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Educational Technology used by College Students

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Educational Technology used by College Students

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As a new student, you'll need to learn a lot of new information pretty fast or risk being clueless, penniless, and more than a bit confused about independent student life.

This is where the internet steps in, a realm of student resources with bountiful information about anything, where you can learn the things your parents never taught you (or that you weren't interested in learning at the time), such as how to budget your money, how to arrange an overdraft with your bank, and how to iron your clothes without leaving an iron-shaped pattern. In short, all the student resources you could ever possibly need are available online.

Below is a categorized list of useful student websites and online resources that will help to make student life that little bit easier from day one.

General websites for students
1. LifeHacker.co.uk
LifeHacker aims to help its users out with life in the modern world. Popular tags include 'Productivity', 'Money' and 'DIY'.
2. MentalFloss.com
Although essentially one of many time-wasting student websites, MentalFloss is good for learning interesting facts from around the world, covering topics such as food, culture and science. Admittedly, its main function may be as a procrastination aid, but you should still learn something.
3. UnplugTheTV.com
This student resource offers an alternative to TV (and, unfortunately, studying), hosting randomized videos on interesting scientific topics.
4. Sleepyti.me
This site tells you the best times to go to bed if you have to be up at a certain hour - a very useful tool within student life. Taking into account regular sleep cycles, Sleepyti.me can help if you suffer from grogginess in the mornings.
5. KeepMeOut.com
If you struggle to stay away from social media when you're meant to be studying, use KeepMeOut to block certain distracting websites.

Educational websites for students

Edx is one of the world's leading MOOC platforms. MOOCs (massive open online courses) are offered for free to anyone wishing to learn. Other major MOOC providers include Udacity.com, AcademicEarth.org and...
7. Coursera.org
Coursera covers a wide range of academic learning, allowing you to supplement your studies with some additional knowledge.

Cooking websites for students

Exactly what it says on the tin, StudentRecipes.com has recipes for 4,000 quick and easy student meals.
9. Recipepuppy.com
RecipePuppy allows you to search for recipes based on the ingredients you already have at home. Lazy students, rejoice.
10. Instructables.com
This is one of the most useful online student resources if you like making and fixing things yourself. You can learn anything from how to make spaghetti ice-cream to how to fix a broken shelf.

Health websites for students
11. The Ultimate Health Food Guide
This guide will be a lifesaver throughout student life for times when you're feeling wrung out, stressed or ill. Whatever your ailments, visit this resource to find out what foods to eat to build your immunity and vitality back up.
12. WebMD.com
WebMD allows you to check your current health status using its symptom checker. Although this resource is great for hypochondriacs, it doesn't replace the knowledge of a real doctor - go offline and visit your university's health center if you're really concerned.
13. NHS.uk
The website of the UK's National Health Service provides information on all kinds of illnesses, conditions, diseases and treatments. The site also gives comprehensive information on sexual health.
14. DontPassItOn.co.uk
DontPassItOn provides free chlamydia and gonorrhea testing kits by post to UK citizens aged 16-24.
15. ASHASexualHealth.org
Sexual health advice and resources for those based in the US.

Shopping & selling websites for students
16. Ebay.com
Well-established consumer-to-consumer site Ebay allows you to buy, sell or auction off almost anything, including clothing, electronic devices and antiques. It could come in handy if your student budget needs a boost, or if you want to find some bargains.
17. TheBookPond.com
The Book Pond allows you to sell your old academic textbooks or buy the ones you need from other students who are ready to pass them on.
18. Amazon.com
Amazon sells everything under the sun, including books, e-books and textbooks you may need for your program. However, its critics say it's damaging to independent bookstores, so you may want to consider using your local store instead of always shopping online.
19. Gumtree.com
Gumtree advertises jobs, second-hand goods, properties and services for people around the UK. If you're a student in the UK, it can be a good place to search for part-time job opportunities, look for accommodation, sell things you don't need any more, or even swap goods or skills.
20. Craigslist.com
The global version of Gumtree, Craigslist is big in the US and has many city/area divisions, so you can find listings close to you.
21. Freecycle.org
This online platform allows you to give away your unwanted things or get your hands on what other people are giving away. Handy for furniture and general bric-a-brac.

