said, the advantages of the Internet far outweigh the disadvantages, and millions of people each day benefit from using the Internet for work and for pleasure.

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Disadvantages of the internet🐑🐑😄

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Tier 1 networks are backbone Internet providers that connect directly to the Internet. These companies have agreements with one another to allow for the free passage of traffic between them. Internationally, there are five Internet service providers (ISPs) that are considered tier 1. These are AT&T , British Telecom, Equant, InfoNet and MCI (now Verizon).

The next level of ISPs are tier 2. They are smaller, mostly regionally based, and they tend to provide ISP links between larger organizations. Tier 2 providers have peering agreements with the larger, tier 1 providers, but generally don't peer with each other. Examples of tier 2 providers include Level3, Sprint, and XO Communications.

The smallest level of ISPs are tier 3 providers. These providers generally supply Internet connectivity for homes and small businesses. They are regionally based and often peer with larger tier 2 and tier 1 providers to allow global Internet connectivity. Examples of tier 3 providers are Time Warner Cable, Verizon Fios, Google Fiber and Cablevision Optimum.

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Structure of the Internet

Home › Structure of the Internet

Structure of the Internet

The Structure of the Internet is a collection of many computer networks and individual computer units interconnected via routers. Each fragment of a computer network is able to act independently.
The structure of the Internet allows to substitute dead connection with another, which does not disable the network from the Internet. If, one of our routers is damaged or turned off, his duties will assume immediately another.
The entire network will work without a router that has failed (figure below). This rule has been adopted since the beginning of the history of the Internet.
Among the network of computers, there are two known types: servers and clients. A server is a computer that provides its resources with other computers on the network. The client is a computer that uses the resources located on servers.

The Structure of the Internet is based on a set of protocols, that allows a hit in its original form data from one network to another. Internet protocol, depending on its structure is responsible for such activities as:
- validation of sending data,
- traffic control information.

The Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP, is a suite of protocols used for communication over the internet. The TCP/IP model was created after the OSI 7 layer model for two major reasons. First, the foundation of the Internet was built using the TCP/IP suite and through the spread of the World Wide Web and Internet, TCP/IP has been preferred. Second, a project researched by the Department of Defense (DOD) consisted of creating the TCP/IP protocols. The DOD’s goal was to bring international standards which could not be met by the OSI model. Since the DOD was the largest software consumer and they preferred the TCP/IP suite, most vendors used this model rather then the OSI.

The TCP/IP model, similar to the OSI model, is comprised of layers. The OSI has seven layers and the TCP/IP model has four or five layers depending on different preferences. Some people use the Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access layers. Others split the Network Access layer into the Physical and Data Link components.

Application layer is comparable to the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model all combined into one. It provides a way for applications to have access to networked services. This layer also contains the high level protocols. The main issue with this layer is the ability to use both TCP1 and UDP2 protocols. For example TFTP3 uses UDP because usually on a LAN4 the physical links are short enough to ensure quick and reliable packet delivery without many errors. SMTP5 instead uses TCP because of the error checking capabilities. Since we consider our email important information we would like to ensure a safe delivery.

Transport layer acts as the delivery service used by the application layer. Again the two protocols used are TCP and UDP. The choice is made based on the application’s transmission reliability requirements. The transport layer also handles all error detection and recovery. It uses checksums, acknowledgements, and timeouts to control transmissions and end to end verification. Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP treats reliability as an end-to-end problem.

Internet layer is responsible for routing and delivery of data and is the key component of this architecture. It allows communication across networks of the same and different types and carries out translations to deal with dissimilar data addressing schemes. It inject packets into any network and deliver them to the destination independently to one another. Because the path through the network is not predetermined, the packets may be received out of order. The upper layers are responsible for the reordering of the data. This layer can be compared to the network layer of the OSI model. IP and ARP6 are the major protocols used at this layer.

Network access layer is a combination of the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model which consists of the actual hardware. This includes wires, network interface cards, etc. Other related details within this layer are connectors, signal strength, and wavelength along with various others. It will use the required LAN operating algorithms, such as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect (CMSA/CD)7 or IBM Token Passing8 etc. and is responsible for placing the data within a frame. The frame format is dependent on the system being used, for example Ethernet LAN, Frame relay9, etc. The frame is the package that holds the data, in the same way as an envelope holds a letter. The frame holds the hardware address of the host and checking algorithms for data integrity. This layer has actually not been specified in details because it depends on which technology is being used such as Ethernet. So freedom is given to this layer as far as implementation is concerned.

IP (Internet Protocol) is a network protocol for transmitting data corresponding to different networks of computers. The IP number is presented as the number of units individuals assigned to a single computer or individuals to a network of computers, used to identify the unit. IP address is not assigned to a physical computer, and can be changed at every entrance to the Internet.
The current standard “IPV4″ is usually separated into 4 tuples or bytes, such as 171.154.188.76, as a “dotted decimal”. What this means is that if we are to navigate the Internet to this IP address for some reason, then our network ard will send out “packets” with that number in them, and a process called “routing” will send those packets to that Internet address.

IPv6 is the second version of the Internet Protocol to be used generally across the virtual world. One of the main upgrades in IPv6 is in the number of addresses available for networked devices. For example, each mobile phone or other kind of electronic device can have its own address. IPv6 allows 3.4×1038 addresses. This is mainly due to the number of bits in each protocol. IPv4 addresses have 32 bits in them and so allow a maximum of four billion addresses. Version 6 addresses have 128 bits.

However, IPv4 is still the protocol of choice for most of the Internet. The transition will be a steady one, and IPv6 is the future of Internet addressing, mainly because industry experts believe that they are close to running out of available addresses altogether.

More about IP addresses here.

The most important part of the Internet is routing. The device which is responsible for routing is a router. We can also use a desktop equipped with the appropriate software for the routing.
If we accept a model, that the Internet is collection of smaller networks linked together in many different places, then the process of routing, or sending Internet packets around the Internet is quite simple.

A host/device, can only send messages within its own network. The Internet and the networks grow in same time, but we must remember that in the past we were using only modems to communication and they acted as gateways. Even today if you are on, for example, the Telus network, then you must go through one of the Telus Internet gateways to see the rest of the Internet. Even to get out of your home network, you must go through your router to get out of your house. This process of Internet datagram movement is called routing.

Each datagram has a source IP address, and a destination IP address in the IP header information. As a datagram is passed to the gateway (each host knows who its gateway is), it follows rules as to where it should go. Simply put, the router, or gateway looks at the packet and says “is this destination IP address in my network, or should I send it off to my gateway?”. Obviously there is much more to it, but at the simplest level, that is really what happens in a “static routing table”. There are, of course extremely complex rules automatically set by protocols such as border gate protocol (BDP) by higher level upstream providers (Telus, Sprint, etc.) since your destination IP address may not just be upstream, but may also be downstream somewhere too.

All this talk about numbers is great for computers, but for us humans… not really.
It is much easier for us to remember a name like mallowcollege.ie than 81.17.250.47.
Names are also usefull incase we do something like change all the numbers on the Internet and make them really hard to remember as will be the as IPV6 is slowly introduced. IP addresses change, but names are supposed to be more static changing only when there is a human reason for it.

