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https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2020/05/29/Life-in-lockdown-Coronavirus-prompts-half-of-French-consumers-to-reappraise-value-of-food#

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Lockdown has encouraged French people to 'rethink their relationship with food', Too Good To Go suggested.

According to the survey, carried out on behalf of food waste charity Too Good To Go by YouGov, French consumers say that when they 'return to normal' after the COVID-19 pandemic measures ease, they intent to only by 'necessary' food products, spend more time cooking and pay more attention to food expenses.

Changing attitudes also appear to have had a knock-on effect on food waste, with one in three respondents suggesting they now waste less food.

According to the report, confinement placed food as a central concern for the French and, as a result, their routines have changed. Forty-three percent said they are taking more time to cook, 41% are only buying the products they need and 35% are paying more attention to food costs.

Lucie Basch, founder and president of Too Good To Go, commented: "During confinement, our habits were turned upside down, we were forced to get back to basics and food found a new central place in our lives. It is very interesting to see how much the value of food has evolved for the French during confinement." ​

Basch noted that food waste currently accounts for 8% of total global carbon emissions but said it is 'very motivating' to see French consumers are evolving their view of the environmental impact of food, with 33% saying that they are now wasting less food.

Changing shopping habits

New attitudes to food appear to have resulted in changing shopping habits for some, the YouGov survey suggests.

This includes 29% of people reporting that they are buying more local foods, and 20% switching to online shopping.

Online meal orders have not seen similar growth. Only 4% said they have ordered a meal online, although this figure rises to 12% for 18-24-year olds.

It would seem, however, that some habits die hard and the research flagged a gender divide between who took responsibility for household shopping and cooking. French women spend more time cooking than men (48% versus 36%), plan more shopping lists (41% compared to 34%) and are more likely to organise the pantry (34% against 19%).

What has sticking power?

What changes in behaviour do French consumers say they want to continue to adopt post-COVID?

Half of French shoppers who said they have acquired new habits said they will maintain them.

In total, 32% of respondents said they would continue to only buy necessities after coronavirus restrictions ease, 31% said they would spend more time cooking, and 29% said they would pay more attention to food expenses. YouGov found that these were the top three habits adopted during lockdown that French people want to keep.

One-in-five said they wanted to continue to waste less food.

However, Too Good To Go said 'personal goodwill' will only get consumers so far - long-term change will depend on producers and retailers developing a better supply of local food and supporting efforts to cut food waste.

The survey found support among French consumers for these efforts: 51% supported improved availability of local food, 36% wanted the promotion of anti-food waste initiatives; 28% wanted to see the development of better organic products and ranging.

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Life in lockdown: Coronavirus prompts half of French consumers to reappraise 'value' of food

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Lockdown has encouraged French people to 'rethink their relationship with food', Too Good To Go suggested. According to the survey, carried out on behalf of food waste charity Too Good To Go by YouGov, French consumers say that when they 'return to normal' after the COVID-19 pandemic measures ease, they intent to only by 'necessary' food products, spend more time cooking and pay more attention to food expenses.

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https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/the-italian-diet

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Popular Diets of the World: The Italian Way With Food

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Charlotte E. Grayson Mathis, MD on January 01, 2007 When it comes to weight, it's clear the Italians know something we don't. According to the International Association for the Study of Obesity, just 9% of people in Italy are heavy enough to be considered obese, compared to 32% of Americans.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-59843697

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French ban on plastic packaging for fruit and vegetables begins

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Officials hope the law will prevent a billion items of single use plastics every year.

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Facts of World | Facts of the World that You Need to Know

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The freedom of religion is explained on Facts about Religion in France. The virtue found on the Declaration of the Lights of Man and of the Citizen talks about the freedom of religion and freedom of thought in France. The Church and State are separated in France according to the French law in 1905. The freedom of conscience or laicite is the principle in the republic based on the Jules Ferry Laws in 1880s. Let me show you more interesting facts about religions in France below:

Facts about Religion in France 1: the dominant religion in France

The dominant religion in France is taken by Roman Catholicism. In the past, it was considered as the state religion. After the French Revolution, it was no longer a state religion.

Facts about Religion in France 2: the major religions in France

There are various major religions embraced by the people in France such as Sikhism, Armenian Christianity, Catholic Christianity, Russian Orthodoxy, Hinduism, Islam, Protestantism and Judaism.

Facts about Religion in France 3: the religious service

The regular religious service is often attended by millions of people. Compared to the pastime, the present day attendance is lowered.

Related Article: (10 Facts about Religion in Brazil)

Facts about Religion in France 4: the belief of God

In 2010, there was a poll conducted by Eurobarometer. The French citizens who believed in God were around 27 percent. The citizens who believed in a sort of life force or spirit were around 33 percent. The people who did not believe with any life force, god or spirit were around 40 percent.

Facts about Religion in France 5: the atheistic country

Due to the presence of high number of the people who did not believe in God, spirit or life force, France was known as one of the atheistic countries.

Facts about Religion in France 6: the freedom of religion

The freedom of religion is guaranteed in France. The French government does not have the right to intervene the religious practice.

Facts about Religion in France 7: the secular public sector

The religion became a secular public sector in France due to violent conflicts, which occurred among the religious groups in France. In 1800s, the state broke the relationship with the Catholic Church.

Facts about Religion in France 8: the state religion

The King of France and the Pope shared a great relationship for Catholicism was considered as a state religion during the ancient regime.

See Also: (10 Facts about Religion During the Middle Ages)

Facts about Religion in France 9: the survey in 2011

Ipsos MORI conducted a survey about religion in France in 2011. The Christians accounted for 45 percent of French people.

Facts about Religion in France 10: the further result

The further result of the survey stated that 3 percent of them were Muslim, while 35 percent were agnostic, atheist and irreligious.

What do you think on facts about religion in France?

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10 Facts about Religion in France | Facts of World

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The freedom of religion is explained on Facts about Religion in France. The virtue found on the Declaration of the Lights of Man and of the Citizen talks about the freedom of religion and freedom of thought in France. The Church and State are separated in France according to the French law in 1905.

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© Photo by Varaine on Wikimedia Commons

Culinary pleasures don't get much better than a steaming bowl of pot au feu. It's cheap, easy and gloriously wholesome; it's the French equivalent of a big woolly blanket on a cold winter's evening.

The excellence of French cuisine and restaurants has long represented a vital part of French national identity. Even the most modest pot au feu boasts an essence of simplicity at its finest and remains a much-loved comfort food on French tables. In the right hands, this French dish becomes more than the sum of its simple ingredients.

Pot au feu was part of France's culinary heritage long before Haute Cuisine. Translating literally as 'pot on the fire', the Larousse Encyclopaedia of 1867 described the dish as "the basis of our cuisine, because of it our national cuisine is different from all others".

The French dish is a must on the holiday agenda of tourists, with many prioritising the experience of having an authentic pot au feu during their visit.

So, what makes pot au feu so special? Here is everything about France's national dish.

The Story Of The Pot Au Feu

It's much more than just a beef and vegetable soup; the history of pot au feu is soaked in tradition and epitomises French history and culture.

Pot au feu was recognised as early as the 18 century. As it used cheap ingredients and could be prepared in bulk, it was originally a common food for the poor people of France. It is a French staple, and also an edible history composed of the most basic of ingredients: meat and simple root vegetables cultivated straight from the soil.

The popularity of the dish can be traced back to King Henry IV who ruled in France from 1589 to 1610. "I want no peasant in my kingdom to be so poor that he cannot afford to have a chicken in the pot on Sundays." - King Henry IV.

In the countryside, cheap cuts such as pork and chicken were more commonly used and needed longer to cook. Whereas in the city, beef was more readily available. However, pork and chicken were, in fact, more flavourful. The slow cooking times also meant the meat was deliciously tender in the final dish.

Herbs give the stewed meat more flavour. Vegetables and marrowbone thickens the soup. There was a preference for root vegetables such as carrots, parsnips, turnips, and onion. Add some black pepper, bouquet garni, and cloves as a final touch and for extra flavour.

Towards the end of the 16 century, France's poor found pot au feu to be beyond their means. The country experienced crop failures and poverty swept France during the Wars of Religion. Pot au feu switched from a peasant meal to appearing on the tables of the wealthy - the only French who could afford the expense of the ingredients. Economic conditions have thankfully changed in France. Yet the simple cooking style has remained a favourite of the people.

Interesting fact: Culinary experts believe that 'pho' was adapted by the Vietnamese after being introduced to pot au feu by the French who colonised the country.

Three Meals In One

What sets this classic French comfort food apart from other cuisines is its versatility. Just about every culture has some form of a basic stew. Pot au feu is unique because it can be deconstructed as multiple meals.

There are at least three different ways to serve pot au feu:

Remove the marrow from the bone and spread it on toast as a starter

Use the broth as a soup

Serve the vegetables and meat with mustard, gherkins, mayonnaise, and horseradish

A Celebrated National Cuisine

As the famous French chef, Raymond Blanc, put it, pot au feu is "the quintessence of French family cuisine, it is the most celebrated dish in France. It honours the tables of the rich and poor alike." Pot au feu is considered one of France's gastronomic specialties. Almost every French province has its own traditional method of preparing the national dish.

There's no definitive recipe for pot au feu other than the general inclusion of meat and vegetables. Traditionally, this French dish is cooked in a large stockpot and bone marrow is added to the dish to provide extra flavour. One of the most popular recipes for the dish is as follows:

In a large stockpot combine the beef chuck, oxtail, onion, garlic, celery, and peppercorns. Cover with cold water and season with a pinch of salt.

Bring the mixture to a simmer, then lower heat to maintain a very gentle heat. Cook, stirring occasionally, until each cut of beef is tender.

When all the beef is cooked, strain the broth. Discard the thyme, onion, celery, and garlic. Return all the cuts of beef and broth to the pot.

Add potatoes, leeks, carrots, cabbage, turnip, parsnip, and marrow bones. Submerge all the ingredients in the broth with the beef and return to a gentle simmer. Cook until all the vegetables are soft and the bone marrow is fully warm through to the centre.

Serve with pickles, coarse salt, and mustard.

The secret to a perfectly cooked pot au feu is to never let it boil.We recommend that you cook it the day before to bring out all the flavours.

Pot Au Feu Reflects The Spirit Of France

Cooking and eating together remains an irreplaceable pillar of the French sociability and is considered part of their national identity. The "espirit" that inspires pot au feu is the idea that life is at its fullest when experienced around a table filled with delicious food, quality wine, good conversation, friendship, and love.