Money-saving websites for students
22. Groupon.com
Groupon offers daily deals on things such as spa days, fancy restaurants and city breaks. It's not exactly the place to go to for the essentials of student life, but it's a good way to treat yourself at the end of a stressful exam period, perhaps.
23. MoneySavingExpert.com
MoneySavingExpert has advice on everything from cheap flights to the best bank interest rates, helping your student budget stretch further.
24. Mint.com
Free to use, Mint can help you organize your finances and track your spending.
25. MyVoucherCodes.co.uk
MyVoucherCodes offers vouchers and discounts for a huge number of retail stores and restaurants within the UK. If you're in the US, RetailMeNot is the place to go.
26. UniDays.com
Just one of many student websites offering discounts, UniDays lists thousands of student discounts and offers around the globe. It's free to join and also available as an app.
27. WiseBread.com
WiseBread is dedicated to living well on a tight budget - whether you're a student or just trying to get more for your money. It offers advice on everything from debt management to growing your own fruit and vegetables.

Other useful resources for students
28. Genius.com poetry
An offshoot of Rap Genius, Lit Genius is a place where scholars have formed a community to annotate poetry and literature, both classic and recent. It's an extremely helpful resource for English literature students in particular.
29. TED.com
TED hosts thought-provoking talks given at events all over the world on the core topics of technology, entertainment and design - but in fact covering pretty much every aspect of human experience. The TED site is where you can find all the videos of these talks. They're another good procrastination device, but you may also find some inspiration for your next essay.
30. Wikipedia.org
Although your tutors will tell you never to reference Wikipedia in assignments, the collaboratively edited encyclopedia project can be a very useful tool for early-stage research into your assignment or project.
31. Bartleby.com
Bartleby publishes classic literature, poetry, non-fiction and reference texts free of charge.
32. Gutenberg.org
Similarly, Project Gutenberg provides free online access to texts whose copyright has expired; so far, it's digitized more than 56,000 texts.
33. TopUniversities.com
Finally, don't forget to check out all the student resources we have right here at TopUniversities.com, including a blogging community, student forums, university rankings, country guides, course guides, and advice on all aspects of student life - from scholarships and applications to studying abroad and career planning.

You canregister for freeto get regular updates, your own personal content feed, and access to our in-depth student guides.

What other student websites have you found useful? Share your recommendations in the comments below.
This blog post was originally published in July 2014. It was updated in April 2018.

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As a new student, you'll need to learn a lot of new information pretty fast or risk being clueless, penniless, and more than a bit confused about independent student life.

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Focused on Transcience

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Note: This site is moving to KnowledgeJump.com. Please reset your bookmark.

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training, and learning processes.

The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, et al. 1956):

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains may be thought of as categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to these three categories as KSA ( Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor], and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as "the goals of the learning process." That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill, knowledge, and/or attitude.

While the committee produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, they omitted the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level. However, there have been at least three psychomotor models created by other researchers.

Their compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest cognitive process or behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised, such as the Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO). However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each category):

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000):

The chart shown below compares the original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate. The new version of Bloom's Taxonomy, with examples and keywords is shown below, while the old version may be found here

Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge Matrix

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using action words, but added a cognitive and knowledge matrix.

While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional:

Factual - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems.

Conceptual - The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together.

Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.

In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to form a matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge - metacognition:

Metacognitive - Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and knowledge of one's own cognition.

When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance objectives:

The Cognitive Dimension

However, others have identified five contents or artifacts (Clark, Chopeta, 2004; Clark, Mayer, 2007):

Facts - Specific and unique data or instance.

Concepts - A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name, includes multiple specific examples, shares common features. There are two types of concepts: concrete and abstract.

Processes - A flow of events or activities that describe how things work rather than how to do things. There are normally two types: business processes that describe work flows and technical processes that describe how things work in equipment or nature. They may be thought of as the big picture, of how something works.

Procedures - A series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the achievement of a task. There are two types of actions: linear and branched.