When it all began, in 1970, all of the computers on the network aware of its existence, and so on, through a text file named HOSTS.TXT.
This was maintained by one Network Information Centre (NIC). Changes were emailed to NIC when a new host was added, or one was deleted, and clients ftped the file to their own host to get the latest version. When ARPAnet moved to TCP/IP, the population of the Internet exploded, and this scheme no longer worked.

To solve this problem a database was created called the Domain Name System. The idea was simple. Computer has a number, and the DNS system lets you look up that number to find another device on the Internet.
The stucture of the hierarchy is that there is one “root” point, and several nodes coming off of that root point called “top level domains”. The root point is not a single computer, but several core networks possibly separately corporately owned, but it is simpler to imagine it as a single point.

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The Internet is a series of connected networks designed to allow high-speed communication between various organizations, companies and countries. The basic structure of the internet is broken up between tier 1, tier 2 and tier 3 carriers.

Tier 1 networks are backbone Internet providers that connect directly to the Internet. These companies have agreements with one another to allow for the free passage of traffic between them. Internationally, there are five Internet service providers (ISPs) that are considered tier 1. These are AT&T , British Telecom, Equant, InfoNet and MCI (now Verizon).

The next level of ISPs are tier 2. They are smaller, mostly regionally based, and they tend to provide ISP links between larger organizations. Tier 2 providers have peering agreements with the larger, tier 1 providers, but generally don't peer with each other. Examples of tier 2 providers include Level3, Sprint, and XO Communications.

The smallest level of ISPs are tier 3 providers. These providers generally supply Internet connectivity for homes and small businesses. They are regionally based and often peer with larger tier 2 and tier 1 providers to allow global Internet connectivity. Examples of tier 3 providers are Time Warner Cable, Verizon Fios, Google Fiber and Cablevision Optimum.

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Open main menu

History of the Internet

The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom, and France.[1] The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of theARPANET (which would become the first network to use the Internet Protocol). The first message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).

Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, NPL network, CYCLADES,Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety ofcommunications protocols.[2] Donald Davies was the first to put theory into practice by designing a packet-switched network at the National Physics Laboratory in the UK, the first of its kind in the world and the cornerstone for UK research for almost two decades.[3][4]Following, ARPANET further led to the development of protocols forinternetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, theInternet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In the early 1980s the NSF funded the establishment for national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with theNSFNET project, which also created network access to the supercomputersites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers(ISPs) began to emerge in the very late 1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990,[5] and the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.

In the 1980s, the work of British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee on the World Wide Web theorised protocols linking hypertext documents into a working system, marking the beginning of the modern Internet.[6] Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls,two-way interactive video calls, and theWorld Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, andonline shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS),Internet2, and National LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.[7] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.

Internet history timeline
Early research and development:1966: Merit Network founded1966: ARPANET planning starts1969: ARPANET carries its first packets1970: Mark I network at NPL (UK)1970: Network Information Center(NIC)1971: Merit Network's packet-switched network operational1971: Tymnet packet-switched network1972: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) established1973: CYCLADES network demonstrated1974: Telenet packet-switched network1976: X.25 protocol approved1978: Minitel introduced1979: Internet Activities Board (IAB)1980: USENET news using UUCP1980: Ethernet standard introduced1981: BITNET establishedMerging the networks and creating the Internet:1981: Computer Science Network(CSNET)1982: TCP/IP protocol suite formalized1982: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)1983: Domain Name System (DNS)1983: MILNET split off fromARPANET1985: First .COM domain name registered1986: NSFNET with 56 kbit/s links1986: Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)1987: UUNET founded1988: NSFNET upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)1988: OSI Reference Model released1988: Morris worm1989: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)1989: PSINet founded, allows commercial traffic1989: Federal Internet Exchanges(FIXes)1990: GOSIP (without TCP/IP)1990: ARPANET decommissioned1990: Advanced Network and Services (ANS)1990: UUNET/Alternet allows commercial traffic1990: Archie search engine1991: Wide area information server(WAIS)1991: Gopher1991: Commercial Internet eXchange(CIX)1991: ANS CO+RE allows commercial traffic1991: World Wide Web (WWW)1992: NSFNET upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)1992: Internet Society (ISOC) established1993: Classless Inter-Domain Routing(CIDR)1993: InterNIC established1993: Mosaic web browser released1994: Full text web search engines1994: North American Network Operators' Group (NANOG) establishedCommercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:1995: New Internet architecture with commercial ISPs connected at NAPs1995: NSFNET decommissioned1995: GOSIP updated to allow TCP/IP1995: very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)1995: IPv6 proposed1998: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)1999: IEEE 802.11b wireless networking1999: Internet2/Abilene Network1999: vBNS+ allows broader access2000: Dot-com bubble bursts2001: New top-level domain names activated2001: Code Red I, Code Red II, andNimda worms2003: UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I2003: National LambdaRail founded2004: UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)2005: UN WSIS phase II2006: First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum2010: First internationalized country code top-level domains registered2012: ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names2013: Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation2014: NetMundial international Internet governance proposal Examples of popular Internet services:1990: IMDb Internet movie database1995: Amazon.com online retailer1995: eBay online auction and shopping1995: Craigslist classified advertisements1996: Hotmail free web-based e-mail1997: Babel Fish automatic translation1998: Google Search1998: Yahoo! Clubs (now Yahoo! Groups)1998: PayPal Internet payment system1999: Napster peer-to-peer file sharing2001: BitTorrent peer-to-peer file sharing2001: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia2003: LinkedIn business networking2003: Myspace social networking site2003: Skype Internet voice calls2003: iTunes Store2003: 4Chan Anonymous image-based bulletin board2003: The Pirate Bay, torrent file host2004: Facebook social networking site2004: Podcast media file series2004: Flickr image hosting2005: YouTube video sharing2005: Reddit link voting2005: Google Earth virtual globe2006: Twitter microblogging2007: WikiLeaks anonymous news and information leaks2007: Google Street View2007: Kindle, e-reader and virtual bookshop2008: Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud(EC2)2008: Dropbox cloud-based file hosting2008: Encyclopedia of Life, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species2008: Spotify, a DRM-based music streaming service2009: Bing search engine2009: Google Docs, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service2009: Kickstarter, a threshold pledge system2009: Bitcoin, a digital currency2010: Instagram, photo sharing andsocial networking2011: Google+, social networking2011: Snapchat, photo sharing2012: Coursera, massive open online coursesFurther information: Timeline of popular Internet services

General history

Internet governance

Politicization of the Internet

Use and culture

History of web technologies

Historiography

See also

References

Further reading

External links

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1. It is easier to do research

Before electronic means of gathering information, students or researchers need to pay a visit to libraries to access materials relevant to their research topics. Nowadays, it will take just a subscription to a journal online or just browsing online to search for literature required to develop one’s conceptual framework. Preparing the review of literature is easier and faster. Thus, more research gets published and knowledge generation is greatly facilitated.

2. Communication with family, friends and relatives is faster

Gone are the homesick days because a son or daughter can now easily contact their parents online. Services such as that of Skype and Gmail enable a loved one to communicate with another in almost any part of the globe where internet services are available.

3. There is a great possibility to earn while working from home

It is now possible to earn online through writing, filling up forms, or even just clicking away on advertisements in the internet. Information is a valuable thing that people are willing to pay. Through advertisements posted online, manufacturers and sellers are able to increase the possibility of having their products purchased.

