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I can understand other senses.
Olfactory- extremely sensitive (5 million receptors), airborne chemicals soluble in the nasal mucosa, receptors recognize odors over 10,000 (only a few molecules needed)
receptor cells- olfactory/ mucous membrane (epithlium), top of the nasal cavity
receptor cells send info to the olfactory bulb to the limbic system (amygdala then to hippocampus), not to thalamus like other senses, when you get a cold, problems with sense of smell due to clogged receptor cells.
Gustation (taste)- different flavor=sensory interaction. Smell+taste/texture.
taste buds (papillae) receptor cells for taste. characteristic pattern to taste sensation. salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami
skin senses- cutaneous sensation: pressure, temperature, and pain. some spots are especially sensitive to certain stimuli (not specific). pressure only receptors. brain is most sensitive to unexpected stimulation. certain areas of body have more concentrated tactile nerve endings than others (fingertips, lips). sensory cortex controls
kinesthesis- sense of body parts and positions (involved with PNS)
vestibular sense- monitors head position and movement (balance)
semicircular canals-
vestibular sacs connects canals w/ cochlea (fluid). (spin=dizzy)
pain- no one specific receptor or stimulus. individual differences. athletes have stronger pain tolerance because mindset can effect reactions. cultures- react differently to pain. cognition- it doesn't hurt. physiological- women are stronger sex
Gate Control Theory- Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall. "neurological gate" in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain to the brain. small nf Open (pain)/ Large nf Close (other senses close off pain). endorphins.
phantom limb- misinterpretation. Demonstration= hot coals
touch- skin sensations: pressure (only skin sensations with identifiable receptors) warmth, cold, pain

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Hearing problems:
1. Conductive deafness- problems of conducting sound wave to cochlea Why? ear drum puncture/ bones can vibrate
Solution? can be repaired with hearing aides because they amplify frequency. People are very sensitive to loud sounds, compressing sounds is key.
2. sensorineural hearing loss- nerve deafnesss (hair cells)
caused by loud noises, age or genetics
cochlea implants may be helpful
McGurk Effect- demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception
Tritone paradox-  sequentially played pair of shepard tones separated by an interval of a tritone, or half octave, is heard as ascending by some people and as descending by others
Shepard tone illusion-  sound consisting sine waves separated by octaves. Played with the base pitch of the tone moving upward or downward
ear- everything in the ear is based on vibrations, sound waves enter the outer ear and travel to the eardrum, causing it to vibrate.
The vibrations cause the hammer, anvil and stirrup of the middle ear to hit each other and carry the vibrations to the oval window.
Then on to the fluid in the snail-shaped cochlea of the inner.
This causes the hairs (cilia) in the basilar membrane to move which sends neurons to the organ of corti
message is then sent to the auditory nerve
message is relayed to the thalamus and then to temporal lobe
Theories of Hearing:
1. Place Theory- originally suggested by Helmholtz. Discovered by Georg von Bekesy- Nobel Prize (1961). Ability to hear different pitches of sound is due to location of neuron activity on Basilar Membrane in the Cochlea is [caused by frequency (pitch) of sound waves]
2. Frequency Theory- vibration triggers neural impulses to brain at same rate as sound wave (brain reads pitch from frequency). Lower frequencies= fewer neural impulses. Higher frequencies= larger amount of neural impulses. Explains low pitches. Problem with pitches above 1,000 Hertz because they are too fast to be read by number of impulses
3. Volley Principle- neural cells can alternate firing and thereby achieve combined frequency for very average pitch. Solution all 3 theories because place for high pitch, frequency for low pitch, volley for middle pitch

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I can differentiate between binocular and monocular cues.
perception (Gestalt)
depth perception- 2 dimensions fall on retina; perceive as 3D. We estimate distance
Visual cliff- Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
test of dept perception, infants and toddlers
1.figure-ground- vase and two faces
2.proximity-group nearby figures together
3.similarity-group similar figures together
Muller- Lyer Illusion- proximity
4.continuity- see smooth, continuous patters
5.connectedness- when linked, we see spots, lines or areas as a single unit
visual constancy- perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal images
5 types- color, shape, size, location, brightness
color constancy- perception of familiar objects as having consistent colors, even if changing illumination (Ex: apples)
perceptual constancies- tendency to perceive objects as relatively stable and unchanging
size constancy- despite distance, objects don't change size (general idea of size)
shape constancy- see same shape despite angle it's at
Monocular Cues
-interposition- 1 object blcoks veiw of another, so often referred to as superposition
-relative size- assumption that 2 objects are similar size, 1 closer has larger retinal image
-relative clarity- aerial perspective, perception that hazy objects are farther away that sharp objects
-texture gradient- coarse, distinct texture is closer than finer, indistinct texture
-relative height- objects higher in field of vision appear farther away (vertical dimensions appear longer than horizontal dimension) Ex: St. Louis Arch
-relative motion (motion parallex)- movement of self causes stable items to appear to move, nearest object appears to move faster
-linear perspective- parallel lines appear to converge in distance (people over estimate trains' distance) Ex: Ponzo illusion
-Light and shadow (shadowing)- nearby objects reflect more light into eyes (dimmer objects appear farther away)
Binocular Cues- cues that require both eyes
-retinal disparity- difference between sight/views of 2 eyes (Ex: pen movement)
-convergence- cue for perceiving depth; eyes converge inward towards object
-stereoscopic vision- combine 2 retinal,
-images to get 3D perception
Motion Perception- closer object gets larger
stroboscopic movement- motion picture. cartoons flip book
phi phenomena- illusion of lights (blinking on and off)
autokinetic illusion- perceived motion created by single stationary object (slight movement of eye muscles make object move)
Sound Localizations
monaural cues- louder sound means closer sound
binaural cues- stereophonic- stero: multi directional audio perspective

