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Check point sign - Designer Facing prompts

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Checkpoint signs / LEARNER facing questions

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It may seem obvious that students achieve at higher levels when teachers believe in them, but few would have predicted how much a simple message from teachers can change students' whole trajectories and achievement.

A study many years ago that probably would not be allowed today, showed something remarkable about teacher beliefs. Researchers told teachers that some classes of students - across six grade levels - had been tested and were capable of greater intellectual growth than other students. In reality, those students were of the same achievement levels as other students and were randomly chosen for the classes. At the end of one year the students' scores on IQ tests matched the teachers' false beliefs. When teachers were told that students had higher intellectual ability their students scored at significantly higher levels on IQ tests than students whose teachers were not told anything (Rosenthal and Jacobs, 1968). This study is a powerful illustration that teachers' expectations and beliefs about students matter.

In a much more recent study, researchers illustrated just how powerful a single message can be. Hundreds of students were involved in an experimental study of high school English classes. All of the students wrote essays and received critical diagnostic feedback from their teachers, but half the students received an extra sentence on the bottom of the feedback. The students who received the extra sentence achieved higher grades a year later, even though the teachers did not know who received the sentence and there were no other differences between the groups. It may seem incredible that one sentence could change students' learning trajectories to the extent that they achieve at higher levels a year later, with no other change, but this was the extra sentence:

I am giving you this feedback because I believe in you.

Students who received this sentence scored at higher levels a year later. This effect was significant for students of color, who often feel less valued by their teachers (Cohen & Garcia, 2014). I share this finding with teachers frequently, and they always fully understand its significance. I do not share the result in the hope that teachers will add this same sentence to all of their students' work. That would lead students to think the sentence was not genuine, which would be counterproductive. I share it to emphasize the power of teachers' words and teachers' beliefs they hold about students, and to encourage teachers to instill positive belief messages at all times. Furthermore, belief in students alone is not enough (Shouse, 1996). Teachers must couple these beliefs with an academic environment that values open, growth mathematics , mistakes , and high quality assessments.

Teachers can communicate positive expectations to students by using encouraging words, and it is easy to do this with students who appear motivated, who learn easily, or who are quick. But it is even more important to communicate positive beliefs and expectations to students who are slow, appear unmotivated, or struggle. It is also important to realize that the speed at which students appear to grasp concepts is not indicative of their mathematics potential (Supekar et al, 2013). As hard as it is, it is important to not have any preconceptions about our students.

We must be open at all times to any student working hard and achieving at high levels.

Some students give the impression that math is a constant struggle for them and they may ask a lot of questions or keep saying they are stuck, but they are just hiding their mathematics potential and are likely to be suffering from a fixed mindset; often these students are scared to take a risk or to get anything wrong. Some students have had bad math experiences and messages from a young age or have not received opportunities for brain growth and learning that other students have, so they are at lower levels than other students. This in no way means they cannot excel with good mathematics teaching, positive messages, and, perhaps most importantly, high expectations from their teachers and parents.

You can be the person who turns things around for students and liberates their learning path. It usually takes just one person-a person whom students will never forget.

This article contains excerpts from Jo Boaler's new book, Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students' Potential Through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching
References

Boaler, J. (2015). Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students' Potential Through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2014). Educational Theory, Practice, and Policy and the Wisdom of Social Psychology. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 13-20.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. The Urban Review, 3(1), 16-20.

Shouse, R. C. (1996). Academic press and sense of community: Conflict, congruence, and implications for student achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 1(1), 47-68.

Supekar, K.; Swigart, A., Tenison, C., Jolles, D., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Fuchs, L., & Menon, V. (2013). Neural Predictors of Individual Differences in Response to Math Tutoring in Primary-Grade School Children. PNAS, 110, 20 (8230-8235)

It may seem obvious that students achieve at higher levels when teachers believe in them, but few would have predicted how much a simple message from teachers can change students' whole trajectories and achievement.

A study many years ago that probably would not be allowed today, showed something remarkable about teacher beliefs. Researchers told teachers that some classes of students - across six grade levels - had been tested and were capable of greater intellectual growth than other students. In reality, those students were of the same achievement levels as other students and were randomly chosen for the classes. At the end of one year the students' scores on IQ tests matched the teachers' false beliefs. When teachers were told that students had higher intellectual ability their students scored at significantly higher levels on IQ tests than students whose teachers were not told anything (Rosenthal and Jacobs, 1968). This study is a powerful illustration that teachers' expectations and beliefs about students matter.

In a much more recent study, researchers illustrated just how powerful a single message can be. Hundreds of students were involved in an experimental study of high school English classes. All of the students wrote essays and received critical diagnostic feedback from their teachers, but half the students received an extra sentence on the bottom of the feedback. The students who received the extra sentence achieved higher grades a year later, even though the teachers did not know who received the sentence and there were no other differences between the groups. It may seem incredible that one sentence could change students' learning trajectories to the extent that they achieve at higher levels a year later, with no other change, but this was the extra sentence:

I am giving you this feedback because I believe in you.