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T16 G1 :Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Today, terms like "bleiner@computer.org" and "http://www.acm.org" trip lightly off the tongue of the random person on the street. 1This is intended to be a brief, necessarily cursory and incomplete history. Much material currently exists about the Internet, covering history, technology, and usage. A trip to almost any bookstore will find shelves of material written about the Internet. 2In this paper,3 several of us involved in the development and evolution of the Internet share our views of its origins and history. This history revolves around four distinct aspects. There is the technological evolution that began with early research on packet switching and the ARPANET (and related technologies), and where current research continues to expand the horizons of the infrastructure along several dimensions, such as scale, performance, and higher-level functionality. There is the operations and management aspect of a global and complex operational infrastructure. There is the social aspect, which resulted in a broad community of Internauts working together to create and evolve the technology. And there is the commercialization aspect, resulting in an extremely effective transition of research results into a broadly deployed and available information infrastructure.The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the National (or Global or Galactic) Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological, organizational, and community. And its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations.Origins of the InternetThe first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA,4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept.Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed.In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantlebury told Roberts about the NPL work as well as that of Paul Baran and others at RAND. The RAND group had written a paper on packet switching networks for secure voice in the military in 1964. It happened that the work at MIT (1961-1967), at RAND (1962-1965), and at NPL (1964-1967) had all proceeded in parallel without any of the researchers knowing about the other work. The word "packet" was adopted from the work at NPL and the proposed line speed to be used in the ARPANET design was upgraded from 2.4 kbps to 50 kbps. 5In August 1968, after Roberts and the DARPA funded community had refined the overall structure and specifications for the ARPANET, an RFQ was released by DARPA for the development of one of the key components, the packet switches called Interface Message Processors (IMP's). The RFQ was won in December 1968 by a group headed by Frank Heart at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). As the BBN team worked on the IMP's with Bob Kahn playing a major role in the overall ARPANET architectural design, the network topology and economics were designed and optimized by Roberts working with Howard Frank and his team at Network Analysis Corporation, and the network measurement system was prepared by Kleinrock's team at UCLA. 6Due to Kleinrock's early development of packet switching theory and his focus on analysis, design and measurement, his Network Measurement Center at UCLA was selected to be the first node on the ARPANET. All this came together in September 1969 when BBN installed the first IMP at UCLA and the first host computer was connected. Doug Engelbart's project on "Augmentation of Human Intellect" (which included NLS, an early hypertext system) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) provided a second node. SRI supported the Network Information Center, led by Elizabeth (Jake) Feinler and including functions such as maintaining tables of host name to address mapping as well as a directory of the RFC's.One month later, when SRI was connected to the ARPANET, the first host-to-host message was sent from Kleinrock's laboratory to SRI. Two more nodes were added at UC Santa Barbara and University of Utah. These last two nodes incorporated application visualization projects, with Glen Culler and Burton Fried at UCSB investigating methods for display of mathematical functions using storage displays to deal with the problem of refresh over the net, and Robert Taylor and Ivan Sutherland at Utah investigating methods of 3-D representations over the net. Thus, by the end of 1969, four host computers were connected together into the initial ARPANET, and the budding Internet was off the ground. Even at this early stage, it should be noted that the networking research incorporated both work on the underlying network and work on how to utilize the network. This tradition continues to this day.Computers were added quickly to the ARPANET during the following years, and work proceeded on completing a functionally complete Host-to-Host protocol and other network software. In December 1970 the Network Working Group (NWG) working under S. Crocker finished the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol, called the Network Control Protocol (NCP). As the ARPANET sites completed implementing NCP during the period 1971-1972, the network users finally could begin to develop applications.In October 1972, Kahn organized a large, very successful demonstration of the ARPANET at the International Computer Communication Conference (ICCC). This was the first public demonstration of this new network technology to the public. It was also in 1972 that the initial "hot" application, electronic mail, was introduced. In March Ray Tomlinson at BBN wrote the basic email message send and read software, motivated by the need of the ARPANET developers for an easy coordination mechanism. In July, Roberts expanded its utility by writing the first email utility program to list, selectively read, file, forward, and respond to messages. From there email took off as the largest network application for over a decade. This was a harbinger of the kind of activity we see on the World Wide Web today, namely, the enormous growth of all kinds of "people-to-people" traffic.The Initial Internetting ConceptsThe original ARPANET grew into the Internet. Internet was based on the idea that there would be multiple independent networks of rather arbitrary design, beginning with the ARPANET as the pioneering packet switching network, but soon to include packet satellite networks, ground-based packet radio networks and other networks. The Internet as we now know it embodies a key underlying technical idea, namely that of open architecture networking. In this approach, the choice of any individual network technology was not dictated by a particular network architecture but rather could be selected freely by a provider and made to interwork with the other networks through a meta-level "Internetworking Architecture". Up until that time there was only one general method for federating networks. This was the traditional circuit switching method where networks would interconnect at the circuit level, passing individual bits on a synchronous basis along a portion of an end-to-end circuit between a pair of end locations. Recall that Kleinrock had shown in 1961 that packet switching was a more efficient switching method. Along with packet switching, special purpose interconnection arrangements between networks were another possibility. While there were other limited ways to interconnect different networks, they required that one be used as a component of the other, rather than acting as a peer of the other in offering end-to-end service.In an open-architecture network, the individual networks may be separately designed and developed and each may have its own unique interface which it may offer to users and/or other providers. including other Internet providers. Each network can be designed in accordance with the specific environment and user requirements of that network. There are generally no constraints on the types of network that can be included or on their geographic scope, although certain pragmatic considerations will dictate what makes sense to offer.The idea of open-architecture networking was first introduced by Kahn shortly after having arrived at DARPA in 1972. This work was originally part of the packet radio program, but subsequently became a separate program in its own right. At the time, the program was called "Internetting". Key to making the packet radio system work was a reliable end-end protocol that could maintain effective communication in the face of jamming and other radio interference, or withstand intermittent blackout such as caused by being in a tunnel or blocked by the local terrain. Kahn first contemplated developing a protocol local only to the packet radio network, since that would avoid having to deal with the multitude of different operating systems, and continuing to use NCP.However, NCP did not have the ability to address networks (and machines) further downstream than a destination IMP on the ARPANET and thus some change to NCP would also be required. (The assumption was that the ARPANET was not changeable in this regard). NCP relied on ARPANET to provide end-to-end reliability. If any packets were lost, the protocol (and presumably any applications it supported) would come to a grinding halt. In this model NCP had no end-end host error control, since the ARPANET was to be the only network in existence and it would be so reliable that no error control would be required on the part of the hosts. Thus, Kahn decided to develop a new version of the protocol which could meet the needs of an open-architecture network environment. This protocol would eventually be called the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). While NCP tended to act like a device driver, the new protocol would be more like a communications protocol.Four ground rules were critical to Kahn's early thinking:Each distinct network would have to stand on its own and no internal changes could be required to any such network to connect it to the Internet.Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a packet didn't make it to the final destination, it would shortly be retransmitted from the source.Black boxes would be used to connect the networks; these would later be called gateways and routers. There would be no information retained by the gateways about the individual flows of packets passing through them, thereby keeping them simple and avoiding complicated adaptation and recovery from various failure modes.There would be no global control at the operations level.Other key issues that needed to be addressed were:Algorithms to prevent lost packets from permanently disabling communications and enabling them to be successfully retransmitted from the source.Providing for host-to-host "pipelining" so that multiple packets could be enroute from source to destination at the discretion of the participating hosts, if the intermediate networks allowed it.Gateway functions to allow it to forward packets appropriately. This included interpreting IP headers for routing, handling interfaces, breaking packets into smaller pieces if necessary, etc.The need for end-end checksums, reassembly of packets from fragments and detection of duplicates, if any.The need for global addressingTechniques for host-to-host flow control.Interfacing with the various operating systemsThere were also other concerns, such as implementation efficiency, internetwork performance, but these were secondary considerations at first.Kahn began work on a communications-oriented set of operating system principles while at BBN and documented some of his early thoughts in an internal BBN memorandum entitled "Communications Principles for Operating Systems". At this point he realized it would be necessary to learn the implementation details of each operating system to have a chance to embed any new protocols in an efficient way. Thus, in the spring of 1973, after starting the internetting effort, he asked Vint Cerf (then at Stanford) to work with him on the detailed design of the protocol. Cerf had been intimately involved in the original NCP design and development and already had the knowledge about interfacing to existing operating systems. So armed with Kahn's architectural approach to the communications side and with Cerf's NCP experience, they teamed up to spell out the details of what became TCP/IP.The give and take was highly productive and the first written version7 of the resulting approach was distributed at a special meeting of the International Network Working Group (INWG) which had been set up at a conference at Sussex University in September 1973. Cerf had been invited to chair this group and used the occasion to hold a meeting of INWG members who were heavily represented at the Sussex Conference.Some basic approaches emerged from this collaboration between Kahn and Cerf:Communication between two processes would logically consist of a very long stream of bytes (they called them octets). The position of any octet in the stream would be used to identify it.Flow control would be done by using sliding windows and acknowledgments (acks). The destination could select when to acknowledge and each ack returned would be cumulative for all packets received to that point.It was left open as to exactly how the source and destination would agree on the parameters of the windowing to be used. Defaults were used initially.Although Ethernet was under development at Xerox PARC at that time, the proliferation of LANs were not envisioned at the time, much less PCs and workstations. The original model was national level networks like ARPANET of which only a relatively small number were expected to exist. Thus a 32 bit IP address was used of which the first 8 bits signified the network and the remaining 24 bits designated the host on that network. This assumption, that 256 networks would be sufficient for the foreseeable future, was clearly in need of reconsideration when LANs began to appear in the late 1970s.The original Cerf/Kahn paper on the Internet described one protocol, called TCP, which provided all the transport and forwarding services in the Internet. Kahn had intended that the TCP protocol support a range of transport services, from the totally reliable sequenced delivery of data (virtual circuit model) to a datagram service in which the application made direct use of the underlying network service, which might imply occasional lost, corrupted or reordered packets. However, the initial effort to implement TCP resulted in a version that only allowed for virtual circuits. This model worked fine for file transfer and remote login applications, but some of the early work on advanced network applications, in particular packet voice in the 1970s, made clear that in some cases packet losses should not be corrected by TCP, but should be left to the application to deal with. This led to a reorganization of the original TCP into two protocols, the simple IP which provided only for addressing and forwarding of individual packets, and the separate TCP, which was concerned with service features such as flow control and recovery from lost packets. For those applications that did not want the services of TCP, an alternative called the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) was added in order to provide direct access to the basic service of IP.A major initial motivation for both the ARPANET and the Internet was resource sharing - for example allowing users on the packet radio networks to access the time sharing systems attached to the ARPANET. Connecting the two together was far more economical that duplicating these very expensive computers. However, while file transfer and remote login (Telnet) were very important applications, electronic mail has probably had the most significant impact of the innovations from that era. Email provided a new model of how people could communicate with each other, and changed the nature of collaboration, first in the building of the Internet itself (as is discussed below) and later for much of society.There were other applications proposed in the early days of the Internet, including packet based voice communication (the precursor of Internet telephony), various models of file and disk sharing, and early "worm" programs that showed the concept of agents (and, of course, viruses). A key concept of the Internet is that it was not designed for just one application, but as a general infrastructure on which new applications could be conceived, as illustrated later by the emergence of the World Wide Web. It is the general purpose nature of the service provided by TCP and IP that makes this possible.