Principles - Guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern. It includes not only what should be done, but also what should not be done. Principles allow one to make predictions and draw implications. Given an effect, one can infer the cause of a phenomena. Principles are the basic building blocks of causal models or theoretical models (theories).

Thus, the new matrix would look similar to this:

The Cognitive Dimension

An example matrix that has been filled in might look something like this:

Next Steps

Review

Useful Links

References

Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.

Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

Clark, R., Chopeta, L. (2004). Graphics for Learning : Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

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Bloom's Taxonomy was created under the leadership of Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in learning and education, such as analyzing and evaluating, rather than just remembering facts.

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What is Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning outcomes, lessons, and assessments of your course. :

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.

4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.

6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. You will see Bloom's Taxonomy often displayed as a pyramid graphic to help demonstrate this hierarchy. We have updated this pyramid into a "cake-style" hierarchy to emphasize that each level is built on a foundation of the previous levels.

You may use this graphic for educational or non-profit use if you include a credit for Jessica Shabatura and citation back to this website.
How Bloom's can aid in course design

Bloom's taxonomy is a powerful tool to help develop learning outcomes because it explains the process of learning:

Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it.

To apply a concept you must first understand it.

In order to evaluate a process, you must have analyzed it.

To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation.

However, we don't always start with lower order skills and step all the way through the entire taxonomy for each concept you present in your course. That approach would become tedious-for both you and your students! Instead, start by considering the level of learners in your course:

1. Are lots of your students freshman? Is this an "Introduction to..." course? If so, many your learning outcomes may target the lower order Bloom's skills, because your students are building foundational knowledge. However, even in this situation we would strive to move a few of your outcomes into the applying and analyzing level, but getting too far up in the taxonomy could create frustration and unachievable goals.

2. Are most of your students juniors and seniors? Graduate students? Do your students have a solid foundation in much of the terminology and processes you will be working on your course? If so, then you should not have many remembering and understanding level outcomes. You may need a few, for any radically new concepts specific to your course. However, these advanced students should be able to master higher-order learning objectives. Too many lower level outcomes might cause boredom or apathy.

How Bloom's works with learning outcomes

Fortunately, there are "verb tables" to help identify which action verbs align with each level in Bloom's Taxonomy.

You may notice that some of these verbs on the table are associated with multiple Bloom's Taxonomy levels. These "multilevel-verbs" are actions that could apply to different activities. For example, you could have an outcome that states "At the end of this lesson, students will be able to explain the difference between H2O and OH-." This would be an understanding level outcome. However, if you wanted the students to be able to "... explain the shift in the chemical structure of water throughout its various phases." This would be an analyzing level verb.

Adding to this confusion, you can locate Bloom's verb charts that will list verbs at levels different from what we list below. Just keep in mind that it is the skill, action or activity you will teach using that verb that determines the Bloom's Taxonomy level.

Bloom's Level

Key Verbs (keywords)

Example Learning Outcome

Evaluate
choose, support, relate, determine, defend, judge, grade, compare, contrast, argue, justify, support, convince, select, evaluate.

By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to determine whether using conservation of energy or conservation of momentum would be more appropriate for solving a dynamics problem.

Learning outcome examples adapted from, Nelson Baker at Georgia Tech: nelson.baker@pe.gatech.edu
How Bloom's works with Quality Matters

For a course to meet the Quality Matters standards it must have learning outcomes that are measurable. Using a verb table like the one above will help you avoid verbs that cannot be quantified, like: understand, learn, appreciate, or enjoy. Quality Matters also requires that your course assessments (activities, projects, and exams) align with your learning outcomes. For example, if your learning outcome has an application level verb, such as "present", then you cannot demonstrate that your students have mastered that learning outcome by simply having a multiple choice quiz.

Course level and lesson level outcomes

The biggest difference between course and lesson level outcomes is that we don't directly assess course level outcomes. Course level outcomes are just too broad. Instead, we use several lesson level outcomes to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome. To create good course level outcomes, we need to ask ourselves: "what do I want the students to have mastery of at the end of the course?" Then, after we finalize our course level outcomes, we have to make sure that mastery of all of the lesson level outcomes underneath confirm that a student has mastery of the course level outcome-in other words, if your students can prove (through assessment) that they can do each and every one of the lesson level outcomes in that section, then you as an instructor agree they have mastery of the course level outcome.