Students who received this sentence scored at higher levels a year later. This effect was significant for students of color, who often feel less valued by their teachers (Cohen & Garcia, 2014). I share this finding with teachers frequently, and they always fully understand its significance. I do not share the result in the hope that teachers will add this same sentence to all of their students' work. That would lead students to think the sentence was not genuine, which would be counterproductive. I share it to emphasize the power of teachers' words and teachers' beliefs they hold about students, and to encourage teachers to instill positive belief messages at all times. Furthermore, belief in students alone is not enough (Shouse, 1996). Teachers must couple these beliefs with an academic environment that values open, growth mathematics , mistakes , and high quality assessments.

Teachers can communicate positive expectations to students by using encouraging words, and it is easy to do this with students who appear motivated, who learn easily, or who are quick. But it is even more important to communicate positive beliefs and expectations to students who are slow, appear unmotivated, or struggle. It is also important to realize that the speed at which students appear to grasp concepts is not indicative of their mathematics potential (Supekar et al, 2013). As hard as it is, it is important to not have any preconceptions about our students.

We must be open at all times to any student working hard and achieving at high levels.

Some students give the impression that math is a constant struggle for them and they may ask a lot of questions or keep saying they are stuck, but they are just hiding their mathematics potential and are likely to be suffering from a fixed mindset; often these students are scared to take a risk or to get anything wrong. Some students have had bad math experiences and messages from a young age or have not received opportunities for brain growth and learning that other students have, so they are at lower levels than other students. This in no way means they cannot excel with good mathematics teaching, positive messages, and, perhaps most importantly, high expectations from their teachers and parents.

You can be the person who turns things around for students and liberates their learning path. It usually takes just one person-a person whom students will never forget.

This article contains excerpts from Jo Boaler's new book, Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students' Potential Through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching
References

Boaler, J. (2015). Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students' Potential Through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2014). Educational Theory, Practice, and Policy and the Wisdom of Social Psychology. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 13-20.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. The Urban Review, 3(1), 16-20.

Shouse, R. C. (1996). Academic press and sense of community: Conflict, congruence, and implications for student achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 1(1), 47-68.

Supekar, K.; Swigart, A., Tenison, C., Jolles, D., Rosenberg-Lee, M., Fuchs, L., & Menon, V. (2013). Neural Predictors of Individual Differences in Response to Math Tutoring in Primary-Grade School Children. PNAS, 110, 20 (8230-8235)

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When You Believe In Your Students They Do Better - YouCubed

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It may seem obvious that students achieve at higher levels when teachers believe in them, but few would have predicted how much a simple message from teachers can change students' whole trajectories and achievement. A study many years ago that probably would not be allowed today, showed something remarkable about teacher beliefs.

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Why, how and when to use

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Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence: Mood-Congruent Learning with the Mood Meter

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The term "growth mindset" comes from the groundbreaking work of Carol Dweck. She identified everyone holds ideas about their own potential. Some people believe that their intelligence is more or less fixed and in math - that you can do math or you can't. About 40% of students have these damaging "fixed mindset" ideas. Another 40% have a "growth mindset" - they believe that they can learn anything and that their intelligence can grow. The other 20% waver between the two mindsets.

Students with a fixed mindset are those who are more likely to give up easily, whereas students with a growth mindset are those who keep going even when work is hard, and who are persistent. The two mindsets are associated with different achievement pathways as the papers on this page show. It is possible to change mindsets - my student online class which can be accessed under courses - has been shown to shift students' mindsets from fixed to growth and cause higher mathematics achievement. There are a range of resources on this page - a poster of math norms, a strategizer card with lots of teaching ideas, a short video to boost students' mindset, and some interesting short papers.

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The term "growth mindset" comes from the groundbreaking work of Carol Dweck. She identified everyone holds ideas about their own potential. Some people believe that their intelligence is more or less fixed and in math - that you can do math or you can't. About 40% of students have these damaging "fixed mindset" ideas.

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We believe that teachers need access to a range of practical strategies that are free and easy to use in the classroom.

Why Download the Free Self-Management Toolkit?

The self-management toolkit is a self-contained professional development session (a "PD-in-a-Box") built to ensure that teachers have a positive experience while learning more about self-management. We have developed and extensively tested the toolkit to ensure that it is as helpful as possible to educators, and we welcome your feedback about further refinements we can make.

The toolkit contains:

Facilitators guide with sample agendas

Slide presentation to guide you through the session

Animation showing the critical role self-management plays for children over the long term, that it can be taught, and the mindset needed to actually teach it

Video interviews with students who saw dramatic improvements after learning specific self-management strategies in school

Practical strategies and sample ways to use them that teachers can implement immediately

Suggested reflection activities and a practical planning exercise

Handout with all of the key session content plus extra implementation examples that teachers can take with them

The majority of these items are available in fully editable formats so you can adapt the session to fit your own needs.

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What is Self-Management? Self-management is a key enabler for all learning (for children and adults!) whether for academic subjects, other content areas, or skills like playing a musical instrument. Self-management allows students to follow through on plans to complete assignments, study for tests, and stay focused in class.

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Using website information and activities at home and school

What We've Learned by Asking
Pre-Teens:
How Are You Coping?

Do you want to learn look after children and read pdf books at the same time? Try and download pdf reducer for free.
Scientists are learning more each year about how our brain reacts when we're stressed or upset. Now you can learn brain coping skills to bounce back more easily when you're down or angry.