Pot au feu is a buffet-style dish that friends and family share together. So, gather some good friends together, open a bottle of wine and put a pot on the fire.
Try some authentic pot au feu on your next trip to France! Here are some useful guides for you!

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What You Need To Know About France's National Dish, Pot Au Feu

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Culinary pleasures don't get much better than a steaming bowl of pot au feu. It's cheap, easy and gloriously wholesome; it's the French equivalent of a big woolly blanket on a cold winter's evening. The excellence of French cuisine and restaurants has long represented a vital part of French national identity.

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A sculpture depicting the judgement of sinners by Jesus at Amiens Cathedral; a World Heritage Site.

The majority of the religious population in France identifies as Christian. Catholicism is the most prominent denomination in France, but lost its state religion status following the 1789 French Revolution and various non-republican regimes of the 19th century, including the Restoration, the July Monarchy and the Second French Empire.

Religion in France is diverse, which could be attributed to the country's adherence to secularism, freedom of religion and freedom of thought, as guaranteed by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic is based on the principle of (or "freedom of conscience") established by the 1880s Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State.

The major religions practiced in France include Christianity (about 50% overall, with denominations including Catholicism, various branches of Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Armenian Orthodoxy), Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism among others, making it a multiconfessional country. Sunday Mass attendance has fallen to 5% for Catholics, and the overall level of religious observance is generally lower than in the past.

Note that these are from different sources and likely have different methodologies.

In 2015, the Eurobarometer, a survey funded by the European Union, found that Christianity was the religion of 54.3% of the respondents, with Catholicism being the main denomination with 47.8%, followed by other Christians with 4.1% (Protestants with 1.8% and the Eastern Orthodox with 0.6%). Muslims were found to comprise 3.3%, Jews were 0.4%, and members of the other religions were 1.6%. Unaffiliated people were 40.4%; 22.8% declared to be atheists, and 17.6% declared to be agnostics.

In 2017, the Pew Research Center found in their Global Attitudes Survey that 54.2% of the French regarded themselves as Christians, with 47.4% belonging to the Catholic Church, 3.6% being unaffiliated Christians, 2.2% being Protestants, and 1.0% being Eastern Orthodox. The 37.8% of unaffiliated people were divided into 24.8% atheists, 8.2% of nothing in particular, and 4.8% of agnostics. Muslims made up 5.0% of the population, Jews made up 0.4%, and members of other religions made up 1.4%. 1.1% were either undecided or didn't answer the question.

Religion among the youth

Saint Hugon in Arvillard, Savoie, is a former charterhouse (Carthusian monastery) turned into a monastery of the Tibetan schools of Buddhism (Karma Ling).

In 2018, a study by the French polling agency OpinionWay, which was paid for by three Catholic institutions, found that 41% of French adults between the ages of 18 and 30 said they were Catholics, 3% said they were Protestants, 8% said they were Muslims, 1% said they were Buddhists, 1% said they were Jews, and 3% said they were part of other religions.

52 percent of those who believed in God thought that his existence was either certain or likely, 28% thought it was unlikely, and 19% thought it was impossible.

In the same year, a study was done by the Benedict XVI Centre for Religion and Society at London's St. Mary's University and the Institut Catholique de Paris. The study also used data from the European Social Survey for 2014 and 2016, with a sample size of 600 people aged 16 to 29. Of these 600 people, 25% were Christians (23% Catholic and 2% Protestant), 10% were Muslims, 1% were of other religions, and 64% were not religious.

The information came from two questions: "Do you think of yourself as a member of any particular religion or denomination?" was asked to the whole sample, and "Which one?" was asked to the sample that said "Yes."

Catholicism is the largest religion in France. During the pre-1789 Ancien Régime, France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter, and the King of France always maintained close links to the Pope. However, the " Gallicanism" policy meant that the king selected bishops.

French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

A strong Protestant population resided in France, primarily of Reformed confession. Most of the time, the government was against it, but there were times when it was tolerated more. These wars continued throughout the 16th century, with the 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre as their apex, until the 1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV.

For the first time, Huguenots were considered by the state as more than mere heretics. The Edict of Nantes thus opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, including amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the state and to bring grievances directly to the king.

Post-Edict of Nantes (1598-1789)

Protestantism in 16th-century France.

Controlled by Huguenot nobility

Contested between Huguenots and Catholics

Controlled by Catholic nobility

Lutheran-majority area (part of the HRE)

The 1598 Edict also granted the Protestants fifty places of safety ( places de sûreté), which were military strongholds such as La Rochelle for which the king paid 180,000 écus a year, along with a further 150 emergency forts ( places de refuge), to be maintained at the Huguenots' own expense. Such an innovative act of toleration stood virtually alone in a Europe (except for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) where standard practice forced the subjects of a ruler to follow whatever religion that the ruler formally adopted - the application of the principle of cuius regio, eius religio.

Religious conflicts resumed at the end of the 17th century, when Louis XIV, the "Sun King," initiated the persecution of Huguenots by introducing the dragonnades in 1681. This wave of violence intimidated the Protestants into converting to Catholicism. He made the policy official with the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. As a result, a large number of Protestants-estimates range from 200,000 to 500,000-left France during the following two decades, seeking asylum in England, the United Provinces, Denmark, in the Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire ( Hesse, Brandenburg-Prussia, etc.), and in European colonies in North America and South Africa.

The 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes created a state of affairs in France similar to that of virtually every other European country of the period, where only the majority state religion was tolerated. For the time being, Europe's experiment with religious tolerance was effectively over. In practice, the revocation caused France to suffer a brain drain, as it lost a large number of skilled craftsmen, including key designers such as Daniel Marot.

The French Revolution stripped the Catholic Church of most of its wealth, power, and influence. The early revolutionaries sought to secularize all of French society, an effort inspired in part by the writings and philosophy of Voltaire. In August 1789, the new National Assembly abolished tithes, the mandatory 10% income tax which all Frenchmen (including non-Catholics) paid to the Catholic Church. In November 1789, they voted to expropriate the vast wealth of the Church in endowments, lands and buildings. In 1790, the Assembly abolished monastic religious orders. Statues and saints were rejected in a burst of iconoclasm, and most religious instruction ended.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790, put the Catholic Church under state control. It required priests and bishops to be elected by their parishioners, which upset the traditional authority of the Church. The Republic legalized divorce and transferred birth, death, and marriage registrations to the state. The Catholic clergy was persecuted by the Paris Commune of 1792 to 1795 and by some of the Représentants en mission. Most notably, Jean-Baptiste Carrier conducted large-scale drownings of priests and nuns in the river Loire.

Standard of the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being, one of the proposed state religions to replace Christianity in revolutionary France.

Religious minorities-Protestants and Jews-were granted full civil and political rights, which represented a shift towards a more secular government to some, and an attack on the Catholic Church to others. New religions and philosophies were allowed to compete with Catholicism. The introduction of the prominent cults during the revolutionary period - the Cult of Reason and the Cult of the Supreme Being - responded to the belief that religion and politics should be seamlessly fused together. This is a shift from the original Enlightenment ideals of the Revolution that advocated for a secular government with tolerance for various religious beliefs. While Maximilien Robespierre favored a religious foundation to the Republic, he maintained a hard stance against Catholicism because of its association with corruption and the counterrevolution.

Following the Thermidorian Reaction the persecutions of Catholic clergy ceased and the role of new cults practically ended.

The Catholic Church was badly hurt by the Revolution. By 1800 it was poor, dilapidated and disorganized, with a depleted and aging clergy. The younger generation had received little religious instruction, and was unfamiliar with traditional worship. However, in response to the external pressures of foreign wars, religious fervor was strong, especially among women.

Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830)

With the Bourbon Restoration the Catholic Church again became the state religion of France. Other religions were tolerated, but Catholicism was favored financially and politically. Its lands and financial endowments were not returned, but the government now paid salaries and maintenance costs for church activities. The bishops had regained control of Catholic affairs and of education. While the aristocracy before the Revolution did not place a high priority on religious doctrine or practice, the decades of exile created an alliance of throne and altar. The royalists who returned were much more devout, and much more aware of their need for a close alliance with the Church. They had discarded skepticism and now promoted the wave of Catholic religiosity that was sweeping Europe, with a new regard to the Virgin Mary, the Saints, and popular religious rituals such as saying the rosary. Devotionalism was far stronger in rural areas, and much less noticeable in Paris and the other cities. The population of 32 million included about 680,000 Protestants, and 60,000 Jews. They were tolerated. Anti-clericalism of the sort promoted by the Enlightenment and writers such as Voltaire had not disappeared, but it was in recession.

At the elite level, the intellectual climate changed dramatically from the intellectually oriented classicism to emotionally based romanticism. A book by François-René de Chateaubriand entitled Génie du christianisme ("The Genius of Christianity") (1802) had an enormous influence in reshaping French literature and intellectual life. It emphasized the power of religion in creating European high culture. Chateaubriand's book did more than any other single work to restore the credibility and prestige of Christianity in intellectual circles and launched a fashionable rediscovery of the Middle Ages and their Christian civilisation. The revival was by no means confined to an intellectual elite, however, but was evident in the real, if uneven, rechristianisation of the French countryside.

Napoleon III (1848-1870)

In terms of foreign policy, the French army stopped the anti-clerical Kingdom of Italy from taking full control of Rome after it was formed in 1860 and took over parts of the papal states. In Paris, the conservative Gallican bishops helped the Emperor control the French people, while liberal Catholic intellectuals wanted to use the Church as an instrument of reform. A problem arose with Pope Pius IX, who reigned from 1846 to 1878. He started out as a liberal but suddenly, in the 1860s, became the leading champion of reactionary politics in Europe, in opposition to all forms of modern liberalism. He demanded complete autonomy for the church and its religious and educational affairs and had the First Vatican Council (1869-70) decree papal infallibility. Napoleon III's foreign policy was too tied to Rome's support for him to break with the Pope, but his close relationship with the Pope made him very weak at home. When he declared war on Prussia in 1870, he brought his army home, and the kingdom of Italy swallowed up the papal domains, and the Pope became a prisoner of the Vatican. When the Vatican spoke out against progress, industrialization, capitalism, socialism, and almost every new idea, it upset liberal and conservative Catholics in France. It also energized secular liberals, including many professionals, and the anti-clerical socialist movement. They stepped up their attacks on church control of schools.

Third Republic (1870-1940)

Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870-1940), there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church in France among the republicans, the monarchists, and other authoritarians (such as the Napoleonists). The French Catholic clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists, and its higher hierarchy was largely drawn from noble families. The republicans' power base was the anti-clerical middle class, which saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as both a political threat to the republic and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans detested the Church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the Church represented the Ancien Régime, a time in French history most republicans hoped was long behind them. The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws successively weakened the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890, lay women replaced nuns in many hospitals; and in 1882, the Ferry school laws were passed. Napoleon's Concordat of 1801 continued to ensure state funding of the church, but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests, which it disliked.

Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools-especially the Jesuits and Assumptionists -indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted the state needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was their superior education system.)

When Leo XIII became pope in 1878, he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State ('Nobilissima Gallorum Gens'). In 1892, he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics ('Au milieu des sollicitudes'). This attempt at improving the relationship failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906). Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. The Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry (1899-1902) and the Combes Ministry (1902-05) fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years 1903 and 1904, and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in 1904.

Emile Combes, when elected Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly. Shortly after taking office, he closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain. The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the Affaire Des Fiches, the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned. It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments.

1905: Separation of Church and State

A 1905 law instituted the separation of Church and State and prohibited the government from recognising, salarying, or subsidising any religion. The 1926 Briand-Ceretti Agreement subsequently restored for a while a formal role for the state in the appointment of Catholic bishops, but evidence for its exercise is not easily obtained. Prior to 1905, the 1801-1808 Concordat compelled the State to support the Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church, the Calvinist Church, and the Jewish religion, and to fund public religious education in those established religions.

For historical reasons, this situation is still current in Alsace-Moselle, which was a German region in 1905 and only joined France again in 1918. Alsace-Moselle maintains a local law of pre-1918 statutes which include the Concordat: the national government pays, as state civil servants, the clergy of the Catholic diocese of Metz and of Strasbourg, of the Lutheran Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine, of the Protestant Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine, and of the three regional Israelite consistories, and it provides for now non-compulsory religious education in those religions in public schools and universities. Also for historical reasons, Catholic priests in French Guiana are civil servants of the local government.

Religious buildings built prior to 1905 at taxpayers' expense are retained by the local or national government, and may be used at no expense by religious organisations. As a consequence, most Catholic churches, Protestant temples, and Jewish synagogues are owned and maintained by the government but are assigned by the government to their respective religious communities for "legal, exclusive, free, perpetual use." The government, since 1905, has been prohibited from funding any post-1905 religious edifice, and thus religions must build and support all new religious buildings at their own expense. Some local governments de facto subsidise prayer rooms as part of greater "cultural associations".

An ongoing topic of controversy is whether the separation of Church and State should be weakened so that the government would be able to subsidise Muslim prayer rooms and the training of imams. Advocates of such measures, such as Nicolas Sarkozy at times, declare that they would encourage the Muslim population to better integrate into the fabric of French society. Opponents contend that the state should not fund religions. Furthermore, the state ban on wearing conspicuous religious symbols, such as the Islamic female headscarf, in public schools has alienated some French Muslims, provoked minor street protests and drawn some international criticism.

In the late 1950s after the end of the Algerian war, hundreds of thousands of Muslims, including some who had supported France ( Harkis), settled permanently to France. They went to the larger cities where they lived in subsidized public housing, and suffered very high unemployment rates. In October 2005, the predominantly Arab-immigrant suburbs of Paris, Lyon, Lille, and other French cities erupted in rioting by socially alienated young people, many of them second- or third-generation immigrants.

American University professor C. Schneider says:

For the next three convulsive weeks, riots spread from suburb to suburb, affecting more than three hundred towns....Nine thousand vehicles were torched, hundreds of public and commercial buildings destroyed, four thousand rioters arrested, and 125 police officers wounded.

Traditional interpretations say the riots were spurred by radical Muslims or unemployed youth. Another view states that the riots reflected broader problem of racism and police violence in France.

In March 2012, a Muslim radical named Mohammed Merah shot three French soldiers and four Jewish citizens, including children in Toulouse and Montauban.

In January 2015, the satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo, that had ridiculed Muhammad, and a Jewish grocery store came under attack from radicalized Muslims who had been born and raised in the Paris region. World leaders rallied to Paris to show their support for free speech. Analysts agree that the episode had a profound impact on France. The New York Times summarized the ongoing debate:

So as France grieves, it is also faced with profound questions about its future: How large is the radicalized part of the country's Muslim population, the largest in Europe? How deep is the rift between France's values of secularism, of individual, sexual and religious freedom, of freedom of the press and the freedom to shock, and a growing Muslim conservatism that rejects many of these values in the name of religion?

The Reims Cathedral, built on the site where Clovis I was baptised by Remigius, functioned as the site for the coronation of the Kings of France.

Christianity is the largest group of religions of France, but has recently stopped being a majority of the overall population. According to a survey held by Institut français d'opinion publique (Ifop) for the centre-right Institut Montaigne think-tank, 51.1% of the total population of France was Christian in 2016. The following year, a survey by Ipsos focused on Protestants and based on 31,155 interviews found that 57.5% of the total population of France declared to be Catholic and 3.1% declared to be Protestant.

In 2016, Ipsos Global Trends, a multi-nation survey held by Ipsos and based on approximately 1,000 interviews, found that Christianity is the religion of 45% of the working-age, internet connected population of France; 42% stated they were Catholic, 2% stated that they were Protestants, and 1% declared to belong to any Orthodox church.

In 2019, the Eurobarometer, a survey funded by the European Union, found that Christianity was the religion of 47% of the French, with Catholicism being the main denomination with 41%, followed by Orthodox Christian, Protestants and other Christians with 2% each one.

France is home to a number of Marian shrines, notably the Cathedrale Notre-Dame de Chartres in Chartres, Notre Dame de la Salette in La Salette, Notre Dame de Paris in Paris, and the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes. It is also home to the Taizé Community, an ecumenical Christian monastic fraternity in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, Burgundy. All are important pilgrimage sites. The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes appeals to a broader demographic, with 6 million people a year (before the pandemic) visiting Lourdes. With a focus on youth, Taize Community, on the other hand, has become one of the world's most important sites of Christian pilgrimage with over 100,000 young people from around the world converging each year for prayer, Bible study, sharing, and communal work.[undue weight? ]

Grand Mosque of Paris.

A 2016 survey held by Institut Montaigne and Ifop found that 5.6% of the French population had an Islamic background, while 5.3% declared they were Muslims by faith. According to the same survey 84.9% of surveyed people who had at least one Muslim parent said were Muslims, 3.4% were Christians, 10.0% were not religious and 1.3% belonged to other religions.

According to Pew Research, in 2050 France will be 12.7% Muslim in the zero migration scenario (no migration to or from Europe), 17.4% in the medium migration scenario (regular migration continues and refugee flows cease), or 18% in the high migration scenario (2014 to mid-2016 refugee inflow patterns continue as well as regular migration).

In 2016, 0.8% of the total population of France, or about 535,000 people, were religious Jews. In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe and the third-largest Jewish population in the world (after Israel and the United States).

Jewish presence in France is documented since the early Middle Ages. France was a center of Jewish learning in the Middle Ages, but persecution increased as the Middle Ages wore on, including multiple expulsions and returns. During the late 18th-century French Revolution, France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population. Antisemitism nonetheless persisted despite legal equality, manifested for instance in the Dreyfus affair of the late 19th century.

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi occupiers to deport numerous French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps. 75% of the local Jewish population in France nonetheless survived the Holocaust, but a much higher percentage of the foreign Jewish refugees who had more recently arrived to France were deported and killed.

The majority of French Jews in the 21st century are Sephardi and Mizrahi North African Jews, many of whom (or their parents) emigrated from former French colonies of North Africa after those countries became independent in the 1950s and 1960s. They migrated to France in the second half of the 20th century. French Jews span a wide range of religious affiliations, from the ultra-Orthodox Haredi communities to the large segment of Jews who are entirely secular and who commonly marry outside the Jewish community.

As of the 2000s, Buddhism in France was estimated to have between 1 million (Ministry of the Interior) strict adherents and 5 million people influenced by Buddhist doctrines, very large numbers for a Western country. Many French Buddhists do not consider themselves "religious". According to scholar Dennis Gira, who was the director of the Institute of Science and Theology of Religions of Paris, Buddhism in France has a missionary nature and is undergoing a process of " inculturation" that may represent a new turning of the " Wheel of the Dharma", similar to those that it underwent in China and Japan, from which a new incarnation of the doctrine - a "French Buddhism" - will possibly arise.

In 2012, the European headquarters of the Fo Guang Shan monastic order opened in France, near Paris. It was the largest Buddhist temple in Europe at that time. The Plum Village Tradition school of Buddhism was developed in France with the Plum Village Monastery located in the Dordogne.

Hinduism is a minority religion followed in France by 0.25% of total population, mainly by Indians and Sri Lankans, in whom Tamils community forms a major group in the country. Hinduism is most influential in the French Overseas department of Réunion where estimates of practicing Hindus vary from 6.7% to 10.7%. and most of the large towns have a functioning Hindu temple.

Though being in very small number, the Hindu culture has deeply influenced the society of France by Yoga, Meditation and in recent times organizations like ISKCON have played a major role. Notably, French-Indian Mirra Alfassa known to her followers as The Mother or La Mère founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram and was highly influential on the philosophy of Integral Yoga.

Gwenc'hlan Le Scouëzec, Grand Druid of Brittany and France from 1980 to 2008.

Paganism, in the sense of Contemporary paganism, in France included a broad variety of traditions and movements. As with neopaganism in other countries, these traditions sit somewhere on a gradient, with one side represented by reconstructionist religious movements and on the other side by a variety of witchcraft and shamanic traditions with a focus on personal revelation. Pagans and pagan movements often blend elements of both influences. The term "pagan" (Latin paganus), used by Christians to define those who maintained polytheistic religions, originally meant "rural person, countryfolk, civilian", as a dweller of a pagus (rural district).

The more identitary and reconstructionist Pagan movements are the majority and are represented by Celtic Druidry and Germanic Heathenry, while Wicca is an example of a non-identitary Pagan movement. Polytheism, nature worship, animism and pantheism are common features in Pagan theology. Rituals take place in both public and in private domestic settings. Academic research has placed the Pagan movement along a spectrum, with eclecticism on one end and polytheistic reconstructionism on the other.

All Pagan movements place great emphasis on the divinity of nature as a primary source of divine will, and on humanity's membership of the natural world, bound in kinship to all life and the Earth itself. The animistic aspects of Pagan theology assert that all things have a soul - not just humans or organic life - so this bond is held with mountains and rivers as well as trees and wild animals. As a result, Pagans believe the essence of their spirituality is both ancient and timeless, regardless of the age of specific religious movements. Places of natural beauty are therefore treated as sacred and ideal for ritual, like the nemetons of the ancient Celts.