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T16 G1 :Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Today, terms like "bleiner@computer.org" and "http://www.acm.org" trip lightly off the tongue of the random person on the street. 1This is intended to be a brief, necessarily cursory and incomplete history. Much material currently exists about the Internet, covering history, technology, and usage. A trip to almost any bookstore will find shelves of material written about the Internet. 2In this paper,3 several of us involved in the development and evolution of the Internet share our views of its origins and history. This history revolves around four distinct aspects. There is the technological evolution that began with early research on packet switching and the ARPANET (and related technologies), and where current research continues to expand the horizons of the infrastructure along several dimensions, such as scale, performance, and higher-level functionality. There is the operations and management aspect of a global and complex operational infrastructure. There is the social aspect, which resulted in a broad community of Internauts working together to create and evolve the technology. And there is the commercialization aspect, resulting in an extremely effective transition of research results into a broadly deployed and available information infrastructure.The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the National (or Global or Galactic) Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and involves many aspects - technological, organizational, and community. And its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations.Origins of the InternetThe first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA,4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept.Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed.In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantlebury told Roberts about the NPL work as well as that of Paul Baran and others at RAND. The RAND group had written a paper on packet switching networks for secure voice in the military in 1964. It happened that the work at MIT (1961-1967), at RAND (1962-1965), and at NPL (1964-1967) had all proceeded in parallel without any of the researchers knowing about the other work. The word "packet" was adopted from the work at NPL and the proposed line speed to be used in the ARPANET design was upgraded from 2.4 kbps to 50 kbps. 5In August 1968, after Roberts and the DARPA funded community had refined the overall structure and specifications for the ARPANET, an RFQ was released by DARPA for the development of one of the key components, the packet switches called Interface Message Processors (IMP's). The RFQ was won in December 1968 by a group headed by Frank Heart at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). As the BBN team worked on the IMP's with Bob Kahn playing a major role in the overall ARPANET architectural design, the network topology and economics were designed and optimized by Roberts working with Howard Frank and his team at Network Analysis Corporation, and the network measurement system was prepared by Kleinrock's team at UCLA. 6Due to Kleinrock's early development of packet switching theory and his focus on analysis, design and measurement, his Network Measurement Center at UCLA was selected to be the first node on the ARPANET. All this came together in September 1969 when BBN installed the first IMP at UCLA and the first host computer was connected. Doug Engelbart's project on "Augmentation of Human Intellect" (which included NLS, an early hypertext system) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) provided a second node. SRI supported the Network Information Center, led by Elizabeth (Jake) Feinler and including functions such as maintaining tables of host name to address mapping as well as a directory of the RFC's.One month later, when SRI was connected to the ARPANET, the first host-to-host message was sent from Kleinrock's laboratory to SRI. Two more nodes were added at UC Santa Barbara and University of Utah. These last two nodes incorporated application visualization projects, with Glen Culler and Burton Fried at UCSB investigating methods for display of mathematical functions using storage displays to deal with the problem of refresh over the net, and Robert Taylor and Ivan Sutherland at Utah investigating methods of 3-D representations over the net. Thus, by the end of 1969, four host computers were connected together into the initial ARPANET, and the budding Internet was off the ground. Even at this early stage, it should be noted that the networking research incorporated both work on the underlying network and work on how to utilize the network. This tradition continues to this day.Computers were added quickly to the ARPANET during the following years, and work proceeded on completing a functionally complete Host-to-Host protocol and other network software. In December 1970 the Network Working Group (NWG) working under S. Crocker finished the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol, called the Network Control Protocol (NCP). As the ARPANET sites completed implementing NCP during the period 1971-1972, the network users finally could begin to develop applications.In October 1972, Kahn organized a large, very successful demonstration of the ARPANET at the International Computer Communication Conference (ICCC). This was the first public demonstration of this new network technology to the public. It was also in 1972 that the initial "hot" application, electronic mail, was introduced. In March Ray Tomlinson at BBN wrote the basic email message send and read software, motivated by the need of the ARPANET developers for an easy coordination mechanism. In July, Roberts expanded its utility by writing the first email utility program to list, selectively read, file, forward, and respond to messages. From there email took off as the largest network application for over a decade. This was a harbinger of the kind of activity we see on the World Wide Web today, namely, the enormous growth of all kinds of "people-to-people" traffic.The Initial Internetting ConceptsThe original ARPANET grew into the Internet. Internet was based on the idea that there would be multiple independent networks of rather arbitrary design, beginning with the ARPANET as the pioneering packet switching network, but soon to include packet satellite networks, ground-based packet radio networks and other networks. The Internet as we now know it embodies a key underlying technical idea, namely that of open architecture networking. In this approach, the choice of any individual network technology was not dictated by a particular network architecture but rather could be selected freely by a provider and made to interwork with the other networks through a meta-level "Internetworking Architecture". Up until that time there was only one general method for federating networks. This was the traditional circuit switching method where networks would interconnect at the circuit level, passing individual bits on a synchronous basis along a portion of an end-to-end circuit between a pair of end locations. Recall that Kleinrock had shown in 1961 that packet switching was a more efficient switching method. Along with packet switching, special purpose interconnection arrangements between networks were another possibility. While there were other limited ways to interconnect different networks, they required that one be used as a component of the other, rather than acting as a peer of the other in offering end-to-end service.In an open-architecture network, the individual networks may be separately designed and developed and each may have its own unique interface which it may offer to users and/or other providers. including other Internet providers. Each network can be designed in accordance with the specific environment and user requirements of that network. There are generally no constraints on the types of network that can be included or on their geographic scope, although certain pragmatic considerations will dictate what makes sense to offer.The idea of open-architecture networking was first introduced by Kahn shortly after having arrived at DARPA in 1972. This work was originally part of the packet radio program, but subsequently became a separate