Read What Pre-Teens Say
Find out what 4th, 5th, & 6th graders have learned from the Brain Works Project. Learn More

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Using website information and activities at home and school What We've Learned by Asking Pre-Teens: How Are You Coping? Do you want to learn look after children and read pdf books at the same time? Try and download pdf reducer for free. Scientists are learning more each year about how our brain reacts when we're stressed or upset.

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It's summer. Kids are out playing, or at camp or daycare, or on vacation with family. There are a couple of precious weeks of relaxed schedules and potential adventure awaiting the students who will fill our classrooms next month...

Unless you happen to be a teacher, particularly a newly minted one. Welcome to August. While much of the world is still focused on fun, teachers and other caring adults in schools are already busy.

Let's see-paperwork, network access, certification completion, paperwork, shopping for classroom supplies, reading up on incoming students, integrating whole-class schedules with specialist time for kids on IEPs (individual education plans), paperwork, curriculum planning, and meetings, meetings, meetings. The list is long, and the time is suddenly short. If you are an itinerant provider, such as a physical, occupational, or speech therapist who travels from school to school, the challenge can be even greater. Does this scenario feel familiar to you? You're deep in your thinking brain.

If so, take a moment to stop and check in with your body. Without judging or telling yourself the story of "why," what can you notice about the signals it may be sending? Is your breathing fast or slow? Shallow or deep? What's happening with your stomach? Your neck and shoulders? The muscles in your face? Perhaps you noticed that your stomach is growling, your shoulders feel tight, and your jaw is clenched a little as you simultaneously set up your room and try to tease out a solution to a new issue that cropped up in today's planning meeting.

You've just made a quick inventory of sensation that mindfulness practitioners call a " body scan ". Now imagine what it would be like to begin your teaching day with these sensations present. How would your relationships with students and colleagues be affected? How would your classroom environment be shaped? How do we take care of ourselves, so that we can take care of our school family? There is a reason that preflight instructions on planes tell us to put oxygen masks on ourselves before helping others.

"Between stimulus and response, there is a space. In that space is our power to choose our response. In that response lies our growth and our freedom." - Viktor Frankl

Mindfulness can play a part in creating and sustaining the kind of atmosphere and community that frees us to teach and offers kids the freedom to learn. By switching to our "feeling brain," we tap into a channel that we often push so far into the background of our consciousness that we learn not to acknowledge it at all. The practice of noticing what is happening in the moment and responding with non-judgmental friendliness is a resource to keep in your "toolbox" of pedagogy and classroom management techniques.

When we practice checking in with our sensations throughout the day, we allow ourselves time to choose a response to whatever is arising in our feeling brains by bringing our attention to what is happening in the moment.

That brief interlude to take inventory of our sensations and emotions is a mindful moment. A little chance to reboot if we find things are heading off in an unskilled or unhelpful direction. When we employ those brief moments of awareness, repeated throughout the day, we bring ourselves back to what is happening in the present.

If we necessarily spend time in our thinking brains and then practice checking in with our feeling brains, how do we keep our school day running? Can we just stop and be still with closed eyes in the middle of presenting a lesson on exponential growth? Of course not, unless we want to run the risk of encountering a live example of disruptive behavior during our own math period! It may seem counterintuitive, but we have to plan. Like a football team, we have to practice making the plays every day so that it can become intuitive. To create a mindful classroom, we must have a mindful grounding of our own.

If you were a part of Mindful Summer, you had a chance to learn about mindfulness itself and about ways to practice. If you already have some familiarity with mindfulness, you may know that establishing a regular practice is key to implementing mindfulness in your life, inside and outside your work environment. Here are some ways to bring mindfulness into your classroom and your teaching life.

1) Establish a regular practice.

To create a mindful classroom, it is important to be anchored in your own mindfulness practice. Find a few moments each day to sit quietly and focus on your breath. First thing in the morning can be wonderful, but the best time is the time that works for you.

Mindful Breathing
If you're brand new to mindful breathing, try this. Find a spot where you won't be disturbed. Sit with feet flat on the floor, and with a relaxed upright back and head. Place your hands in your lap on on your thighs. Close your eyes or lower your gaze to a spot on the floor in front of you. Breathe regularly through your nose, paying attention to each in breath and out breath. Thoughts may arise; plans, worries, ideas, ruminations or stories. When they do, just gently let them go and return to focusing on each breath.

Additional Resources for Guided Practices
There are many fine online sources for guided mindfulness practice:

2) Set intentions (prime the pump).

Most of the time, our curriculum and lesson plans tell us what we're going to teach. Setting an intention widens the focus to consider how we want to teach. An intention is a statement of how you want to be in this next period. Think about your goals for the way you want the experience to feel and how best to facilitate the skills you are helping your students to master.

An intention might be a general one, such as keeping things moving calmly in the days before a high stakes test, or it it might be as specific as responding to a challenging student or group with equanimity instead of going directly to control. It can be simple (but not necessarily easy) like, 'I want to be fully present.'

In his wonderful book The Mindful Brain, Dr. Dan Siegel writes "Intentions create an integrated state of priming, a gearing up of our neural system to be in the mode of that specific intention: we can be readying to receive, to sense, to focus, to behave in a certain manner." Mindful Schools Executive Director Robert Thomas spoke about this in his Back to School talk on August 13th.