Many Pagans hold that different lands (and/or cultures) have their own natural religion, with many legitimate interpretations of divinity, and therefore reject religious exclusivism.

While the Pagan community has tremendous variety in political views spanning the whole of the political spectrum, environmentalism is often a common feature.

Groups such as Antoinism, Aumism, Christian Science, Invitation to Life, Raelism, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, have over 1000 members, whereas the Unification Church has approximately 400 members. In 1995, France created the first French parliamentary commission on cult activities, which led to a report registering a number of religious groups considered socially disruptive and/or dangerous. Some of these groups have been banned, including the Children of God.

According to the French sociologist Régis Dericquebourg, in 2003 the main small religious minorities were the Jehovah's Witnesses (130,000, though the European Court on Human Rights reckoned the number at 249,918 "regular and occasional" Jehovah's Witnesses), Adventists, Evangelicals, Mormons (31,000 members), and Soka Gakkai Buddhists.

According to the 2005 Association of Religion Data Archives data there were close to 4,400 Baháʼís in France.

According to the 2007 edition of the , other notable religious minorities included the New Apostolic Church (20,000), the Universal White Brotherhood (20,000), Sukyo Mahikari (15,000-20,000), the New Acropolis (10,000), the Universal Alliance (1,000), and the Grail Movement (950).

Growth of Islam and conflict with laïcité

Islamic grave at a French cemetery.

In Paris and the surrounding Île-de-France region, French Muslims tend to be more educated and religious, and the vast majority of them consider themselves loyal to France. Among Muslims in Paris in the early 2010s, 77% disagreed when asked whether violence is an acceptable moral response for a noble cause or not; 73% said that they were loyal to France; and 18% believed homosexuality to be acceptable.

In 2015, there were 2,500 mosques in France, up from 2,000 in 2011. In 2015, Dalil Boubakeur, rector of the Grand Mosque of Paris, said the number should be doubled to accommodate the large and growing population of French Muslims.

Financing the construction of mosques was a problematic issue for a long time; French authorities were concerned that foreign capital could be used to acquire influence in France, and so in the late 1980s it was decided to favour the formation of a "French Islam", though the 1905 law on religions forbids the funding of religious groups by the state. According to Salah Bariki, advisor to the mayor of Marseille in 2001, at a Koranic school in Nièvre, only three percent of the books were written in French, and everything was financed from abroad. She supported the public's participation in financing an Islamic cultural centre in Marseille to encourage Muslims to develop and use French learning materials in order to thwart foreign indoctrination. Even secular Muslims and members of civil society were to be represented by the centre. Local authorities have financed the construction of mosques, sometimes without minarets, and called them Islamic "cultural centres" or municipal halls rented to "civil associations". In the case of the plans to build the Mosque of Marseille, due to protests and a tribunal decision by the National Rally, the National Republican Movement, and the Mouvement pour la France, the rent of an 8,000 m ² (86,111 sq ft) terrain for the mosque was increased from €300/year to €24,000/year and the renting period was reduced from 99 to 50 years.

Charlie Hebdo shooting

France came to an uproar in January 2015, when eight writers and cartoonists were shot dead by two terrorists who raided the French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo. For years, it had been threatened by Muslim fundamentalists for publishing cartoons criticizing Muhammad. While condemnation of this attack was unanimous in the West and among the internationally recognized governments of the Muslim world, some militants approved, stating that it was right to kill those who insulted Muhammad.[citation needed ]

1. "Etat des lieux de la laïcité en France - 2021" (PDF) (official statistics) (in French). Observatoire de la laïcité, Government of France.

2. "Catholicisme et protestantisme en France - Analyses sociologiques et données de l'Institut CSA pour La Croix" [Catholicism and Protestantism in France - Sociological analysis and data from the CSA Institute for La Croix] (PDF) (in French). CSA. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2017.

3. ^ "Le catholicisme en France en 2010" (PDF). IFOP. August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-11.

4. ^ "Éléments d'analyse géographique de l'implantation des religions en France" (PDF). IFOP. December 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-24.

5. ^ "A French Islam is possible" (PDF). Institut Montaigne. 2016. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 September 2017.

6. "DISCRIMINATION IN THE EU IN 2015", Special Eurobarometer, 437, European Union: European Commission, 2015 - via GESIS

7. Special Eurobarometer 493, European Union: European Commission, September 2019, pages 229-230 Retrieved 17 January 2020. The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim - Shia, Muslim - Sunni, Other Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, Non believer/Agnostic and Other. Also space was given for Refusal (SPONTANEOUS) and Don't Know. On the other hand, Sikh and Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.

8. ^ "État des lieux de la laïcité en France" (PDF). Observatoire de la Laïcité. January 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-01-10.

9. ^ Eurobarometer 90.4: Attitudes of Europeans towards Biodiversity, Awareness and Perceptions of EU customs, and Perceptions of Antisemitism. European Commission - via GESIS.

10. ^ "Religion en entreprise: des conflits rares mais en légère hausse, selon une enquête". La Croix (in French). 2018-09-26. ISSN 0242-6056.

11. ^ "Sondage "Les protestants en France en 2017" (1) : qui sont les protestants ?". Reforme.net (in French). 2017-10-26. Archived from the original on 2020-03-05.

12. ^ Bullivant, Stephen (2018). "Europe's Young Adults and Religion: Findings from the European Social Survey (2014-16) to inform the 2018 Synod of Bishops" (PDF). St Mary's University's Benedict XVI Centre for Religion and Society; Institut Catholique de Paris. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2018.

13. ^ "European Social Survey, Online Analysis". nesstar.ess.nsd.uib.no. Archived from the original on 2019-02-17.

14. ^ Baubérot, Jean (15 March 2001). "The Secular Principle". Embassy of France in the US. Archived from the original on 22 February 2008.

15. ^ Joutard, Philippe (1985). "The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: End or Renewal of French Protestantism?". In Prestwich, Menna (ed.). International Calvinism, 1541-1715. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-821933-0.

16. Betros, Gemma (December 2010). "The French Revolution and the Catholic Church". History Review (68): 16-21. ProQuest 818499173.

17. ^ Popkin, Jeremy D (2015). A Short History of the French Revolution. Sixth ed. 2015

18. ^ Perovic, Sanja (March 2012). "The French Republican Calendar: Time, History and the Revolutionary Event: The French Republican Calendar". Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies. 35 (1): 1-16. doi:10.1111/j.1754-0208.2011.00408.x.

19. ^ Stevenson, Shandi (2013). Religions of Revolution: The Merging of Religious and Political in the Cult of Reason and the Cult of the Supreme being in France 1793-1794 (Thesis). ProQuest 1461390217.

20. ^ Harrigan, Patrick J. (2001). "Church, State, and Education in France From the Falloux to the Ferry Laws: A Reassessment". Canadian Journal of History. 36 (1): 51-83. doi:10.3138/cjh.36.1.51. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02.

21. ^ Tallett, Frank; Atkin, Nicholas (1991). Religion, society, and politics in France since 1789. London: Hambledon Press. p. 152. ISBN 1-85285-057-4.

22. ^ Porch, Douglas (2003). The March to the Marne: The French Army 1871-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 92-104. ISBN 0-521-54592-7., is the most thorough account in English.

23. ^ Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Balz, Michael J. (June 2006). "The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?". International Migration. 44 (2): 23-34. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00362.x.

24. Cathy Lisa Schneider, "Police Power and Race Riots in Paris," Politics & Society (2008) 36#1 pp 133-159 on p. 136

25. ^ Erlanger, Steven (10 January 2015). "Days of Sirens, Fear and Blood: 'France Is Turned Upside Down'". The New York Times.

26. ^ "Sondage "Les protestants en France en 2017" (1): qui sont les protestants?" [Survey "Protestants in France in 2017" (1): Who are the Protestants?]. Reforme.net (in French). 26 October 2017. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017.

27. ^ "Religion, Ipsos Global Trends". Ipsos. 2017. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. About Ipsos Global Trends survey

28. ^ "Profound and unique experience in Taize for Yorkshire teenagers". 27 July 2017.

29. ^ "Europe's Growing Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 2017.

30. Gira, Dennis (2011-2012). "The "Inculturation" of Buddhism in France". Études. S.E.R. 415: 641-652. ISSN 0014-1941.

31. ^ What place for Buddhism in secular France? (Video). AFPTV. 12 September 2016. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. See the section with a speech by Marion Dapsance.

32. ^ "Country Profile: Reunion (Department of Reunion)". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007.

33. ^ Mallipattana, Suman V. "The Influence of Hinduism on Literature - Asian American and Asian Research Institute".

34. ^ Dericquebourg, Régis (9-12 April 2003). De la MILS à la MIVILUDES: la politique envers les sectes en France après la chute du governement [sic] socialiste [From MILS to MIVILUDES: Policies towards sects in France after the fall of the socialist government]. CENSUR International Conference (in French). Vilnius (Lithuanie): CESNUR.

35. ^ "Most Bahá'í Nations (2005)". The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005.

36. ^ "Les sectes en France: Nombre d'adeptes ou sympathisants" [Sects in France: Number of followers or sympathisers]. Quid (in French). Archived from the original on 6 August 2009.

37. Tajuddin, Razia. "Islam in Paris". Euro-Islam: News and Analysis on Islam in Europe and North America. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011.

38. Maussen, M. J. M. (2009). "Constructing mosques: The governance of Islam in France and the Netherlands". UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository), University of Amsterdam. pp. 155, 186, 172.

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The majority of the religious population in France identifies as Christian. Catholicism is the most prominent denomination in France, but lost its state religion status following the 1789 French Revolution and various non-republican regimes of the 19th century, including the Restoration, the July Monarchy and the Second French Empire.

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Amazon's UK customers can now push a button when they run out of toilet rolls or washing powder - and within 24 hours a package will arrive at the front door.

You can see the launch of the Dash service in two ways. It's either another miraculous piece of innovation from the e-commerce giant that will make our lives simpler, or a scary sign that lazy consumers are yet again handing far too much power to a US technology firm.

Amazon Prime subscribers in Austria and Germany are also being offered the service.

Here's how it works. There are Dash buttons for about 40 brands at launch, ranging from dishwasher tablets, to instant coffee to condoms. You buy the button - but get the cost off your first purchase. Then you set it up with the Amazon shopping app, choosing the exact product and your delivery preferences. From now on, when you run out of that product, pressing the wi-fi-connected button will simply trigger an order via the shopping app.

And, yes, Amazon has thought of what you were thinking - if your children delight in pressing buttons repeatedly, you won't get a mountain of toilet rolls delivered to your door. Once an order has been placed, you get a notification, and another button press within 24 hours will be ignored.