How Bloom's works with course level and lesson level outcomes:

Course level outcomes are broad. You may only have 3-5 course level outcomes. They would be difficult to measure directly because they overarch the topics of your entire course.

Lesson level outcomes are what we use to demonstrate that a student has mastery of the course level outcomes. We do this by building lesson level outcomes that build toward the course level outcome. For example, a student might need to demonstrate mastery of 8 lesson level outcomes in order to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome.

Because the lesson level outcomes directly support the course level outcomes, they need to build up the Bloom's taxonomy to help your students reach mastery of the course level outcomes. Use Bloom's Taxonomy to make sure that the verbs you choose for your lesson level outcomes build up to the level of the verb that is in the course level outcome. The lesson level verbs can be below or equal to the course level verb, but they CANNOT be higher in level. For example, your course level verb might be an Applying level verb, "illustrate." Your lesson level verbs can be from any Bloom's level that is equal or below this level (applying, understanding, or remembering).

Steps towards writing effective learning outcomes:

1. Make sure there is one measurable verb in each objective.

2. Each outcome needs one verb. Either a student can master the outcome , or they fail to master it. If an outcome has two verbs (say, define and apply), what happens if a student can define, but not apply? Are they demonstrating mastery?

3. Ensure that the verbs in the course level outcome are at least at the highest Bloom's Taxonomy as the highest lesson level outcomes that support it. (Because we can't verify they can evaluate if our lessons only taught them (and assessed) to define.)

4. Strive to keep all your learning outcomes measurable, clear and concise.

When you are ready to write, it can be helpful to list the level of Bloom's next to the verb you choose in parentheses. For example:

Course level outcome 1. (apply) Demonstrate how transportation is a critical link in the supply chain.

1.1. (understand) Discuss the changing global landscape for businesses and other organizations that are driving change in the global environment.

1.2. (apply) Demonstrate the special nature of transportation demand and the influence of transportation on companies and their supply chains operating in a global economy.

This trick will help you quickly see what level verbs you have. It will also let you check that the course level outcome is at least as high of a Bloom's level as any of the lesson level outcomes underneath.

Before you begin constructing your outcomes:

Please read our Learning Outcome : Before and After Examples page.

Additional External Resources:

For a longer list of Bloom's Verbs - TIPS tip: You can also use the "find" function (press: Ctrl-f or command-f on a mac) in your browser to locate specific verbs on this list.

To see how Bloom's can be applied specifically to distance education: Digital Approaches to Bloom's Taxonomy

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Using Bloom's Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Outcomes

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Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning.

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How students learn. A Neurological overview

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How students learn. A Neurological overview

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This article is based on a talk by Daniela Kaufer, associate professor in the Department of Integrative Biology, for the GSI Teaching & Research Center's How Students Learn series in Spring 2011.

On this page:
Key Learning Principles
Research Fundamentals
Applications to Teaching
Further Reading

Also available:
Video and full summary of Daniela Kaufer's talk "What Can Neuroscience Research Teach Us about Teaching?"

Key Learning Principles

From the point of view of neurobiology, learning involves changing the brain.

Moderate stress is beneficial for learning, while mild and extreme stress are detrimental to learning.

Adequate sleep, nutrition, and exercise encourage robust learning.

Active learning takes advantage of processes that stimulate multiple neural connections in the brain and promote memory.

Research Fundamentals

Changing the brain: For optimal learning to occur, the brain needs conditions under which it is able to change in response to stimuli (neuroplasticity) and able to produce new neurons (neurogenesis).

The most effective learning involves recruiting multiple regions of the brain for the learning task. These regions are associated with such functions as memory, the various senses, volitional control, and higher levels of cognitive functioning.