3) Check on the environment.

Some of the best teachers I know begin the day with a short sit in the classroom. There is something wonderful about starting off together in silence, and even kindergarteners enjoy it. Students in middle and high school often protest that they're not interested in this quiet few moments, but in my experience students this age are also the most vocal about insisting on the morning sit if it has been forgotten. Some classes find that just after lunch or the end of the day is the best time for a few mindful moments. Experiment to find what works for you and your group(s).

After a brief (two to five minutes) sit, it can be helpful to get a short report from each student about how they're feeling. Popular metaphors for these reports include a one-word "weather report" (sunny, stormy, rainy, etc.), thumbs up, down or sideways, even sports analogies for the oldest students. The littlest ones can make an animal sound or hold up a colored piece to represent their mood (see Zones of Regulation for more on this). Don't forget to include yourself and any other adults in the room!

These environmental check-ins allow the entire group to get a general idea of the overall 'climate' in the room in that moment. This is great information for each person. As the group leader, you may decide to adjust or even completely change the next activity, based on what the reports tell you.

The students also see each others' responses, which informs them about how others may wish to be treated. A sweet surprise can happen in the form of one or more kids expressing heartfulness (or compassion) for a classmate who has given a negative report. This is usually most immediate in younger grades but often happens away from the gaze of adults in middle and high school aged cohorts.

4) Mindfulness objects.

Many classrooms have a signal of some kind used to bring everyone together or to focus busy minds in preparation for a lesson. A bell is ideal for this purpose. When I teach mindfulness in schools, the students eventually take over ringing the bell and watching as the class focuses on the sound and comes into stillness.

Another favorite is a Mind Jar or Brain Jar. This tangible metaphor for how our mood goes from agitation to calm. You can easily make one with a plastic or glass jar, some water, glycerin and glitter or glitter glue. There are lots of how-to articles on the web, but here's a good one.

5) Sound check.

Sometimes it can be challenging to get back into our bodies, especially after vigorous social activity. To help integrate brain and body, you can use a bell, rainstick or other reverberating object.

Invite students to sit quietly and listen to the sound of the object as you activate it.

Ask them to raise a hand when they can no longer hear the sound.

When all hands are up, invite them to notice how they are feeling.

Don't forget to notice your own state of integration. It may be helpful to do another sound check, if the class still seems unfocused.

6) Gratitude practice.

Millions of years ago when humans lived in the wild, our brains evolved to be alert to danger. Despite the fact that most of us no longer face the existential threat of wild animal attack, our brain still maintains that 'early warning system'. We are really expert at remembering the bad stuff but not so hot a recalling the good. Dr. Rick Hanson defines this 'negativity bias' as Velcro for negative experiences but Teflon for positive ones. Gratitude practice helps us embody the emotions and sensations associated with positive experience. It can guide us toward equanimity by balancing out our overall perception of what has occurred during a certain period, be it math class, the school day, or a particular event at home.

Gratitude practice is a simple way to share and remind ourselves and others about the things that matter. Sitting in a circle and each sharing something we're grateful for can be a lovely way to end the day. This practice can be surprisingly informative, and don't forget to include yourself in the circle.

Incidentally, these ideas shouldn't be limited to your classroom. Employing mindful approaches to your relationships with your colleagues can bring great rewards and may even help change the culture in your school community. At a school where I worked for a number of years, we set an intention to treat one another in specific ways. Visitors frequently commented on how it felt to first enter the building and experience the authentic interactions among students and adults.

These techniques and practices can assist you in beginning (and continuing) the school year with authenticity, equanimity, and dare I say it-even joy. By employing them, we can expand beyond 'thinking' and 'doing', to 'being' as we create and sustain our learning community with intention, focus, heartfulness and gratitude. May you be curious. May you find wonder in each day with your children. May you be peaceful.
Betsy Caruso is a mindfulness teacher an academic tutor in Boston. She is a 2016 graduate of the Mindful Schools teacher certification program. You can learn more and contact her at Growing Responsive Minds.

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The Pause That Refreshes: 6 ideas for creating mindfulness in the classroom - Mindful Schools

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It's summer. Kids are out playing, or at camp or daycare, or on vacation with family. There are a couple of precious weeks of relaxed schedules and potential adventure awaiting the students who will fill our classrooms next month... Unless you happen to be a teacher, particularly a newly minted one.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when success requires that students monitor and reflect on their own emotional progress and when there are no options for individuals who have difficulty in doing so. Since there is great variability in students' capability for monitoring their emotions and reactivity; students will need varied amounts of explicit instruction and modeling, scaffolded practice with gradual release, and targeted feedback in order to make progress. Because of individual differences, multiple models and scaffolds of varied techniques should be offered so that students can identify, select and use the techniques that are personally optimal. The experimental evidence listed here suggests the effectiveness of, and the strategies for, developing students' self-questioning, self-monitoring, and self-determination skills. The scholarly reviews and opinions provide a more classroom-based perspective on the importance of developing students' abilities for self-assessment and reflection.