The company says the aim is to do away with the most tedious of shopping experiences.

"Nobody gets retail therapy shopping for toilet paper," as the executive demonstrating the Dash button explained to me.

Dash was greeted with scepticism when it launched in the US in March last year. Were people really lazy enough to want to do that?

At first, it was slow to take off, but those who used it demanded more buttons, and now there are more than 150 products available.

Amazon is, as ever, light on detail when it comes to giving out numbers, but it says orders through the Dash button have grown threefold in the past two months.

It's being launched in the UK along with a sister product, which takes removing the hassle of shopping a stage further.

Dash Replenishment involves devices such as dishwashers and printers automatically ordering new supplies of tablets or ink cartridges without their owner needing to do anything, except sign up in the first place.

What Amazon is doing here is providing the first really compelling examples of how the so-called internet of things could transform our homes, with smart appliances talking to the network about their needs.

It's also a demonstration of the extraordinary breadth of skills at the disposal of Jeff Bezos's firm - from a deep knowledge of what makes consumers tick, to an extraordinary logistics operation that can now deliver products to some addresses within an hour, to the nimblest supplier of cloud computing services on the planet.

But hold on a minute.

Are we so lazy now that we are happy to have one pack of soap powder make its way from Amazon's fulfilment centre down busy city streets to our door, with all the environmental impact that entails, rather than heading to the shops and getting everything in one go?

Shouldn't we have the weekly shop delivered to us by a British supermarket?

Are we happy to tie ourselves to big brands whose buttons we will push, or whose appliances will buy their perhaps pricey supplies on our behalf?

And do we like the idea that this brilliant American technology firm will be collecting ever more data about our shopping habits, even if it is doing that to deliver us a better retail experience?

Like it or not, shopping is becoming an on-demand, push-button, instant gratification experience. And, as in so many other areas of our lives, it seems likely that it will be shaped by a US technology company.

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Amazon's UK customers can now push a button when they run out of toilet rolls or washing powder - and within 24 hours a package will arrive at the front door. You can see the launch of the Dash service in two ways.

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A ghost kitchen is a professional food preparation and cooking facility set up for the preparation of delivery-only meals.. A ghost kitchen contains the kitchen equipment and facilities needed for the preparation of restaurant meals but has no dining area for walk-in customers.

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THE 10 BEST Italy Sights & Landmarks - Tripadvisor

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Top Italy Landmarks: See reviews and photos of sights to see in Italy on Tripadvisor.

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THE 10 BEST Sights & Historical Landmarks in Poland - Tripadvisor

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Top Poland Landmarks: See reviews and photos of sights to see in Poland on Tripadvisor.

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Italian Culture: Facts, Customs & Traditions

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Italian culture traces its roots back to the ancient world and has influenced art, fashion and food around the world.

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this is kosher slaughter which Jews use

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properly slaughter a cow under the kosher method shechitah

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How to Properly Slaughter a Cow Under the Kosher Method Shechitah

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Shechitah (sheh-HEE-tah) is the Jewish ritual of slaughtering permissible land animals and fowl so that they are considered Kosher and are able to be eaten by Jews. Keeping Kosher is a very important aspect of Judaism because it benefits...

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Hi readers, it seems you use Catholic Online a lot; that's great! It's a little awkward to ask, but we need your help. If you have already donated, we sincerely thank you. We're not salespeople, but we depend on donations averaging $14.76 and fewer than 1% of readers give. If you donate just $5.00, the price of your coffee, Catholic Online School could keep thriving. Thank you. Help Now >

The Church for her part has specified certain forms of penance, both to ensure that the Catholic will do something, as required by divine law, while making it easy for Catholics to fulfill the obligation. Thus, the 1983 Code of Canon Law specifies the obligations of Latin Rite Catholics [Eastern Rite Catholics have their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches].

Canon 1250: All Fridays through the year and the time of Lent are penitential days and times throughout the entire Church.

Canon 1251: Abstinence from eating meat or another food according to the prescriptions of the conference of bishops is to be observed on Fridays throughout the year unless they are solemnities; abstinence and fast are to be observed on Ash Wednesday and on the Friday of the Passion and Death of Our Lord Jesus Christ.

Canon 1252: All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence; all adults are bound by the law of fast up to the beginning of their sixtieth year. Nevertheless, pastors and parents are to see to it that minors who are not bound by the law of fast and abstinence are educated in an authentic sense of penance.

Canon 1253: It is for the conference of bishops to determine more precisely the observance of fast and abstinence and to substitute in whole or in part for fast and abstinence other forms of penance, especially works of charity and exercises of piety.

The Church, therefore, has two forms of official penitential practices - three if the Eucharistic fast of one hour before Communion is included.

Abstinence

The law of abstinence requires a Catholic 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. Meat is considered to be the flesh and organs of mammals and fowl. Also forbidden are soups or gravies made from them. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles and shellfish are permitted, as are animal derived products such as margarine and gelatin which do not have any meat taste.

On the Fridays outside of Lent the U.S. bishops conference obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in the US to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing. They must do some penitential/charitable practice on these Fridays. For most people the easiest practice to consistently fulfill will be the traditional one, to abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year. During Lent abstinence from meat on Fridays is obligatory in the United States as elsewhere.

Fasting

The law of fasting requires a Catholic from the 18th Birthday (Canon 97) to the 59th Birthday (i.e. the beginning of the 60th year, a year which will be completed on the 60th birthday) to reduce the amount of food eaten from normal. The Church defines this as one meal a day, and two smaller meals which if added together would not exceed the main meal in quantity. Such fasting is obligatory on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. The fast is broken by eating between meals and by drinks which could be considered food (milk shakes, but not milk). Alcoholic beverages do not break the fast; however, they seem to be contrary to the spirit of doing penance.

Those who are excused from fast or abstinence Besides those outside the age limits, those of unsound mind, the sick, the frail, pregnant or nursing women according to need for meat or nourishment, manual laborers according to need, guests at a meal who cannot excuse themselves without giving great offense or causing enmity and other situations of moral or physical impossibility to observe the penitential discipline.

Aside from these minimum penitential requirements Catholics are encouraged to impose some personal penance on themselves at other times. It could be modeled after abstinence and fasting. A person could, for example, multiply the number of days they abstain. Some people give up meat entirely for religious motives (as opposed to those who give it up for health or other motives). Some religious orders, as a penance, never eat meat. Similarly, one could multiply the number of days that one fasted. The early Church had a practice of a Wednesday and Saturday fast. This fast could be the same as the Church's law (one main meal and two smaller ones) or stricter, even bread and water. Such freely chosen fasting could also consist in giving up something one enjoys - candy, soft drinks, smoking, that cocktail before supper, and so on. This is left to the individual.

One final consideration. Before all else we are obliged to perform the duties of our state in life. Any deprivation that would seriously hinder us in carrying out our work, as students, employees or parents would be contrary to the will of God.

---- Colin B. Donovan, STL

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Fasting and Abstinence - Easter / Lent - Catholic Online

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For most people the easiest practice to consistently fulfill will be the traditional one, to abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year. Fasting and abstinence allows us to empty ourselves so we can be filled with the Lord.

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The Catholic Church historically observes the disciplines of fasting and abstinence at various times each year. For Catholics, fasting is the reduction of one's intake of food, while abstinence refers to refraining from meat (or another type of food). The Catholic Church teaches that all people are obliged by God to perform some penance for their sins, and that these acts of penance are both personal and corporeal. Bodily fasting is meaningless unless it is joined with a spiritual fast from sin. St. Basil gives the following exhortation regarding fasting:

"Let us fast an acceptable and very pleasing fast to the Lord. True fast is the estrangement from evil, temperance of tongue, abstinence from anger, separation from desires, slander, falsehood and perjury. Privation of these is true fasting."

Contemporary canonical legislation for Catholics of the Latin Church (who comprise most Catholics) is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini, and codified in the 1983 Code of Canon Law (in Canons 1249-1253). According to Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law, on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, both abstinence and fasting are required of Catholics who are not exempted for various reasons. The law of fasting binds all Catholics who are aged between eighteen and sixty on these days. All Fridays of the year, except when a Solemnity falls upon the Friday, are bound by the law of abstinence.

Both Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law permitted the Episcopal Conferences to propose adjustments of the laws on fasting and abstinence for their home territories, and most have done so. For example, in some countries, the Bishops' Conferences have obtained from Rome the substitution of pious or charitable acts for abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year except Good Friday. This includes Fridays of Lent. Others abstain from eating meat on Lenten Fridays, but not on Fridays outside of Lent. Still others voluntarily abstain from meat, though fasting may be less stringent on Holy Saturday than on Good Friday.

The Personal Ordinariates for former Anglicans reconciled to the Catholic Church follow the discipline of the Latin Church (of which they are a part) including the norms established by the Council of Catholic Bishops in whose territories they are erected and of which their Ordinaries are members. Thus, for example, in England the norm is abstinence on all Fridays of the year. The Bishop in the United States has emphasized the statements in the USCCB norms "Friday itself remains a special day of penitential observance throughout the year," and "we give first place to abstinence from flesh meat." The Ember Days have been re-established in the Calendar of the Ordinariates, and as long as a Solemnity does not take precedence, the Ember Fridays in September and Advent are days of obligatory abstinence. Obligatory abstinence on Ember Friday in Lent is included in the universal Lenten discipline, and abstinence on Ember Friday on Whitsuntide is not required, as all days of the Octave of Pentecost are Solemnities.

Members of the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches are obliged to follow the discipline of their own particular church. While some Eastern Catholics try to follow the stricter rules of their Orthodox counterparts, the actual canonical obligations of Eastern Catholics to fast and abstain are usually much more lenient than those of the Orthodox.

Eastern Christians view fasting as one part of repentance and supporting a spiritual change of heart. Eastern Christians observe two major times of fasting, the "Great Fast" before Easter, and "Phillip's Fast" before the Nativity.

The fast period before Christmas is called "Philip's Fast" because it begins after the feast day of St. Philip. Specific practices vary, but on some days during the week meat, dairy products and (in some countries) oil are avoided, while on other days there is no restriction. During approximately the last week before the Nativity, typically meat, dairy, eggs and oil are avoided on all days, meals are moderate in quantity, and no food is taken between meals.

Rules relating to fasting pertain to the quantity of food allowed on days of fasting, while those regulating abstinence refer to the quality or type of food. The Christian tradition of fasts and abstinence developed from Old Testament practices, and were an integral part of the early church community. Louis Duchesne observed that Monday and Thursday were days of fasting among pious Jews. Early Christians practiced regular weekly fasts on Wednesdays and Fridays (and Orthodox Christians continue to do so).