Moderate stress: Stress and performance are related in an "inverted U curve" (see right). Stimulation to learn requires a moderate amount of stress (measured in the level of cortisol). A low degree of stress is associated with low performance, as is high stress, which can set the system into fight-or-flight mode so there is less brain activity in the cortical areas where higher-level learning happens. Moderate levels of cortisol tend to correlate with the highest performance on tasks of any type. We can therefore conclude that moderate stress is beneficial for learning, while mild and extreme stress are both detrimental to learning.

Moderate stress can be introduced in many ways: by playing unfamiliar music before class, for example, or changing up the format of discussion, or introducing any learning activity that requires individual participation or movement. However, people do not all react the same way to an event. The production of cortisol in response to an event varies significantly between individuals; what constitutes "moderate stress" for one person might constitute mild or extreme stress for another. So, for example, cold-calling on individual students in a large-group setting might introduce just the right amount of stress to increase some students' performance, but it might produce excessive stress and anxiety for other students, so their performance is below the level you know they are capable of. Any group dynamic that tends to stereotype or exclude some students also adds stress for them.

Adequate sleep, good nutrition, and regular exercise: These common-sense healthy habits promote optimal learning performance in two ways. First, they promote neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Second, they keep cortisol and dopamine (stress and happiness hormones, respectively) at appropriate levels. All-night cramming sessions, skipped meals, and skipped exercise can actually reduce the brain's capacity for high academic performance. (This is true for instructors as well as students.)

Active learning: Cognitive functions associated with the lower levels of Bloom's taxonomy (see diagram at left), such as understanding and remembering, are associated with the hippocampus (the area of the brain responsible for memory and spatial awareness). The higher-level cognitive functions of Bloom's taxonomy, such as creating, evaluating, analyzing, and applying, involve the cortical areas responsible for decision-making, association, and motivation.

More complex thought processes are more beneficial for learning because they involve a greater number of neural connections and more neurological cross-talk. Active learning takes advantage of this cross-talk, stimulating a variety of areas of the brain and promoting memory.

Applications to Teaching

Classroom Activities, from the Teaching Guide for GSIs

Some Basic Active Learning Strategies, from the University of Minnesota Center for Educational Innovation

Further Reading
Please note that some links may require Library proxy access. Please see the Library's page Connect from Off Campus.
Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne and Uta Frith (2005). The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Felder, Richard M. and Rebecca Brent (1996). " Navigating the Bumpy Road to Student-Centered Instruction." An abridged version of this article was published in College Teaching 44: 43-7.

Tokuhama-Espinosa, Tracey (2011). Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-Based Teaching. New York: W. W. Norton.

Walker, J. D. et al. (2008). " A Delicate Balance: Integrating Active Learning into a Large Lecture Course." CBE Life Sciences Education 7.4: 361-67.

Winter, Dale et al. (2001). " Novice Instructors and Student-Centered Instruction: Identifying and Addressing Obstacles to Learning in the College Science Laboratory." The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 2.1: 14-42.

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This article is based on a talk by Daniela Kaufer, associate professor in the Department of Integrative Biology, for the GSI Teaching & Research Center's How Students Learn series in Spring 2011. On this page: Key Learning Principles Research Fundamentals Applications to Teaching Further Reading Also available: Video and full summary of Daniela Kaufer's talk "What Can Neuroscience Research Teach Us about Teaching?"

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Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.

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Leading obesity experts are considering litigation against the food industry in the light of emerging research suggesting that junk food marketing could hijack a child's brain.

Neuromarketing is of growing interest to food companies. Fast food, soft drinks and snack companies increasingly interact with children through social media and online games. Some are beginning to probe further, gathering information through brain scans about how unconscious decisions are made to eat one snack rather than another and targeting people's susceptibilities. A report on food neuromarketing to children by the Centre for Digital Democracy in 2011 predicted "an explosive rise in new tactics targeted especially at young people".

Frito-Lay, a subsidiary of PepsiCo, is one of those known to be taking an interest. It hired a neuromarketing firm to explore what happened in people's brains when they ate Cheetos, its brand of cheese-tasting puffs. Brain scanning technology found that people derived a sort of guilty pleasure from the sensation of having their fingers coated with orange dust.