Experimental & Quantitative Evidence

Agran, M., Blanchard, C., Wehmeyer, M., & Hughes, C. (2002). Increasing the problem-solving skills of students with developmental disabilities participating in general education. Remedial and Special Education, 23(5), 279-288.

Agran, M., Wehmeyer, M. L., Cavin, M., & Palmer, S. (2008). Promoting student active classroom participation skills through instruction to promote self-regulated learning and self-determination. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 31(2), 106-114.

Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663.

Brewer, M. B., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Emotion and motivation. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Butler, D. L. (1997). The roles of goal setting and self-monitoring in students' self-regulated engagement in tasks.Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997).

de Bruin, A. B. H. (2007). Improving metacomprehension accuracy and self-regulation in cognitive skill acquisition:The effect of learner expertise. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19(4/5), 671-688.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1992). The initiation and regulation of intrinsically motivated learning and achievement.In A. K. Boggiano, & T. S. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social developmental perspective (pp. 3-36). Toronto, ON: Cambridge University Press.

Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., Sivan, E., Rackliffe, G., Book, C., Meloth, M., et al. (1987). Effects of explaining the reasoning associated with using reading strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 22(3), 347-368.

Fyrstén, S., Nurmi, J. E., & Lyytinen, H. (2006). The role of achievement beliefs and behaviours in spontaneous reading acquisition. Learning and Instruction, 16(6), 569-582.

Lancaster, P. E., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2002). The development and validation of an interactive hypermedia program for teaching a self-advocacy strategy to students with disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25(4), 277-302.

Nolan, T. E. (1991). Self-questioning and prediction: Combining metacognitive strategies. Journal of Reading, 35(2), 132-138.

Ohtake, Y., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2004). Applying the self-determination theory to Japanese special education contexts: A four-step model. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 1(3-4), 169-178.

Ridley, D. S. (1992). Self-regulated learning: The interactive influence of metacognitive awareness and goal-setting. Journal of Experimental Education, 60(4), 293-306.

Sawyer, R. J. (1992). Direct teaching, strategy instruction, and strategy instruction with explicit self-regulation:Effects on the composition skills and self-efficacy of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 340-352.

Schunk, D. H. (1985). Participation in goal setting: Effects on self-efficacy and skills of learning-disabled children. Journal of Special Education, 19(3), 307-317.

Schunk, D. H. (1996). Goal and self-evaluative influences during children's cognitive skill learning. American Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 359-382.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Developing self-efficacious readers and writers: The role of social and self-regulatory processes. In J. T. Guthrie, & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction (pp. 34-50). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Buchanan, C. L., & Lopez, S. J. (2006). The application of positive psychology and self-determination to research in intellectual disability: A content analysis of 30 years of literature. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(4), 338-345.

Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Soukup, J. H., Little, T. D., Garner, N., et al. (2008).Understanding the construct of self-determination: Examining the relationship between the Arc's Self-Determination Scale and the American Institutes for Research Self-Determination Scale. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 33(2), 94-107.

Wehmeyer, M. L., & Palmer, S. B. (2003). Adult outcomes for students with cognitive disabilities three years after high school: The impact of self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38(2), 131-144.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Soukup, J. H., Garner, N. W., & Lawrence, M. (2007). Self-determination and student transition planning knowledge and skills: Predicting involvement. Exceptionality, 15(1), 31-44.

Wong, B. Y. L., & Jones, W. (1982). Increasing metacomprehension in learning disabled and normally achieving students through self-questioning training. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 5(3), 228-240.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1996). Self-regulated learning of a motoric skill: The role of goal setting and self-monitoring. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8(1), 60-75.

Scholarly Reviews & Expert Opinions

Anderson, A. (1997). Learning strategies in physical education: Self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 68(1), 30-35.

Banda, D. R., Matuszny, R. M., & Turkan, S. (2007). Video modeling strategies to enhance appropriate behaviors in children with autism. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(6), 47-52.

Carroll, J., & Christenson, C. N. K. (1995). Teaching and learning about student goal setting in a fifth-grade classroom. Language Arts, 72(1), 42-49.

Clark, F. L., Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., Alley, G. R., & Warner, M. M. (1984). Visual imagery and self-questioning: Strategies to improve comprehension of written material. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17(3), 145-149.

Lee, S., Palmer, S., Turnbull, A., & Wehmeyer, M. (2006). A model for parent-teacher collaboration to promote self-determination in young children with disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(3), 36-41.

Montague, M. (2007). Self-regulation and mathematics instruction. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22(1), 75-83.

Palmer, S. B., Wehmeyer, M. L., Gipson, K., & Agran, M. (2004). Promoting access to the general curriculum by teaching self-determination skills. Exceptional Children, 70(4), 427-440.

Price, L. A., Wolensky, D., & Mulligan, R. (2002). Self-determination in action in the classroom. Remedial and Special Education, 23(2), 109.

Reid, R. (1996). Research in self-monitoring with students with learning disabilities: The present, the prospects, the pitfalls. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(3), 317-331.

Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., & Grolnick, W. S. (1992). When achievement is not intrinsically motivated: A theory of internalization and self-regulation in school. In K. Boggiano, & T. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social development perspective (pp. 167-188). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Nolan, S. M., & Alley, G. R. (1994). The self-questioning strategy. Lawrence, KS:The University of Kansas.