There has always been a close connection between fasting and almsgiving; the money saved on food should be given to the poor.

The habit of fasting before Easter developed gradually, and with considerable diversity of practice regarding duration. As late as the latter part of the second century there were differing opinions not only regarding the manner of the paschal fast, but also the proper time for keeping Easter. In 331, St. Athanasius enjoined upon his flock a period of forty days of fasting preliminary to, but not inclusive of, the stricter fast of Holy Week, and in 339, after having traveled to Rome and over the greater part of Europe, wrote in the strongest terms to urge this observance upon the people of Alexandria as one that was universally practiced, "to the end that while all the world is fasting, we who are in Egypt should not become a laughing-stock as the only people who do not fast but take our pleasure in those days".

In the time of Gregory the Great (590-604), there were apparently at Rome six weeks of six days each, making thirty-six fast days in all, which St. Gregory, who is followed therein by many medieval writers, describes as the spiritual tithing of the year, thirty-six days being approximately the tenth part of three hundred and sixty-five. At a later date the wish to realize the exact number of forty days led to the practice of beginning Lent on Ash Wednesday.

The ordinary rule on fasting days was to take but one meal a day and that only in the evening; white meat and, in the early centuries, wine were entirely forbidden.

These days were at one time observed with a Black Fast of strictly no more than one meal, without meat, dairy, oil, or wine. This Lenten fast was traditionally broken at sunset. In the 10th century, the custom of taking the only meal of the day at three o'clock was introduced. In the 14th century, the meal was allowed at mid-day, and soon the practice of an evening collation (snack) became common. A morning collation was introduced in the early 19th century.

In the early 20th century, Church law prescribed fasting throughout Lent, with abstinence only on Friday and Saturday. Some countries received dispensations: Rome in 1918 allowed the bishops of Ireland to transfer the Saturday obligation to Wednesday;[citation needed ] in the United States, abstinence was not required on Saturday. The other weekdays were simply days of "fasting without abstinence." A similar practice (common in the United States)[citation needed ] was called "partial abstinence", which allowed meat only once during the day at the main meal. (There is nothing in current Catholic Canon Law which corresponds to "partial abstinence".) The countries of the former Spanish empire also had their own extensive dispensations from the rules of fasting and abstinence, based on the "Crusader privileges" of the Spanish dominions as codified in the Bull of the Crusade. In some European colonies, the obligation to fast and abstain differed by race, with natives often having more lenient rules than Europeans or mestizos.

While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week; in response to a question posed by French settlers in Quebec in the 17th century, beaver was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family" in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy.

Besides Lent, there were other penitential times customarily accompanied by fasting or abstinence. These included Advent, the Ember Days, the Rogation Days, Fridays throughout the year, and vigils of important feast days.

Advent is considered a time of special self-examination, humility, and spiritual preparation in anticipation of the birth of Christ. Fridays and Saturdays in Advent were days of abstinence, and until early in the 20th century, the Fridays of Advent were also days of fasting.

The vigils observed included the Saturday before Pentecost, October 31 (the vigil of All Saints), December 24 ( Christmas Eve), December 7 (the vigil of the Immaculate Conception) and August 14 (the vigil of the Assumption). These vigils all required fasting; some also required abstinence. If any of these fell on a Sunday, the vigil, but not the obligation of fasting, was moved to the Saturday before. (Some other liturgical days were also known as vigils but neither fasting nor abstinence was required, particularly the vigils of feasts of the Apostles and the Vigil of the Epiphany.) By 1959 in the United States, the fast for the vigil of Christmas was moved to December 23.

Ember days occurred four times a year. The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday of the ember week were days of fast and abstinence, though the Wednesday and Saturday were often only days of partial abstinence. In addition, Catholics were required to abstain from meat (but not fast) on all other Fridays, unless the Friday coincided with a holy day of obligation.

The former regulations on abstinence obliged Catholics starting as young as age seven, but there were many exceptions. Large classes of people were considered exempt from fasting and abstinence, not only the sick and those with physically demanding jobs, but also people traveling and students. The regulations were adapted to each nation, and so in most dioceses in America abstinence from meat was not required on the Friday after Thanksgiving, to accommodate any meat left over from that US national holiday.

On the eve of Vatican II, fasting and abstinence requirements in numerous Catholic countries were already greatly relaxed compared to the beginning of the 20th century, with fasting often reduced to just four days of the year (Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, the vigil of Christmas or the day before, and the vigil either of the Immaculate Conception or of the Assumption).

Contemporary legislation is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini. He recommended that fasting be appropriate to the local economic situation, and that all Catholics voluntarily fast and abstain. He also allowed that fasting and abstinence might be substituted with prayer and works of charity, although the norms for doing so were to be set down by the Episcopal Conferences.

Current practice of fast and abstinence is regulated by Canons 1250-1253 of the 1983 code. They specify that all Fridays throughout the year, and the time of Lent are penitential times throughout the entire Church. All adults (those who have attained the 'age of majority', which is 18 years in canon law) are bound by law to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday until the beginning of their sixtieth year. All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays unless they are solemnities, and again on Ash Wednesday; but in practice this requirement has been greatly reduced by the Episcopal Conferences because under Canon 1253, it is these Conferences that have the authority to set down the local norms for fasting and abstinence in their territories. (However, the precept to both fast and abstain on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday is usually not dispensed from.)

Absent any specification of the nature of "fasting" in the current Canon Law, the traditional definition is obviously applicable here which is that on the days of mandatory fasting, Catholics may eat only one full meal during the day. Additionally, they may eat up to two small meals or snacks, known as " collations". Church requirements on fasting only relate to solid food, not to drink, so Church law does not restrict the amount of water or other beverages - even alcoholic drinks - which may be consumed.

In some Western countries, Catholics have been encouraged to adopt non-dietary forms of abstinence during Lent. For example, in 2009 Monsignor Benito Cocchi, Archbishop of Modena, urged young Catholics to give up text messaging for Lent.

In addition to the fasts mentioned above, Catholics must also observe the Eucharistic Fast, which in the Latin Church involves taking nothing but water or medicine into the body for 1 hour before receiving the Eucharist. The earliest recorded regular practice was to eat at home before the Lord's Supper if one was hungry ( I Corinthians 11:34). The next known ancient practice was to fast from midnight until Mass that day. As Masses after noon and in the evening became common in the West, this was soon modified to fasting for three hours. The 1983 Code of Canon Law reduced the Eucharistic Fast to the current one-hour requirement for the Latin Church.

The Australian Catholic Bishops' Conference decreed on Friday 4 October 1985 that Fridays throughout the year, including in Lent (other than Good Friday) are not obligatory days of abstinence from meat, provided an alternative form of penance is practised. Although this remains the case to this day, support for the return of obligatory Friday abstinence has been gradually increasing since England and Wales returned to Friday abstinence in 2011, with some Australian bishops expressing interest.

The Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops decrees that the days of fast and abstinence in Canada are Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, and specifies that Fridays are days of abstinence. This includes all Fridays year round, not just Fridays of Lent. Catholics, however, can substitute special acts of charity or piety on these days.

Current norms for England and Wales, issued by the Bishops' Conference in May 2011, re-introduced the expectation that all Catholics able to do so should abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year, effective Friday, September 16, 2011.

On 25 November 2010 the Irish Bishops' Conference published the resource leaflet Friday Penance. It followed from the March 2010 Pastoral Letter to the Catholics of Ireland from Pope Benedict XVI suggesting initiatives to support renewal in the Church in Ireland. He asked that Irish Catholics offer their Friday Penances "for an outpouring of God's mercy and the Holy Spirit's gifts of holiness and strength," and that fasting, prayer, reading of Scripture and works of mercy be offered in order to obtain healing and renewal for the Church in Ireland.

The leaflet states that Penance "arises from the Lord's call to conversion and repentance" and describes that it is an "essential part of all genuine Christian living":

in memory of the passion and death of the Lord

as a sharing in Christ's suffering

as an expression of inner conversion

as a form of reparation for sin

Friday Penance also explains why penance is important: "Declaring some days throughout the year as days of fast and abstinence (Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) is meant to intensify penances of the Christian. Lent is the traditional season for renewal and penance but Catholics also observe each Friday of the year as days of penance. The link between Friday and penance is extremely ancient and is even reflected in the Irish language word for Friday: An Aoine ( The Fast)."[citation needed ]

The leaflet suggests ways of fulfilling Friday penance such as abstaining from meat or alcohol, visiting the Blessed Sacrament or helping the poor, sick and lonely as well as other suggestions.

The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) produced a statement in 1966 called Pastoral Statement on Penance and Abstinence, which was modified slightly in 1983.

In the United States, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) has declared that "the age of fasting is from the completion of the eighteenth year to the beginning of the sixtieth." In accordance with canon 1253 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the USCCB has also allowed that some other form of penance for the traditional abstinence on all of the Fridays of the year, except for those Fridays in Lent, fulfills the obligation of penance. Thus, the rules for fasting and abstinence in the United States are:

Every person 14 years or older must abstain from meat (and items made with meat) on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, and all the Fridays of Lent.

Every person between the age of 18 and 59 (beginning of 60th year) must fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday.

According to the USCCB:

Abstinence laws consider that meat comes only from animals such as chickens, cows, sheep or pigs --- all of which live on land. Birds are also considered meat. Abstinence does not include meat juices and liquid foods made from meat. Thus, such foods as chicken broth, consomme, soups cooked or flavored with meat, meat gravies or sauces, as well as seasonings or condiments made from animal fat are technically not forbidden. However, moral theologians have traditionally taught that we should abstain from all animal-derived products (except foods such as gelatin, butter, cheese and eggs, which do not have any meat taste). Fish are a different category of animal. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, (cold-blooded animals) and shellfish are permitted.

Because of this, some Catholic parishes in the United States sponsor a fish fry during Lent. In predominantly Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu in an attempt to appeal to Catholics. However, the same USCCB website says that:

While fish, lobster and other shellfish are not considered meat and can be consumed on days of abstinence, indulging in the lavish buffet at your favorite seafood place sort of misses the point. Abstaining from meat and other indulgences during Lent is a penitential practice.

The USCCB also states that:

Those that are excused from fast and abstinence outside the age limits include the physically or mentally ill including individuals suffering from chronic illnesses such as diabetes. Also excluded are pregnant or nursing women. In all cases, common sense should prevail, and ill persons should not further jeopardize their health by fasting.