This revelation was behind an advertising campaign called the Orange Underground, playing on that sense of rebellion, featuring a group of snack-food anarchists who covered their faces with scarves made of Cheetos. In 2009 it won a grand award from the Advertising Research Foundation in the US.

Research has also shown that it is possible to train people's brains to prefer one food over another. A paper in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience in 2014 by Tom Schonberg, a neuroscientist at the University of Texas, Austin, found that making people pay more attention to one junk food than another affected their decisions in the long term. Back in the real world, they were more likely to choose the one they had been "trained" to like through greater exposure to it.

It could go much further, says Kelly Brownell, one of the world's leading obesity researchers and campaigners. Brownell, professor of psychology and neuroscience and dean of the Sanford School of Public Policy at Duke University in the US, says the most interesting studies have not yet been done.

Eating sugary, high salt and high fat foods has an effect on a child's metabolism. "I would be interested to see what effects are produced by just looking at the advertising," said Brownell.

Other possible avenues for litigation are over the soaring cost of obesity-related health care

"Does food marketing hijack the brain? There is very interesting neuroscientific research looking at the impact of sugar on the brain. If one proved that the brains of children are being hijacked by marketing, it could open up possibilities for legal action. Companies could be held liable for being engaged in illegal activity if it causes harm."

Brownell told the European Congress on Obesity in Vienna that enough studies have been done looking at the extent of junk food marketing and its impact on children. Scientists and activists were concerned, but, he said, "those people are convinced already".

They needed to take the fight to the industry and impact the public and policymakers alike. Lawsuits against food companies for harm to children caused by their junk food marketing would have a big impact. It would also outrage parents and enlist them in the fight.

Other possible avenues for litigation are over the soaring cost of obesity-related health care in every country, he said, especially for children.

Jason Halford, professor of biological psychology and health behaviour at the University of Liverpool and past president of the European Association the Study of Obesity, said science was beginning to show children's vulnerability to advertising. There were suggestions of a change in brain function.

"There are studies coming out of the US showing when children who are obese see fast food adverts, they react to the logo," he said. The science could open the way to lawsuits.

"If we could show there is a biological vulnerability, it is a game-changer. I think there will come a time when we can demonstrate it. You have a vulnerable child and are exploiting that child for commercial gain at the expense of the child's health."

Tim Lobstein, policy director of the World Obesity Federation, suggested another legal issue to raise with the big companies. "Companies are very protective of their brands. By owning a brand you own a bit of the market," he said.

They threaten legal action against people who use the brand name or logo inappropriately, Lobstein points out - yet companies like Coca-Cola run social media marketing campaigns encouraging people to take pictures of themselves, smiling and waving, with branded props like the huge red Coca-Cola Christmas truck that tours the UK.

"When it comes to social media, the companies are very happy for people to use the brand in a wide variety of situations at home, in the street, at parties, and do nothing to protect the use of their trademark material. It is clearly two-faced and hypocritical," he said.

An Advertising Association spokesperson said: "The advertising industry in the UK is very aware of its responsibilities towards marketing to children, and the Committees of Advertising Practice (Cap) codes recognise this through specific protections for under-16s.

"Cap carried out a comprehensive review of advertising to children in 2016 and the codes were reviewed, updated and strengthened last year. The changes mean that whether children are watching content on TV or via the internet and online activities that include advergames, they are subject to the same protections, which was not the case previously.

"As young people's media consumption habits have changed, so have the regulations governing these media. With this in mind, the Cap code is now being reviewed one year on from the changes to ensure they remain fit for purpose."

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Food companies turn to neuro-marketing to hijack brains

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Leading obesity experts are considering litigation against the food industry in the light of emerging research suggesting that junk food marketing could hijack a child's brain. Neuromarketing is of growing interest to food companies. Fast food, soft drinks and snack companies increasingly interact with children through social media and online games.

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designing marketing campaigns by understanding everyone's brain and using your own

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The need to be creative was part of my professional life day in, day out, for more than 20 years working as MD and then a creative director in the PR industry. I had to embrace (and flex) between what Unruly founder Sarah Wood calls "imagination and maths", despite my own preferences.