program in its own right. At the time, the program was called "Internetting". Key to making the packet radio system work was a reliable end-end protocol that could maintain effective communication in the face of jamming and other radio interference, or withstand intermittent blackout such as caused by being in a tunnel or blocked by the local terrain. Kahn first contemplated developing a protocol local only to the packet radio network, since that would avoid having to deal with the multitude of different operating systems, and continuing to use NCP.However, NCP did not have the ability to address networks (and machines) further downstream than a destination IMP on the ARPANET and thus some change to NCP would also be required. (The assumption was that the ARPANET was not changeable in this regard). NCP relied on ARPANET to provide end-to-end reliability. If any packets were lost, the protocol (and presumably any applications it supported) would come to a grinding halt. In this model NCP had no end-end host error control, since the ARPANET was to be the only network in existence and it would be so reliable that no error control would be required on the part of the hosts. Thus, Kahn decided to develop a new version of the protocol which could meet the needs of an open-architecture network environment. This protocol would eventually be called the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). While NCP tended to act like a device driver, the new protocol would be more like a communications protocol.Four ground rules were critical to Kahn's early thinking:Each distinct network would have to stand on its own and no internal changes could be required to any such network to connect it to the Internet.Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a packet didn't make it to the final destination, it would shortly be retransmitted from the source.Black boxes would be used to connect the networks; these would later be called gateways and routers. There would be no information retained by the gateways about the individual flows of packets passing through them, thereby keeping them simple and avoiding complicated adaptation and recovery from various failure modes.There would be no global control at the operations level.Other key issues that needed to be addressed were:Algorithms to prevent lost packets from permanently disabling communications and enabling them to be successfully retransmitted from the source.Providing for host-to-host "pipelining" so that multiple packets could be enroute from source to destination at the discretion of the participating hosts, if the intermediate networks allowed it.Gateway functions to allow it to forward packets appropriately. This included interpreting IP headers for routing, handling interfaces, breaking packets into smaller pieces if necessary, etc.The need for end-end checksums, reassembly of packets from fragments and detection of duplicates, if any.The need for global addressingTechniques for host-to-host flow control.Interfacing with the various operating systemsThere were also other concerns, such as implementation efficiency, internetwork performance, but these were secondary considerations at first.Kahn began work on a communications-oriented set of operating system principles while at BBN and documented some of his early thoughts in an internal BBN memorandum entitled "Communications Principles for Operating Systems". At this point he realized it would be necessary to learn the implementation details of each operating system to have a chance to embed any new protocols in an efficient way. Thus, in the spring of 1973, after starting the internetting effort, he asked Vint Cerf (then at Stanford) to work with him on the detailed design of the protocol. Cerf had been intimately involved in the original NCP design and development and already had the knowledge about interfacing to existing operating systems. So armed with Kahn's architectural approach to the communications side and with Cerf's NCP experience, they teamed up to spell out the details of what became TCP/IP.The give and take was highly productive and the first written version7 of the resulting approach was distributed at a special meeting of the International Network Working Group (INWG) which had been set up at a conference at Sussex University in September 1973. Cerf had been invited to chair this group and used the occasion to hold a meeting of INWG members who were heavily represented at the Sussex Conference.Some basic approaches emerged from this collaboration between Kahn and Cerf:Communication between two processes would logically consist of a very long stream of bytes (they called them octets). The position of any octet in the stream would be used to identify it.Flow control would be done by using sliding windows and acknowledgments (acks). The destination could select when to acknowledge and each ack returned would be cumulative for all packets received to that point.It was left open as to exactly how the source and destination would agree on the parameters of the windowing to be used. Defaults were used initially.Although Ethernet was under development at Xerox PARC at that time, the proliferation of LANs were not envisioned at the time, much less PCs and workstations. The original model was national level networks like ARPANET of which only a relatively small number were expected to exist. Thus a 32 bit IP address was used of which the first 8 bits signified the network and the remaining 24 bits designated the host on that network. This assumption, that 256 networks would be sufficient for the foreseeable future, was clearly in need of reconsideration when LANs began to appear in the late 1970s.The original Cerf/Kahn paper on the Internet described one protocol, called TCP, which provided all the transport and forwarding services in the Internet. Kahn had intended that the TCP protocol support a range of transport services, from the totally reliable sequenced delivery of data (virtual circuit model) to a datagram service in which the application made direct use of the underlying network service, which might imply occasional lost, corrupted or reordered packets. However, the initial effort to implement TCP resulted in a version that only allowed for virtual circuits. This model worked fine for file transfer and remote login applications, but some of the early work on advanced network applications, in particular packet voice in the 1970s, made clear that in some cases packet losses should not be corrected by TCP, but should be left to the application to deal with. This led to a reorganization of the original TCP into two protocols, the simple IP which provided only for addressing and forwarding of individual packets, and the separate TCP, which was concerned with service features such as flow control and recovery from lost packets. For those applications that did not want the services of TCP, an alternative called the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) was added in order to provide direct access to the basic service of IP.A major initial motivation for both the ARPANET and the Internet was resource sharing - for example allowing users on the packet radio networks to access the time sharing systems attached to the ARPANET. Connecting the two together was far more economical that duplicating these very expensive computers. However, while file transfer and remote login (Telnet) were very important applications, electronic mail has probably had the most significant impact of the innovations from that era. Email provided a new model of how people could communicate with each other, and changed the nature of collaboration, first in the building of the Internet itself (as is discussed below) and later for much of society.There were other applications proposed in the early days of the Internet, including packet based voice communication (the precursor of Internet telephony), various models of file and disk sharing, and early "worm" programs that showed the concept of agents (and, of course, viruses). A key concept of the Internet is that it was not designed for just one application, but as a general infrastructure on which new applications could be conceived, as illustrated later by the emergence of the World Wide Web. It is the general purpose nature of the service provided by TCP and IP that makes this possible.