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I can learn color theories and visual cues.
-transduction- signals are formed into neural impulses as light passes through retina
-parallel processing- processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneous (color, form, and motion happen at the same time)
-Hubel and Weissel- neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features
-vision: electromagnetic spectrum
-wavelength- the distance from one wave peak to another (light/sound)
-high frequency- short wavelength, bluish colors, high pitched sounds
-low frequency- long wavelength, reddish colors, low pitched sounds
-amplitude- height of the wave length
-large amplitude- tall wavelength, bright colors, loud sounds
-small amplitude- short wavelength, dull colors, soft sounds
-theories of color vision:
1. Young-Helmhotlz Trichromatic Theory- each cone is maximally sensitive to 1 of 3 colors (red, green, or blue)
combines stimulation of these cones cause other colors by mixing light waves (red+green stimulation=yellow)
-afterimage- when you stare at 1 or 2 colors, cones become saturated, then when you look at a white piece of paper you see the opposite  colors due to saturation of cones
-Young Helmhotz theory cannot explain afterimage because with afterimage you see the opposite of color
-colorblindness- partial or total to perceive hues
-monochromatic (black and white)
-dichromats (r/g, y/b)
trichromats (normal color vision) explained by trichromatic theroy
-young helmotz theory cannot explain color blindness because it involves 2 color pairs and not 1 single cone
2. opponent-process theory (Hering)
-three kinds of cones that all work in pairs (r/g, b/y, b/w)
Both theories are correct. Individual cones=trichromatic theory. Opponent process=other layers of the retina
-surrounding context- if an item is viewed with other colors then the color of the object changes

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I can understand the parts and the path of vision.
-1.cornea- transparent protector. place where light enters the eye. white outer layer.
-2.pupil- adjustable opening in the center of the iris where light continues to enter. contracts in bright light and relaxes in dim light (reflexive response)
-aqueous humor- liquid and keeps the shape of the eye round
-3.iris- colored part of the eye protection from damage
-4.lens-  transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina (upside down) by changing its curvature
-accommodation- lens shape changes according to distance (round=close, flat=far), rigid= difficult to focus
-5.retina- inner lining of the back of the eyeball that contains receptor cells sensitive to light
-blind spot- point where the optic nerve leaves the eye; no vision
receptors here
-3 layers of the retina:
-rods- 20, black and white, peripheral retina, movement, very light, sensitive,
-cones- 1, color, low sensitivity, central retina
-bipolar cells- specialized neurons connect to rods and cones (1 axon/ 1 dendrite)
-ganglion cells- axons of these cells, made of optic nerve and sends info to thalamus specifically the LGN
-magnocellur cells- detect motion
-parvocellur cells- detect color/ what item is
-acuity- ability to distinguish fine details, sharpness
-blindsight- ability to respond to something not consciously perceived
-6.fovea- line of central focus, holds only cones
-7.optic nerve- carries visual info to the occipital lobe, but first through the thalamus
-8.optic chiasm- spot where nerves cross each other (left to right/ right to left)
-9.lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)- area in the thalamus that interprets images

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I can understand the difference between absolute, subliminal, and difference thresholds.
-absolute threshold- the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
-just noticeable difference- the amount of something must be changed in order to detect it 50% of the time. Constant fraction/ proportion of original stimulus. varies among senses(8% of light, 2% of weight, .3% of tone). intensity increases as the amount of change increases. bright colors needs to have even a brighter difference to be able to notice a difference. Able to taste with your eyes
-subliminal- when stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time (below one's absolute threshold)
-signal detection theory- expectations biases. false negative is worse than false positive

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I can understand the difference between top-down and bottom-up processes of sensation and perception.
perceptual set- the psychological factors that determine how you perceive your environment
priming- the activation of certain associations, predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
sensory adaptation- diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (As you smell something, it becomes less potent as time goes on)
perception- (top-down) way our brains organize and interpret information and put it into context (Ex: Cambridge Reading Test)
figure-ground relationship- the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
sensation- (bottom-up) process by which our senses, like vision, hearing and smell, receive and relay outside stimuli
Awareness test- inattentional blindness(when you are focused on something, you are unable to focus on something else.)
Change blindness- environment shifts