We know, thanks to the proliferation of assessments and books on the subject, that we each have cognitive preferences. And there is plenty of debate among marketers about whether they should try and develop a 'whole-brained' approach for ourselves and our teams, or play to our strengths.

Marketing Week's Anatomy of a Leader study found that 'essential' attributes for a modern marketer are to be human, empathetic, rational, emotional and brave. The findings themselves clearly show the need for mental agility is a key requisite too.

The left/right brain theory is well-established shorthand for the idea that left-brain thinkers are logical and analytical compared with creative, emotional and intuitive right-brained thinkers. But the generalisation that the two brain hemispheres work in isolation has been debunked, and with the advent of live fMRI scanning, neuroscientists are beginning to be able to see what's going on in real time.
READ MORE: Brands are wrong to force marketers to be 'whole-brained', says Direct Line's marketing boss
How the brain works in relation to creativity

I worked with neuroscientist Ben Martynoga for my book 'In Your Creative Element' to learn more about how different brain states affect our creative thinking. The more we understand about how our brain works, the more agile we can be (if and when we want to be) when faced with a myriad of different tasks.

After reviewing hundreds of studies in creativity from neuroscience and psychology we identified different 'creative elements' as a way to think about our mental toolkit. We found several elements about how our brains work in relation to creativity.

The first is the unconscious mind (Um) the intuitive, unconscious and fast mode of thinking contrasted with systematic, logical, evidence-based thinking. As we know from Daniel Kahneman's masterly 'Thinking Fast and Slow', these are referred to as system 1 and system 2 thinking.

If you find yourself always drawn to a particular style of thinking, and you want to find a new perspective, try to shake things up.

We constantly jump between these two systems of thought. System 1 is the domain of the unconscious mind. It's where our minds wander when we're relaxed. It's where we forge most associations and it's where emotions come from.

Our logical and analytical faculties belong to system 2. When we're being mindful, we're exercising this system and it's system 2 that keeps us on target.

Martynoga suggests that neither dominates when it comes to innovation. In fact, we can view the process like a kind of mental ping-pong, as creativity seems to happen when the two systems bat ideas back and forth. When an insight emerges with a sudden "aha!" it's system 2 that sees it and can choose to run with it. But it was system 1 that hatched it, brewed it and nurtured it.

Emotional reaction

The creative element of emotion relates to the fact that while we may think we're being rational, our first reaction is always emotional. This is key to a better understanding how we evaluate and consider creative ideas. When generating ideas don't worry about having good ideas, just have lots of ideas and evaluate them later. This is the work of the prolific mind.

The improvising mind calls for you to put your inner critic on ice and get into creative flow. US researchers teamed up with 12 professional rappers and using a brain scanner asked them to improvise to an eight-bar beat. As the lyrics started to flow, the part of the brain that drives analytical thought and self-control switched off. The rappers had taught themselves to silence their inner critic and give free rein to their stream of consciousness.

Leave the judging for your analytical mind (Am) - a conscious process that works with your logic to evaluate, interrogate that all-important data and plan.

We can all try to be more creative and agile by exploring every crevice of our brain and to try to switch between different, often contradictory, modes of thought.

When we're awake but relaxed, scientists can detect waves of electrical activity lapping across the surface of the brain. These are alpha waves, and in tests it was observed that people with high creative output have more alpha waves. In this relaxed mind (Re) state is when we unwind and allow our tentative ideas and growing hunches to bubble up to the surface.

John Cleese said: "We don't know where we get our ideas from but we know we don't get them from our laptops." Not directly thinking about the problem - the classic out running or in the shower 'aha' moment - is known as incubation. To tap into our wandering mind (W) is to allow time for distraction and mental detours, which may seem counterintuitive. But it can result in the best ideas.

The insightful mind (In) takes over when you've done the legwork first so you can wait for the lightning strike of inspiration and make associations.
READ MORE: The brand benefits of neurodiversity
Putting it into practice

So how can you apply any of this to your day job? Next time you have a creative problem, try to keep tabs on the mental processes you used in solving it. Does your workflow tap into any of the elements we've identified above?