# data[].attributes.body
Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. There are large numbers of things that can be done using the internet and so it is very important. You can say that with the progress in the internet we are progressing in every sphere of life as it not only makes our tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. Today internet is used for different purposes depending upon the requirement. Here in this very article we have mentioned then ten best uses of the internet. Here goes the list.

1. Communication

CommunicationAt the moment the easiest thing that can be done using the internet is that we can communicate with the people living far away from us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting task but all that chanced once internet came into the life of the common people. Now people can not only chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to contact the loved ones who are in some other part of the world. Communication is the most important gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email, social networking sites are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the internet which is cherished by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.

2. Research

ResearchNow the point that has been placed next is research. In order to do research you need to go through hundreds of books as well as the references and that was one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier. Since the internet came into life, everything is available just a click away. You just have to search for the concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your research. And since internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a large amount of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such thing which has got lots of benefit from this evolution of internet. Research process has now got wings and has gained the most due to the internet.

3. Education

EducationThe next point that we have in this list is education. Yes you read it right. Education is one of the best things that the internet can provide. There are a number of books, reference books, online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented material on the internet that can make the learning process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are lots and lots of websites which are related to different topic. You can visit them and can gain endless amount of knowledge that you wish to have. With the use of internet for education, you are non-longer dependent on some other person to come and teach you. There are various number of tutorials available over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very easily. There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education as it is the key to achieve everything in life.

4. Financial Transaction

Financial TransactionThe next use mentioned here is financial transaction. Financial transaction is the term which is used when there is exchange of money. With the use of internet in the financial transaction, your work has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch of your particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that has been provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance at your will. With the ability to do the financial transaction easily over the internet you can purchase or sell items so easily. Financial transaction can be considered as one of the best uses of resource in the right direction.

5. Real Time Updates

Real Time UpdatesReal time updates have been placed at the number fifth position here. This has been mentioned here in regards to the news and other happenings that may be on-going in different parts of the world but with the use of internet we come to know about it very easily and without any difficulty. There are various websites on the internet which provides you with the real time updates in every field be it in business, sports, finance, politics, entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real time updates that are happening in various parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential and helpful.

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Advantages of Internet

1

Unlimited Communication

The Internet has made it easy for people to communicate with others because it is cheap and convenient. The only costs incurred are those paid to the Internet service provider. If you want to talk to someone who is in another part of the globe, you can just fire up Skype or any other communication app and hold a video chat.

Services such as Skype have helped people from geographically segmented countries to interact and share ideas. As such, people are able to share their thoughts and views on matters affecting the globe. The Internet acts as common global platform where people explore ideologies and cultures without limitation.

￼

2

Abundant Information and Resources

The Internet is swamped with information about anything and everything. There are multiple search engines that have made it easier for Internet users to find information. For example, it is now common for people to look for free advice from the Internet on all sorts of issues. The premise here is that whatever problem you are experiencing, someone somewhere has experienced it and probably solved it.

You can also get the latest news, breakthroughs in all fields including medicine and even research publications at the click of a button. The Internet is basically a globally accessible repository of knowledge, and the best part is everyone gets to chip in.

￼

3

Easy Sharing

Thanks to the Internet, sharing information is fast and seamless. If you want to tell your 30 friends about your latest promotion, you can do so in an instant. You can use social media sites such as Facebook or an IM app. They will all get the news at the same time. You can also share music, videos and any other file.

￼

4

Online Services and E-commerce

Today it is possible to carry out financial transactions online. You can transfer funds, pay taxes and utility bills or book movie tickets over the Internet in the comfort of your office or home.

The growth of e-commerce has made it possible for people to shop for most things online. This has seen the emergence of retail giants such as Amazon, Ebay and Alibaba. They sell consumer goods globally. Such a feat was virtually impossible before the Internet.

￼

5

Entertainment

This is one of the major reasons why many people enjoy surfing the Internet – entertainment. You can watch movies, listen to music, read your favorite celebrity gossip columns and play games over the Internet. The Internet has become a mammoth amusement park that never closes

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Spam Mail
Virus, Trojan & Other Malware
Leakage of Private Information
Addiction to Internet
Kids Exposed to Adults-Only Content

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Disadvantages of internet

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A computer network or datanetwork is a telecommunications networkwhich allows computers to exchange data. In computernetworks, networked computing devices exchange data with each other using a data link. The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media.

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Lack of conflict resolution

The same article suggests that communication on the web is taking away necessary human conflict. For example, if an Internet conversation starts getting heated or if someone gets angry, it is too easy to just sign off and not deal with the issue. Resolving conflict is a part of life that shouldn’t be avoided and is usually psychologically helpful.

Lonliness

Another proposed disadvantage is that a couple of studies have found strong correlations between frequency of Internet use and loneliness. People that use the Internet often are more likely to become lonely and depressed than those that don’t. One proposal as to why this is the case is because of a potential reduced social support system as a result of the Internet.

Internet addiction

There is some controversy over whether it is possible to actually be addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers, like John M. Grohol, claim that it is simply people trying to escape their problems in an online world and cannot be classified as an addiction. He demonstrates his theory with this model and states that what some people call an addiction is just someone that is caught in stage one.

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1. Communication
At the moment the easiest thing that can be done using the internet is that we can communicate with the people living far away from us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting task but all that chanced once internet came into the life of the common people. Now people can not only chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to contact the loved ones who are in some other part of the world. Communication is the most important gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email, social networking sites are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the internet which is cherished by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.

2. Research

Now the point that has been placed next is research. In order to do research you need to go through hundreds of books as well as the references and that was one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier. Since the internet came into life, everything is available just a click away. You just have to search for the concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your research. And since internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a large amount of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such thing which has got lots of benefit from this evolution of internet. Research process has now got wings and has gained the most due to the internet.

3. Education

The next point that we have in this list is education. Yes you read it right. Education is one of the best things that the internet can provide. There are a number of books, reference books, online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented material on the internet that can make the learning process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are lots and lots of websites which are related to different topic. You can visit them and can gain endless amount of knowledge that you wish to have. With the use of internet for education, you are non-longer dependent on some other person to come and teach you. There are various number of tutorials available over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very easily. There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education as it is the key to achieve everything in life.