Schunk, D. H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 159-172.

Test, D. W., Mason, C., Hughes, C., Konrad, M., Neale, M., & Wood, W. M. (2004). Student involvement in individualized education program meetings. Exceptional Children, 70(4), 391-413.

Watson, J. S. (1998). ''If you don't have it, you can't find it." A close look at students' perceptions of using technology. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49(11), 1024-1036.

Webre, E. C. (2005). Enhancing reading success with collaboratively created progress charts. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(5), 291-295.

Wehmeyer, M. (1997). Self-determination as an educational outcome: A definitional framework and implications for intervention. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 9(3), 175-209.

Wehmeyer, M., & Schwartz, M. (1997). Self-determination and positive adult outcomes: A follow-up study of youth with mental retardation or learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 63(2), 245-255.

Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Promoting self-determination in students with developmental disabilities. New York, NY:The Guilford Press.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Field, S., Doren, B., Jones, B., & Mason, C. (2004). Self-determination and student involvement in standards-based reform. Exceptional Children, 70(4), 413-426.

Wehmeyer, M. L., & Palmer, S. B. (2000). Promoting the acquisition and development of self-determination in young children with disabilities. Early Education and Development, 11(4), 465-481.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when success requires that students monitor and reflect on their own emotional progress and when there are no options for individuals who have difficulty in doing so.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when successful learning requires students to cope with negative emotions and frustrations and when there are no options for students who have difficulty in doing so. In order to develop effective self-regulatory skills, students must be exposed to varied strategies - reminders, models, checklists and so forth - that will help them to identify the coping mechanisms for managing the emotions that work best for them. The evidence listed below suggests the effectiveness of strategies such as developing help-seeking strategies, providing scaffolds and feedback for managing frustration, and building internal controls. The scholarly reviews and opinions provide a more classroom-based perspective on the importance of scaffolding students' coping skills and strategies.

Experimental & Quantitative Evidence

Agran, M., Blanchard, C., Wehmeyer, M., & Hughes, C. (2001). Teaching students to self-regulate their behavior:The differential effects of student-vs. teacher-delivered reinforcement. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 319-332.

Bong, M. (2008). Effects of parent-child relationships and classroom goal structures on motivation, help-seeking avoidance, and cheating. Journal of Experimental Education, 76(2), 191-217.

Bouffard-Bouchard, T., Parent, S., & Larivee, S. (1991). Influence of self-efficacy on self-regulation and performance among junior and senior high-school age students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 14(2), 153-164.

Brewer, M. B., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Emotion and motivation. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Brooks, A., Todd, A. W., Tofflemoyer, S., & Horner, R. H. (2003). Use of functional assessment and a self-management system to increase academic engagement and work completion. Journal of Positive Behavior, 53, 144-152.

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Engagement, disengagement, coping, and catastrophe. In A. J. Elliot, & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 527-547). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulation empowerment program: A school-based program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 537-550.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1992). The initiation and regulation of intrinsically motivated learning and achievement.In A. K. Boggiano, & T. S. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social developmental perspective (pp. 3-36). Toronto, ON: Cambridge University Press.

El-Alayli, A., & Baumgardner, A. (2003). If at first you don't succeed, what makes you try,try again? Effects of implicit theories and ability feedback in a performance-oriented climate. Self & Identity, 2(2), 119-135.

Evans, S. W., Pelham, W., & Grudberg, M. V. (1994). The efficacy of notetaking to improve behavior and comprehension of adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Exceptionality, 5(1), 1-17.

Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A., & Gruen, R. J. (1986). Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(5), 992-1003.

Hannula, M. S. (2006). Motivation in mathematics: Goals reflected in emotions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 165-178.

Hofer, B. K., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1998). Teaching college students to be self-regulated learners. In D. H. Schunk, & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning from teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 57-85).New York: Guilford.

Hole, J. L., & Crozier, W. R. (2007). Dispositional and situational learning goals and children's self-regulation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(4), 773-786.

Karabenick, S. A. (2004). Perceived achievement goal structure and college student help seeking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 569-581.

Lancaster, P. E., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2002). The development and validation of an interactive hypermedia program for teaching a self-advocacy strategy to students with disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25(4), 277-302.

Lee, J. K., & Lee, W. K. (2008). The relationship of e-Learner's self-regulatory efficacy and perception of e-learning environmental quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(1), 32-47.

Lizarraga, M. L. S. d. A., Ugarte, M. D., Iriarte, M. D., & Baquedano, M. T. S. d. A. (2003). Immediate and long-term effects of a cognitive intervention on intelligent, self-regulations, and academic achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(1), 59-75.

Lodewyk, K. R., Winne, P. H., & Jamieson-Noel, D. L. (2009). Implications of task structure on self-regulated learning and achievement. Educational Psychology, 29(1), 1-25.

Malmivuori, M. (2006). Affect and self-regulation. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 149-164.

Marchand, G., & Skinner, E. A. (2007). Motivational dynamics of children's academic help-seeking and concealment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 65-82.

Mercier, J., & Frederiksen, C. H. (2007). Individual differences in graduate students' help-seeking process in using a computer coach in problem-based learning. Learning & Instruction, 17(2), 184-203.