In 2010, Archbishop of New Orleans Gregory Michael Aymond clarified that alligator is also considered seafood, saying "Yes, the alligator's considered in the fish family, and I agree with you - God has created a magnificent creature that is important to the state of Louisiana, and it is considered seafood." This was in response to a letter from a local alligator wrangler.

Notes

1. Oddie, William (16 May 2011). "The restoration of the Friday fast is a historic day for English and Welsh Catholics". The Catholic Herald. London.

2. ^ 2018 ORDO for the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter: Advent 2017 to Christmastide 2018, Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter, ISBN 9781982037147

3. ^ Quinton & Ciccazo (20 Sep 2007). "Ecology of Food and Nutrition" (46): 469-491. doi:10.1080/03670240701486768.

4. ^ "Phillip's Fast". Our Lady of Fatima Byzantine Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 2010-12-08.

5. ^ Feldmeier, Dr. Peter; Ozdemir, Dr. Adil. "Fasting". University of St. Thomas. Archived from the original on 2014-11-02.

6. ^ Thurston, Herbert (1907). Lent. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York City: Robert Appleton Co.

7. ^ Cléir, Síle de (5 October 2017). Popular Catholicism in 20th-Century Ireland: Locality, Identity and Culture. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 101. ISBN 978-1350020603. Catherine Bell outlines the details of fasting and abstinence in a historical context, stating that the Advent fast was usually less severe than that carried out in Lent, which originally involved just one meal a day, not to be eaten until after sunset.

8. ^ Guéranger, Prosper; Fromage, Lucien (1912). The Liturgical Year: Lent. New York: Benziger Brothers. pp. 7-8. St. Benedict's rule prescribed a great many fasts, over and above the ecclesiastical fast of Lent; but it made this great distinction between the two: that whilst Lent obliged the monks, as well as the rest of the faithful, to abstain from food till sunset, these monastic fasts allowed the repast to be taken at the hour of None.

9. ^ Saunders, Angela (October 14, 2001). ""Oh Unnatural Murderer!": Vegetarian Trends in 18th-Century Europe and America". Nation's Restaurant News. Archived from the original on September 30, 2009.

10. ^ Lacoursière, Jacques (1995). Histoire populaire du Québec: Des origines à 1791 [People's History of Quebec From the beginning to 1791] (in French). Diffusion Dimedia. p. 122. ISBN 978-2894480502. Explains that Bishop François de Laval in the 17th century posed the question to the theologians of the Sorbonne, who ruled in favour of this decision.

11. ^ The Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas II. 147:8 provides legal foundation on which theologians argued in favour of beaver being like fish.

12. ^ "Complementary Legislation for Australia". Australian Catholic Bishops Conference. 4 October 1985.

13. ^ Biddle, Matthew (March 17, 2014). "Some Australian bishops suggest restoring year-round Friday abstinence". National Catholic Reporter. Kansas City. Catholic News Service.

14. José Tomás Martín de Agar, commentary "Other Acts of Divine Worship" in Code of Canon Law Annotated, ed. Ernest Caparros et al. (Montreal: Wilson & Lafleur, 1993) pg. 961 (commentary on canon 1253)

15. ^ Antolini, Tina (March 25, 2013). "Forget Fish Fridays: In Louisiana, Gator Is On The Lenten Menu". All Things Considered. NPR.

Further reading

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Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church

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The Catholic Church historically observes the disciplines of fasting and abstinence at various times each year. For Catholics, fasting is the reduction of one's intake of food, while abstinence refers to refraining from meat (or another type of food).

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Judaism ( Hebrew: יַהֲדוּת‎‎ Yahăḏūṯ) is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Modern Judaism evolved from Yahwism, the religion of ancient Israel and Judah, by the late 6th century BCE, and is thus considered to be one of the oldest monotheistic religions. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Israelites, their ancestors. It encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization.

The Torah, as it is commonly understood by Jews, is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh. The Tanakh is also known to secular scholars of religion as the Hebrew Bible, and to Christians as the " Old Testament". The Torah's supplemental oral tradition is represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. The Hebrew word torah can mean "teaching", "law", or "instruction", although "Torah" can also be used as a general term that refers to any Jewish text that expands or elaborates on the original Five Books of Moses. Representing the core of the Jewish spiritual and religious tradition, the Torah is a term and a set of teachings that are explicitly self-positioned as encompassing at least seventy, and potentially infinite, facets and interpretations. Judaism's texts, traditions, and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam. Hebraism, like Hellenism, played a seminal role in the formation of Western civilization through its impact as a core background element of Early Christianity.

Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah. Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic. Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism ( Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to (Jewish law), the authority of the rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and halakha are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that halakha should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced halakha; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them.

Jews are an ethnoreligious group including those born Jewish (or "ethnic Jews"), in addition to converts to Judaism. In 2019, the world Jewish population was estimated at 14.7 million, or roughly 0.19% of the total world population. About 46.9% of all Jews reside in Israel and another 38.8% reside in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other minority groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.

The term Judaism derives from Iudaismus, a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek Ioudaismos (Ἰουδαϊσμός) (from the verb ἰουδαΐζειν , "to side with or imitate the [Judeans]"). Its ultimate source was the Hebrew יהודה, Yehudah, " Judah", which is also the source of the Hebrew term for Judaism: יַהֲדוּת, Yahadut. The term Ἰουδαϊσμός first appears in the Hellenistic Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE. In the context of the age and period it meant "seeking or forming part of a cultural entity" and it resembled its antonym hellenismos, a word that signified a people's submission to Hellenic ( Greek) cultural norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the Maccabean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos.

Shaye J. D. Cohen writes in his book The Beginnings of Jewishness:

We are tempted, of course, to translate [ Ioudaïsmós] as "Judaism," but this translation is too narrow, because in this first occurrence of the term, Ioudaïsmós has not yet been reduced to the designation of a religion. It means rather "the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish)." Among these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call "religious," but these practices and beliefs are not the sole content of the term. Thus Ioudaïsmós should be translated not as "Judaism" but as Judaeanness.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary the earliest citation in English where the term was used to mean "the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews" is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce (1516). "Judaism" as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the apocrypha ( Deuterocanon in Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy), 2 Macc. ii. 21: "Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme."

At its core, the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that Isaac, his second son, would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan). Later, the descendants of Isaac's son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt, and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt. At Mount Sinai, they received the Torah-the five books of Moses. These books, together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as Torah Shebikhtav as opposed to the Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud. Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead.

Once King David was established, he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple, and as a reward for his actions, God promised David that he would allow his son, Solomon, to build the First Temple and the throne would never depart from his children.

Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah or oral law, were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah HaNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah, redacted circa 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia. Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of study by the scholars Ravina I, Ravina II, and Rav Ashi by 500 CE, although it continued to be edited later.

According to critical scholars, the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts. Several of these scholars, such as Professor Martin Rose and John Bright, suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods. Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism. In this view, it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed. John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh, El, Asherah, and Ba'al, may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek pantheon.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem. After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire; many people were taken captive from the capital Samaria to Media and the Khabur River valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. The Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple, which was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judeans were exiled to Babylon, in what is regarded as the first Jewish diaspora. Later, many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylon by the Persian Achaemenid Empire seventy years later, an event known as the Return to Zion. A Second Temple was constructed and old religious practices were resumed.

During the Great Jewish Revolt (66-73 CE), the Romans sacked Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. Later, Roman emperor Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple Mount and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE), after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a religio licita ("legitimate religion") until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century.

Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities.

Defining characteristics and principles of faith

Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created. Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind. According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation. Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people. These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism.

Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism ( Kabbalah), Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews. This is played out through the observance of the (Jewish law) and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled.

The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.

Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.

Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Jewish Bible records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel. In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.

Moreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God. For some, observance of halakha is more important than belief in God per se. In modern times, some liberal Jewish movements do not accept the existence of a personified deity active in history. The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians.

Core tenets

13 Principles of Faith:

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.

2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.

3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.

4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.

5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.

6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.

7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.

8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.

9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.

10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15).

11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.

12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.

13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.

In the strict sense, in Judaism, unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no fixed universally binding articles of faith, due to their incorporation into the liturgy. Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism. The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic. Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles. Thus, within Reform Judaism only the first five principles are endorsed.

In Maimonides' time, his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo. Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith

Along these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe halakha and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries. Later, two poetic restatements of these principles ("" and "") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies, leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.

In modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma. Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism. Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible and various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses, who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet. In the Mishnah, a core text of Rabbinic Judaism, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.

Establishing the core tenets of Judaism in the modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary Jewish denominations. Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated. Thus for instance, Joseph Soloveitchik's (associated with the Modern Orthodox movement) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following the halakha whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world. Mordecai Kaplan, the founder of the Reconstructionist Judaism, abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with civilization and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible. In turn, Solomon Schechter's Conservative Judaism was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation. Finally, David Philipson draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of the Conservative movement.

Religious texts

The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought.

Legal literature

The basis of halakha and tradition is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition, there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today.

For centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi Judah haNasi undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the Mishnah.

The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying halakha, which are the basis of the Talmud. According to Abraham ben David, the was compiled by Rabbi Judah haNasi after the destruction of Jerusalem, in anno mundi 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE.

Over the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia). The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into the two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud ( Talmud Yerushalmi) and the Babylonian Talmud ( Talmud Bavli). These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages.

In the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions. Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with a parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources.

Halakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition-the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew, Sheelot U-Teshuvot.) Over time, as practices develop, codes of halakha are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Philo of Alexandria, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, and Gersonides. Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, and Emmanuel Lévinas.

Rabbinic hermeneutics

13 Principles of Hermeneutics:

1. A law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form

2. A law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation if the text characterizes both situations in identical terms.

3. A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served.

4. When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it.

5. A law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization.

6. A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization, can be applied only to the particular cases specified.

7. The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language.

8. A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization.

9. A penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty.

10. A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generalization, with a modification in the penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe.

11. A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them.

12. Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages

13. Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages.

Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself. According to the Talmud,

These are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a).

In Judaism, "the study of Torah can be a means of experiencing God". Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed:

The rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world. ... Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacralization but of sanctification."

To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God.

In the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. According to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axioms:

first, the belief in the omni-significance of Scripture, in the meaningfulness of its every word, letter, even (according to one famous report) scribal flourish; second, the claim of the essential unity of Scripture as the expression of the single divine will.

These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. According to the Talmud,

A single verse has several meanings, but no two verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold, My word is like fire-declares the Lord-and like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes the rock), so a single verse has several meanings." (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a).

Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations.

According to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.