Also notice whether you have a natural preference for any particular mode of thinking over another? If you find yourself always drawn to a particular style of thinking, and you want to find a new perspective, try to shake things up. If you're usually very focused and logical, try loosening your grip. If, on the other hand, your mind wanders too readily, see if it helps to force yourself to put in a bit more analytical graft first.

We can all try to be more creative and agile by exploring every crevice of our brain and to try to switch between different, often contradictory, modes of thought. Know when to put in conscious, effortful mental work and know when to let the mind perambulate and surrender to the powerful workings of the unconscious mind.
Claire Bridges is founder of Now Go Create, author and the course leader on Marketing Week sister title Creative Review's new Mastering Creativity six part e-learning course.

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Claire Bridges: Understanding neuroscience can help marketers think smarter

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The need to be creative was part of my professional life day in, day out, for more than 20 years working as MD and then a creative director in the PR industry. I had to embrace (and flex) between what Unruly founder Sarah Wood calls "imagination and maths", despite my own preferences.

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Learning and Memory - Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland

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Queensland Brain Institute Queensland Brain Institute

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Test your working memory. Pretty cool TED Talk on how memory works

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How to triple your memory by using this trick | Ricardo Lieuw On | TEDxHaarlem

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The human brain is the engine that drives our species' triumphs, problems, and possibilities. Yet no one knows how it works, and neuroscientists are only just beginning to learn how to manipulate it to our benefit. How much business potential - in medicine, education, entertainment, and a dozen other industries - is locked up inside this black box?

Neuroscientist Chris deCharms poses that question to students of the Singularity University Executive Program in a lecture on October 3. The fact is, advances in brain science are coming thick and fast on a number of fronts, promising new capabilities in coming years. "We are the generation that will witness and produce a transformation in the ability to look into the organ that makes us who we are and take control of its capacity," he says.

Crucial to this shift are medical imaging technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI. This system combines magnetic fields and radio waves to map the nuclei of atoms into images. Applied to the brain, fMRI can track blood flow over time, showing which areas are most active when the subject performs a specific task. These machines are already yielding powerful insights, and they will only get better as spatial and temporal resolution improves.

The first step is to chart brain functions to see what various parts of the brain do and how they do it. Much of the neocortex, the seat of higher functions in humans, already has been explored in some degree. To the extent that we can figure out how these functional areas work - current understanding is primitive, but already useful - we can aid, augment, and simulate them. The approach need not be invasive; consider popular software packages that present puzzles to promote "brain fitness."

The next step is to stimulate brain activity directly to send new information to those areas. This field is exploding as well, thanks to electronic neural implants that pipe aural sensations directly to the cortex (cochlear implants), halt involuntary motor tics in Parkinson's patients (deep brain stimulation), and empower paraplegics to control computers using thoughts alone (brain/computer interfaces).

Stimulating the brain is analogous to writing data to a computer, and the equivalent of reading data from the brain is on the horizon. DeCharms describes a dramatic experiment in which subjects look at a symbol while an imaging machine represents activity in the brain's visual center. The images look amazingly like the original symbols - a result tantamount to mind reading. Give this a moment to sink in: The imaging device saw directly into the brains of the subjects. "Could we do this with memories? Mental imagery? Desires?" he asks. "We don't know."

The message is clear: The new frontier is inner space. Companies that effectively match emerging knowledge about the brain with profound human needs have a shot at striking gold.

In surfing, the impact zone is the spot where the wave crashes down over your head. It's a tough place to be, but it's where the power of the ocean is at its most intense. Tech has its own impact zone, the place where emerging technologies meet the market and either disrupt ...

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This Is Your Brain On Business: Neuroscience Creates Opportunities For Innovation

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The human brain is the engine that drives our species' triumphs, problems, and possibilities. Yet one knows how it works, and neuroscientists are only just beginning to learn how to manipulate it to our benefit. How much business potential - in medicine, education, entertainment, and a dozen other industries - is [...]

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The intersection of mind and machine is the next great frontier for big business, writes Fortune contributor Olivier Oullier.