4. Financial Transaction

The next use mentioned here is financial transaction. Financial transaction is the term which is used when there is exchange of money. With the use of internet in the financial transaction, your work has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch of your particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that has been provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance at your will. With the ability to do the financial transaction easily over the internet you can purchase or sell items so easily. Financial transaction can be considered as one of the best uses of resource in the right direction.

5. Real Time Updates

Real time updates have been placed at the number fifth position here. This has been mentioned here in regards to the news and other happenings that may be on-going in different parts of the world but with the use of internet we come to know about it very easily and without any difficulty. There are various websites on the internet which provides you with the real time updates in every field be it in business, sports, finance, politics, entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real time updates that are happening in various parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential and helpful.

6. Leisure

Leisure is the option that we have next in the list. Yes you heard it right. Right from watching your favourite videos to listening songs, watching movies, playing games, chatting with the loved ones has been possible due to internet. Internet has progressed with so much pace that today whenever you get time, you just move on to the internet and so such activities which helps you to relax. Leisure is one of the most important uses of internet and that has surely one thing that attracts people towards it. Internet is home of some of the excellent resources using which you can freshen up your mood in minutes.

7. Online Booking

Do you remember the time when the only way to book the railway tickets or bus tickets or plane tickets was to visit their centres at the designated location? That time has completely changed and today everything is available at the mouse click. This has been possible only because of the internet. Not only the online booking process is easier as well as less tedious but is also reliable. There is no need to visit the booking counters to book tickets or to contact the agents that might ask for more money in order to process your request. You can do all these things sitting at home, using internet. This is the reason it has been placed at the number seventh place in this list. The booking process has simplified because of the internet and this is the best use of the resources that you have.

8. Job Search

Job search is one such thing which required updates from every corner as well the patience from the person searching for it. Using internet, this has become an easier task. Job search has been placed at the number eighth place. There are endless amount of websites on the internet that provided with the news about the vacancy in various companies. You just need to get yourself registered at these website and they will do the rest. They will not only send you the email mentioning job vacancy according to your choice but will also help you to select the best out of them. Job search is easier now, all thanks to internet else it was a nightmare earlier.

9. Blogging

There are many people who are very much interested in writing blogs and for them internet is the best place. They can not only write blogs as per their wish but can also publicize their work so that their work reaches to most of the people and they get appreciated. There is huge number of websites over the internet which allows you to write blogs. You just need to get yourself registered as per their procedure and then start writing. And if your blogs are really good and so many people visit your blog then there is chance that you might get elected to write blogs for big organisations. Blogging has reached to all new level with the help of internet and is one such use which is beneficial to everyone.

10. Shopping

Yes you read it correctly. This very list starts with the point mentioned as shopping at the tenth place. Shopping has now become one of the most pleasing things to do using the internet. Whenever you find time, just visit the concerned websites and order the items that you need from there. Those items will be delivered to you in best possible time. There is huge number of options available for a common people to buy or to sell any particular item using the internet. Using internet now it is possible to buy products from all over the world.

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Guys stop its not funny man

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DISADVANTAGES of THE INTERNET

1. Negative effects on family communication
2.Lack of conflict resolution
3. loneliness
4.Overexposure to pornography
5.Increased chances of computer hacking.

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Examples of internet risks

Identity thieves use the information they find online to drain your bank account or ruin your credit rating.

Phishing is a common trick used on websites that have been hacked or are pretending to be legitimate. PayPal and eBay are two of the most common targets for phishing scams.

Popular social networking sites such as Facebook are targets for scams.

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The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom, and France.[1] The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the ARPANET (which would become the first network to use the Internet Protocol). The first message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).

Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, NPL network, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of communications protocols.[2] Donald Davies was the first to put theory into practice by designing a packet-switched network at the National Physics Laboratory in the UK, the first of its kind in the world and the cornerstone for UK research for almost two decades.[3][4] Following, ARPANET further led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In the early 1980s the NSF funded the establishment for national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, which also created network access to the supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the very late 1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990,[5] and the NSFNET was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.

In the 1980s, the work of British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee on the World Wide Web theorised protocols linking hypertext documents into a working system, marking the beginning of the modern Internet.[6] Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover of the global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by 2007.[7] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.

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Usage of Internet
1) Communication
2) Research
3) Education
4) Financial Transaction
5) Real Time Updates

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Disadvantages of internet
-(online banking)
The Problem:
While the Internet brought upon efficiency and convenience of banking for consumers, this also gave cybercriminals a means to potentially steal your hard-earned cash. Cybercriminals could trick you into downloading a backdoor Trojan that would give them a back entry to your PC, where they could then record your banking credentials. Or, as mentioned in the section on “Electronic Communications”, cybercriminals could deceive you into revealing your credentials through a phishing scam. All of this could be done via the Internet without leaving any trace.

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1. It is easier to do researchBefore electronic means of gathering information, students or researchers need to pay a visit to libraries to access materials relevant to their research topics. Nowadays, it will take just a subscription to a journal online or just browsing online to search for literature required to develop one’s conceptual framework. Preparing the review of literature is easier and faster. Thus, more research gets published and knowledge generation is greatly facilitated.2. Communication with family, friends and relatives is fasterGone are the homesick days because a son or daughter can now easily contact their parents online. Services such as that of Skype and Gmail enable a loved one to communicate with another in almost any part of the globe where internet services are available.3. There is a great possibility to earn while working from homeIt is now possible to earn online through writing, filling up forms, or even just clicking away on advertisements in the internet. Information is a valuable thing that people are willing to pay. Through advertisements posted online, manufacturers and sellers are able to increase the possibility of having their products purchased.

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1. It is easier to do researchBefore electronic means of gathering information, students or researchers need to pay a visit to libraries to access materials relevant to their research topics. Nowadays, it will take just a subscription to a journal online or just browsing online to search for literature required to develop one’s conceptual framework. Preparing the review of literature is easier and faster. Thus, more research gets published and knowledge generation is greatly facilitated.2. Communication with family, friends and relatives is fasterGone are the homesick days because a son or daughter can now easily contact their parents online. Services such as that of Skype and Gmail enable a loved one to communicate with another in almost any part of the globe where internet services are available.3. There is a great possibility to earn while working from homeIt is now possible to earn online through writing, filling up forms, or even just clicking away on advertisements in the internet. Information is a valuable thing that people are willing to pay. Through advertisements posted online, manufacturers and sellers are able to increase the possibility of having their products purchased.

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The TCP/IP model, similar to the OSI model, is comprised of layers. The OSI has seven layers and the TCP/IP model has four or five layers depending on different preferences. Some people use the Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access layers. Others split the Network Access layer into the Physical and Data Link components.

Application layer is comparable to the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model all combined into one. It provides a way for applications to have access to networked services. This layer also contains the high level protocols. The main issue with this layer is the ability to use both TCP1 and UDP2 protocols. For example TFTP3 uses UDP because usually on a LAN4 the physical links are short enough to ensure quick and reliable packet delivery without many errors. SMTP5 instead uses TCP because of the error checking capabilities. Since we consider our email important information we would like to ensure a safe delivery.

Transport layer acts as the delivery service used by the application layer. Again the two protocols used are TCP and UDP. The choice is made based on the application’s transmission reliability requirements. The transport layer also handles all error detection and recovery. It uses checksums, acknowledgements, and timeouts to control transmissions and end to end verification. Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP treats reliability as an end-to-end problem.