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodrigiez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933-938.

Newman, R. S. (1998). Students' help seeking during problem solving: Influences of personal and contextual achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 644-658.

Newman, R. S., & Schwager, M. T. (1995). Students' help seeking during problem solving: Effects of grade, goal, and prior achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 32(2), 352-376.

Paulsen, M. B., & Feldman, K. A. (2005). The conditional and interaction effects of epistemological beliefs on the self-regulated learning of college students: Motivational strategies. Research in Higher Education, 46(7), 731-768.

Roll, I., Aleven, V., McLaren, B. M., & Koedinger, K. R. (2007). Designing for metacognition - applying cognitive tutor principles to the tutoring of help seeking. Metacognition and Learning, 2(2), 125-140.

Ryan, A. M., Shim, S., & Patrick, H. (2005). Differential profiles of students identified by their teacher as having avoidant, appropriate, or dependent help-seeking tendencies in the classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 275-285.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Developing self-efficacious readers and writers: The role of social and self-regulatory processes. In J. T. Guthrie, & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction (pp. 34-50). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Shih, S. (2007). The role of motivational characteristics in Taiwanese sixth graders' avoidance of help seeking in the classroom. Elementary School Journal, 107(5), 473-495.

Wood, H., & Wood, D. (1999). Help seeking, learning and contingent tutoring. Computers & Education, 33(2-3), 153-169.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 845-862.

Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1990). Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 51-59.

Scholarly Reviews & Expert Opinions

Aleven, V., Stahl, E., Schworm, S., Fischer, F., & Wallace, R. (2003). Help seeking and help design in interactive learning environments. Review of Educational Research, 73(3), 277-320.

Banda, D. R., Matuszny, R. M., & Turkan, S. (2007). Video modeling strategies to enhance appropriate behaviors in children with autism. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(6), 47-52.

Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336-353.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Prentice, K., Burch, M., & Paulsen, K. (2002). Hot math: Promoting mathematical problem solving among third-grade students with disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(1), 70-73.

Guthrie, J. T., & Cox, K. E. (2001). Classroom conditions for motivation and engagement in reading. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 283-302.

Newman, R. S. (2002). How self-regulated learners cope with academic difficulty: The role of adaptive help seeking. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 132-138.

Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., & Grolnick, W. S. (1992). When achievement is not intrinsically motivated: A theory of internalization and self-regulation in school. In K. Boggiano, & T. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social development perspective (pp. 167-188). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schunk, D. H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 159-172.

Schunk, D. H. (2005). Commentary on self-regulation in school contexts. Learning & Instruction, 15(2), 173-177.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children's self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 7-25.

Seifert, T. L. (2004). Understanding student motivation. Educational Research, 46(2), 137-149.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2005). The hidden dimension of personal competence: Self regulated learning and practice. In A. J. Elliot, & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 509-526). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Tsikalas, K. E. (2005). Can computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) be used as self-regulatory tools to enhance learning? Educational Psychologist, 40(4), 267-271.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when successful learning requires students to cope with negative emotions and frustrations and when there are no options for students who have difficulty in doing so.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when success requires students to set personally motivating goals and expectations, and where there are no options provided for students who differ in their ability to do so. Goal setting is an essential aspect of self-regulation; setting goals to avoid frustration, to modulate anxiety, and to set positive expectations are important skills to learn.Yet, these goals will vary greatly according to individual student needs - some students need to dampen anxiety to succeed while others may need to elevate it somewhat. The evidence listed here suggests the effectiveness of explicitly teaching and scaffolding goal-setting strategies and of empowering students to set their own goals. The scholarly reviews and expert opinions provide a more classroom-based perspective of the importance of guiding personal goal-setting and expectations.

Experimental & Quantitative Evidence

Agran, M., Cavin, M., Wehmeyer, M., & Palmer, S. (2006). Participation of students with moderate to severe disabilities in the general curriculum: The effects of the self-determined learning model of instruction. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(3), 230-241.

Aunola, K., Nurmi, J. E., Niemi, P., Lerkkanen, M. K., & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2002). Developmental dynamics of achievement strategies, reading performance, and parental beliefs. Reading Research Quarterly, 37(3), 310-327.

Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017-1028.

Brewer, M. B., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Emotion and motivation. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Butler, D. L. (1997). The roles of goal setting and self-monitoring in students' self-regulated engagement in tasks.Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997).

Catlin, K. S., Lewan, G. J., & Perignon, B. J. (1999). Increasing student engagement through goal-setting, cooperative learning & student choice. (Master's Action Research Project, Saint Xavier University and IRI/SkyLight).

Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulation empowerment program: A school-based program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 537-550.

Earley, P. C. (1985). Influence of information choice and task complexity upon goal acceptance, performance and personal goals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 481-491.

Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 5-12.

Hannafin, M. J. (1981). Effects of teacher and student goal setting and evaluations on mathematics achievement and student attitudes. Journal of Educational Research, 74(5), 321-326.

Hannula, M. S. (2006). Motivation in mathematics: Goals reflected in emotions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 165-178.

Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Carter, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Predictors and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1284-1295.

Hole, J. L., & Crozier, W. R. (2007). Dispositional and situational learning goals and children's self-regulation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(4), 773-786.

Hom, H. L., & Arbuckle, B. (1988). Mood induction effects upon goal setting and performance in young children. Motivation and Emotion, 12(2), 113-122.

Karabenick, S. A. (2004). Perceived achievement goal structure and college student help seeking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 569-581.

Law, Y. K. (2009). The role of attribution beliefs, motivation and strategy use in Chinese fifth-graders' reading comprehension. Educational Research, 51(1), 77-95.

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment.Confirmation from meta-analysis. The American Psychologist, 48(12), 1181-1209.

Locke, E. A. (1996). Motivation through conscious goal setting. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5(2), 117-124.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.

Lodewyk, K. R., Winne, P. H., & Jamieson-Noel, D. L. (2009). Implications of task structure on self-regulated learning and achievement. Educational Psychology, 29(1), 1-25.

Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students' goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 514-523.

Newman, R. S., & Schwager, M. T. (1995). Students' help seeking during problem solving: Effects of grade, goal, and prior achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 32(2), 352-376.

Pajares, F., Britner, S. L., & Valiante, G. (2000). Relation between achievement goals and self-beliefs of middle school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 406-422.

Palmer, S. B., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24(2), 115-126.

Paulsen, M. B., & Feldman, K. A. (2005). The conditional and interaction effects of epistemological beliefs on the self-regulated learning of college students: Motivational strategies. Research in Higher Education, 46(7), 731-768.

Phillips, J. M., & Gully, S. M. (1997). Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in the self-efficacy and goal-setting process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 792-802.

Ridley, D. S. (1992). Self-regulated learning: The interactive influence of metacognitive awareness and goal-setting. Journal of Experimental Education, 60(4), 293-306.

Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents' psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 408-422.

Schneider, W. (1998). Performance prediction in young children: Effects of skill, metacognition and wishful thinking. Developmental Science, 1(2), 291-297.

Schunk, D. H. (1985). Participation in goal setting: Effects on self-efficacy and skills of learning-disabled children. Journal of Special Education, 19(3), 307-317.

Schunk, D. H. (1996). Goal and self-evaluative influences during children's cognitive skill learning. American Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 359-382.

Stipek, D. (1984). Young children's performance expectations: Logical analysis or wishful thinking? In J. Nicholls (Ed.), The development of achievement motivation, (pp. 33-56). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Stipek, D., & Gralinski, J. H. (1996). Children's beliefs about intelligence and school performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 397-407.

Stipek, D. J., & Gralinski, J. H. (1991). Gender differences in children's achievement-related beliefs and emotional responses to success and failure in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 361-371.

Stipek, D. J., Roberts, T. A., & Sanborn, M. E. (1984). Preschool-age children's performance expectations for themselves and another child as a function of the incentive value of success and the salience of past performance. Child Development 55(6), 1983-1989.

Wehmeyer, M. L., Yeager, D., Bolding, N., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2003). The effects of self-regulation strategies on goal attainment for students with developmental disabilities in general education classrooms. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 15(1), 79-91.

Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students' motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8(3), 211-238.

Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1996). Self-regulated learning of a motoric skill: The role of goal setting and self-monitoring. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8(1), 60-75.

Scholarly Reviews & Expert Opinions

Ames, C. (1992). Achievement goals and the classroom motivational climate. In D. H. Schunk, & J. L. Meece (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom. (pp. 327-348). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Anderson, A. (1997). Learning strategies in physical education: Self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 68(1), 30-35.

Carroll, J., & Christenson, C. N. K. (1995). Teaching and learning about student goal setting in a fifth-grade classroom. Language Arts, 72(1), 42-49.

Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Reviews in Psychology, 51(1), 171-200.

Hidi, S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 151-179.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1984). Goal setting: A motivational technique that works! Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice Hall.

Madden, L. E. (1997). Motivating students to learn better through own goal-setting. Education, 117(3), 411-416.

Maehr, M. L., & Midgley, C. (1991). Enhancing student motivation: A schoolwide approach. Educational Psychologist, 26(3&4), 399-427.

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P.M. (2001). Goal setting and goal striving. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Intraindividual processes. Volume 1 of the Blackwell Handbook in Social Psychology. Editors-in-chief: M. Hewstone & M. Brewer (pp. 329-347). Oxford: Blackwell.

Rosenholtz, S. J., & Simpson, C. (1984). The formation of ability conceptions: Developmental trend or social construction? Review of Educational Research, 54(1), 31-63.

Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., & Grolnick, W. S. (1992). When achievement is not intrinsically motivated: A theory of internalization and self-regulation in school. In K. Boggiano, & T. Pittman (Eds.), Achievement and motivation: A social development perspective (pp. 167-188). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schunk, D. H. (1990). Goal setting and self-efficacy during self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 71-86.

Schunk, D. H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 159-172.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17.

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Learning can be affectively inaccessible when success requires students to set personally motivating goals and expectations, and where there are no options provided for students who differ in their ability to do so.

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Facilitate Personal Coping Skills and Strategies

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Facilitate Personal Coping Skills and Strategies

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Promote Expectations and Beliefs that Optimize Motivation

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Promote Expectations and Beliefs that Optimize Motivation