Internet layer is responsible for routing and delivery of data and is the key component of this architecture. It allows communication across networks of the same and different types and carries out translations to deal with dissimilar data addressing schemes. It inject packets into any network and deliver them to the destination independently to one another. Because the path through the network is not predetermined, the packets may be received out of order. The upper layers are responsible for the reordering of the data. This layer can be compared to the network layer of the OSI model. IP and ARP6 are the major protocols used at this layer.

Network access layer is a combination of the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model which consists of the actual hardware. This includes wires, network interface cards, etc. Other related details within this layer are connectors, signal strength, and wavelength along with various others. It will use the required LAN operating algorithms, such as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect (CMSA/CD)7 or IBM Token Passing8 etc. and is responsible for placing the data within a frame. The frame format is dependent on the system being used, for example Ethernet LAN, Frame relay9, etc. The frame is the package that holds the data, in the same way as an envelope holds a letter. The frame holds the hardware address of the host and checking algorithms for data integrity. This layer has actually not been specified in details because it depends on which technology is being used such as Ethernet. So freedom is given to this layer as far as implementation is concerned.

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE INTERNET
Tier 1 networks are backbone Internet providers that connect directly to the Internet. These companies have agreements with one another to allow for the free passage of traffic between them. Internationally, there are five Internet service providers (ISPs) that are considered tier 1. These are AT&T , British Telecom, Equant, InfoNet and MCI (now Verizon).

The next level of ISPs are tier 2. They are smaller, mostly regionally based, and they tend to provide ISP links between larger organizations. Tier 2 providers have peering agreements with the larger, tier 1 providers, but generally don't peer with each other. Examples of tier 2 providers include Level3, Sprint, and XO Communications.

The smallest level of ISPs are tier 3 providers. These providers generally supply Internet connectivity for homes and small businesses. They are regionally based and often peer with larger tier 2 and tier 1 providers to allow global Internet connectivity. Examples of tier 3 providers are Time Warner Cable, Verizon Fios, Google Fiber and Cablevision Optimum.

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HI MR AFIQ

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HI

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Advantages:

1) Information on almost every subject imaginable.
2) Powerful search engines
3) Ability to do research from your home versus research libraries.
4) Information at various levels of study. Everything from scholarly articles to ones directed at children.
5) Message boards where people can discuss ideas on any topic. Ability to get wide range of opinions. People can find others that have a similar interest in whatever they are interested in.
6) The internet provides the ability of emails. Free mail service to anyone in the country.
7) Platform for products like SKYPE, which allow for holding a video conference with anyone in the world who also has access.
8) Friendships and love connections have been made over the internet by people involved in love/passion over similar interests.
9) Things such as Yahoo Answers and other sites where kids can have readily available help for homework.
10) News, of all kinds is available almost instantaneously. Commentary, on that news, from every conceivable viewpoint is also available.

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The Structure of the Internet is based on a set of protocols, that allows a hit in its original form data from one network to another. Internet protocol, depending on its structure is responsible for such activities as:
- validation of sending data,
- traffic control information.

The Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP, is a suite of protocols used for communication over the internet. The TCP/IP model was created after the OSI 7 layer model for two major reasons. First, the foundation of the Internet was built using the TCP/IP suite and through the spread of the World Wide Web and Internet, TCP/IP has been preferred. Second, a project researched by the Department of Defense (DOD) consisted of creating the TCP/IP protocols. The DOD’s goal was to bring international standards which could not be met by the OSI model. Since the DOD was the largest software consumer and they preferred the TCP/IP suite, most vendors used this model rather then the OSI.

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Uses of the internet:
-communication (socialize- communicate with people living far away from us with extreme ease)
-shop online (business)
-real time update (news, updates)
-book tickets
-research (relevant infos)
-e-banking (can purchase or sell items so easily)
-data sharing (sharing musics, files)
-online free lancer
-education ( reference book online etc.)

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DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET T18

Communication via the Web

Although there are many advantages, researchers argue some disadvantages of an internet based society. Most of these drawbacks are a result of decreased face-to-face communication and the ability to escape identity.

Negative effects on family communication

Although there are conflicting research findings on this topic, an article published by Science Daily reported that time spent on the Internet was associated with later declines in within house family communication and a decrease in the number of friends and acquaintances with which they kept ties.

Lack of conflict resolution

The same article suggests that communication on the web is taking away necessary human conflict. For example, if an Internet conversation starts getting heated or if someone gets angry, it is too easy to just sign off and not deal with the issue. Resolving conflict is a part of life that shouldn’t be avoided and is usually psychologically helpful.

Lonliness

Another proposed disadvantage is that a couple of studies have found strong correlations between frequency of Internet use and loneliness. People that use the Internet often are more likely to become lonely and depressed than those that don’t. One proposal as to why this is the case is because of a potential reduced social support system as a result of the Internet.

Internet addiction

There is some controversy over whether it is possible to actually be addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers, like John M. Grohol, claim that it is simply people trying to escape their problems in an online world and cannot be classified as an addiction. He demonstrates his theory with this model and states that what some people call an addiction is just someone that is caught in stage one.

Other psychologists, including Jennifer R. Ferris, believe that Internet addiction is a true psychological disorder with definable symptoms. The symptoms are comparable to any addiction, withdrawal, loss of relationships or job and significant time consumption.

If an actual addiction exists or doesn’t exist, the underlying themes that support the addiction theory are still an issue. Whether people are trying to escape problems and reality or they will go through withdrawal if they aren’t surfing the net or chatting, it is still psychologically unhealth

(Aiman17)

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I m JIMMY

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Lack of conflict resolution

The same article suggests that communication on the web is taking away necessary human conflict. For example, if an Internet conversation starts getting heated or if someone gets angry, it is too easy to just sign off and not deal with the issue. Resolving conflict is a part of life that shouldn’t be avoided and is usually psychologically helpful.

Lonliness

Another proposed disadvantage is that a couple of studies have found strong correlations between frequency of Internet use and loneliness. People that use the Internet often are more likely to become lonely and depressed than those that don’t. One proposal as to why this is the case is because of a potential reduced social support system as a result of the Internet.

Internet addiction

There is some controversy over whether it is possible to actually be addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers, like John M. Grohol, claim that it is simply people trying to escape their problems in an online world and cannot be classified as an addiction. He demonstrates his theory with this model and states that what some people call an addiction is just someone that is caught in stage one.

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Hi

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Khoken iz lifve

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T2 structure of int (jap tak habis lagi)

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T2 structure of int (jap tak habis lagi)

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Negative effects on family communication

Although there are conflicting research findings on this topic, an article published by Science Daily reported that time spent on the Internet was associated with later declines in within house family communication and a decrease in the number of friends and acquaintances with which they kept ties.

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yall valak is real dont let it come to dengkil

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abg gandum cute

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abg

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Gandum poyo

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Gandum pentin

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The Structure of the Internet is a collection of many computer networks and individual computer units interconnected via routers. Each fragment of a computer network is able to act independently.
The structure of the Internet allows to substitute dead connection with another, which does not disable the network from the Internet. If, one of our routers is damaged or turned off, his duties will assume immediately another.
The entire network will work without a router that has failed (figure below). This rule has been adopted since the beginning of the history of the Internet.
Among the network of computers, there are two known types: servers and clients. A server is a computer that provides its resources with other computers on the network. The client is a computer that uses the resources located on servers.