Thus, Hillel called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws ( baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael, thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel). Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by Malbim in Ayyelet ha-Shachar, the introduction to his commentary on the Sifra. Nevertheless, R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important, and one of Judaism's earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and jurisprudence. Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century. Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.

Jewish identity

Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism

According to Daniel Boyarin, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism. Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. In the Jewish diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel. They also saw an elite population convert to Judaism (the Khazars), only to disappear as the centers of power in the lands once occupied by that elite fell to the people of Rus and then the Mongols. Thus, Boyarin has argued that "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension."

In contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.

According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with halakha. Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches. All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge. Converts are called "ben Abraham" or "bat Abraham", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.

Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew, and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes. However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism "without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community" and "A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew".

Karaite Judaism believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent. Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father. They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.

The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on mihu Yehudi ("Who is a Jew") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.

Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1-5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others." Leviticus 24 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children. A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period. Since the anti-religious movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.

Jewish demographics

The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of "who is a Jew" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3 million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million. It is 0.25% of world population. Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001.

Jewish religious movements

Rabbinic Judaism

Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rabbinism) (Hebrew: "Yahadut Rabanit" - יהדות רבנית) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.

The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi (Western) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews.

Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of halakha. Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith.

Orthodoxy is often divided into Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism. Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism include Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; their opponents Misnagdim (Lithuanian); and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic and Mizrahi (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel. "Centrist" Orthodoxy ( Joseph B. Soloveitchik) is sometimes also distinguished.

Conservative Judaism is characterized by a commitment to traditional halakha and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that halakha is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses. Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.

Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.

Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that halakha, as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.

Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of halakha. Men and women participate equally in prayer.

Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.

Subbotniks (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of Russian ethnic origin in the 18th-20th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism. Many settled in the Holy Land as part of the Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included Alexander Zaïd, Major-General Alik Ron, and the mother of Ariel Sharon.

Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism

While traditions and customs vary between discrete communities, it can be said that Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the "movement" framework popular in and among Ashkenazi Jewry. Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a "big tent" approach. This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world. (However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.)

Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the conservative, and prayer rites are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel.

Jewish movements in Israel

Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "secular" ( hiloni), "traditional" (masorti), "religious" ( dati) or . The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).

The term "traditional" ( masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the Conservative Judaism, which also names itself "Masorti" outside North America. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term "Orthodox" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called (religious) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called " Religious Zionism" or the "National Religious" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredi-leumi ( nationalist haredi), or "Hardal", which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as , as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)).

Haredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) "Lithuanian" (non-hasidic) haredim of Ashkenazic origin; (2) Hasidic haredim of Ashkenazic origin; and (3) Sephardic haredim.

Karaites and Samaritans

Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees. The Karaites ("Scripturalists") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat ("simple" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.

The Samaritans, a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus/ Shechem region of the West Bank and in Holon, near Tel Aviv in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age kingdom of Israel. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written Torah (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the Samaritan Book of Joshua).

Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)

Haymanot (meaning "religion" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier. Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like Sigd.

Noahide (B'nei Noah movement)

Noahidism is a Jewish religious movement based on the Seven Laws of Noah and their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism. According to the halakha, non-Jews ( gentiles) are not obligated to convert to Judaism, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous. The divinely ordained penalty for violating any of the Laws of Noah is discussed in the Talmud, but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large. Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as B'nei Noach ( Hebrew: בני נח, "Children of Noah") or Noahides (/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/). Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades by both Noahides and Orthodox Jews.

Historically, the Hebrew term B'nei Noach has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah. However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Seven Laws of Noah.

Jewish observances

Jewish ethics

Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness ( chesed), compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity ( tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech ( lashon hara). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews.

Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is the or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah ( Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad -"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"

Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews, called a . In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well.

The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs.

Religious clothing

A (Hebrew: כִּפָּה, plural kippot; Yiddish: יאַרמלקע, yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown.

(Hebrew: צִיציִת) ( Ashkenazi pronunciation: tzitzis) are special knotted "fringes" or "tassels" found on the four corners of the (Hebrew: טַלִּית) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis), or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities, it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing.

Tefillin (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין), known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word φυλακτήριον, meaning safeguard or amulet), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.

A (Yiddish: קיטל), a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the High Holidays. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim (burial garments).

Jewish holidays

Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.

, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall on Saturday night, commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation. It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. During Shabbat, Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of melakhah, translated literally as "work". In fact the activities banned on the Sabbath are not "work" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel and using electricity.

Three pilgrimage festivals

Jewish holy days ( chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel", or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple.

Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder. Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. Matzo is eaten instead of bread.

Shavuot ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.

Sukkot ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. sukkah) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, "Rejoicing of the Torah", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.

High Holy Days

The High Holidays ( Yamim Noraim or "Days of Awe") revolve around judgment and forgiveness.

Rosh Hashanah, (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or "Day of Remembrance", and Yom Teruah, or "Day of the Sounding of the Shofar"). Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally, "head of the year"), although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar, Tishri. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates.

Yom Kippur, ("Day of Atonement") is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a "Machzor". Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the "seuda mafseket", is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service, called "Ne'ilah", ends with a long blast of the shofar.

Purim ( Hebrew: פורים Pûrîm " lots") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman, who sought to exterminate them, as recorded in the biblical Book of Esther. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organizing carnivals and parties.

Purim has celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of Adar, which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar.

Hanukkah ( Hebrew: חֲנֻכָּה, "dedication") also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev ( Hebrew calendar). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.

Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel.

Tisha B'Av ( Hebrew: תשעה באב or , "the Ninth of Av") is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, and in later times, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.

There are three more minor Jewish fast days that commemorate various stages of the destruction of the Temples. They are the 17th Tamuz, the 10th of Tevet and Tzom Gedaliah (the 3rd of Tishrei).

Israeli holidays

There are some who prefer to commemorate those who were killed in the Holocaust on the 10th of Tevet.

Torah readings

Synagogues and religious buildings

Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some traditional features of a synagogue are:

The ark (called aron ha-kodesh by Ashkenazim and hekhal by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain () outside or inside the ark doors);

The elevated reader's platform (called by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);

The eternal light (ner tamid), a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem

The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying.

In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths.

The Jewish dietary laws are known as . Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping kosher".

Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal. Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah. The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, traditions exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.

In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as . Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.

Halakha also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community, and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic la. Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibition is rabbinic, not biblical.

The use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.

Furthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by non-Jews, due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals. Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.

The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of . However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community. The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained. In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because "they are unclean". The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.

Survival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.

Laws of ritual purity

The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flux, vaginal flux, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these. In Rabbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies. During the Temple period, such priests ( Kohanim) were required to eat their bread offering ( Terumah) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as hand-washing which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.

Family purity

An important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as , literally "separation", or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.

Especially in Orthodox Judaism, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped. The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as , and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. In addition, Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh

Traditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple's special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.

Life-cycle events

Life-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community.

Brit milah - Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named zeved habat or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.

Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah - This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a "portion" of the Torah.

Marriage - Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event. A wedding takes place under a , or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people.

Death and Mourning - Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva (literally "seven", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months.

Community leadership

Classical priesthood

The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty.

Kohen (priest) - patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.

Levi (Levite) - Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob. In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.

Prayer leaders

From the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities-reading the Torah and (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals-require a , the presence of ten Jews.

The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:

Rabbi of a congregation - Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below).
Hassidic - rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.

Hazzan (note: the "h" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) - a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.

Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:

Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader-literally "agent" or "representative"-of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function.

The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.

Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:

Gabbai (sexton) - Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.

The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.

Specialized religious roles

(judge) - An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.

Mohel (circumciser) - An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the (circumcision).

Shochet (ritual slaughterer) - In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet.

Sofer (scribe) - Torah scrolls, (phylacteries), (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.

Rosh yeshiva - A Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva.

Mashgiach/Mashgicha of a yeshiva - Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics).

Mashgiach/Mashgicha - Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.

Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)

Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished. Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as "Judaism"). The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.)

Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites, and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.

Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas-amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the Malabari and Cochin Jews from Kerala . Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.

Persecutions

Antisemitism arose during the Middle Ages, in the form of persecutions, pogroms, forced conversions, expulsions, social restrictions and ghettoization.

This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism. During the Middle Ages, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration, but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad's persecutions.

Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (1700-1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called Shtiebel, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing. Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to Tzadiks, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. As some have put it: "they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost". Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim, (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.

The Enlightenment and new religious movements

In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the "Jewish Enlightenment", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe halakha and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.

In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of halakha. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that halakha should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism. After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.

Spectrum of observance

Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States' Jewish community-the world's second largest-4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion. Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.

Judaism and other religions

Christianity and Judaism

Christianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions diverged in the first century. The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of atonement and sin, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the nature of God himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as Shituf or worship of the God of Israel which is not monotheistic. Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church, though a Christian belief in dual-covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how their theology influenced the Nazi Holocaust.

Since the time of the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church upheld the Constitutio pro Judæis (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated

We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse....Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live."

Until their emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns ( ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval Sweden). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example, England in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and Spain in 1492 (readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America. In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848. Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858. The newly created German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935.

Jewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. Religious prejudice was an underlying source against Jews in Europe. Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the Holocaust. These attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, in art and popular teaching for two millennia which expressed contempt for Jews, as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church, as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious régime.

The attitude of Christians and Christian Churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism have changed in a mostly positive direction since World War II. Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.

Islam and Judaism

Both Judaism and Islam track their origins from the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered Abrahamic religions. In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of Abraham- Isaac and Ishmael, respectively. While both religions are monotheistic and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider Jesus or Muhammad to be prophets. The religions' adherents have interacted with each other since the 7th century when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula. Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims. For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males, and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims. Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Qur'an or the hadiths but invented in early medieval Baghdad and inconsistently enforced. Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution-for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus, as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: Mawza Exile). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence-in Morocco, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters ( mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.

In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries. Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.

Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism

There are some movements in other religions that include elements of Judaism. Among Christianity these are a number of denominations of ancient and contemporary Judaizers. The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,-In this, elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism, are incorporated in, and melded with the tenets of Christianity. The movement generally states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the Three Divine Persons, and that salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior. Some members of Messianic Judaism argue that it is a sect of Judaism. Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of Pauline Christianity. Another religious movement is the Black Hebrew Israelite group, which not to be confused with less syncretic Black Judaism (a constellation of movements which, depending on their adherence to normative Jewish tradition, receive varying degrees of recognition by the broader Jewish community).

Other examples of syncretism include Semitic neopaganism, a loosely organized sect which incorporates pagan or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices; Jewish Buddhists, another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of Asian spirituality in their faith; and some Renewal Jews who borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Sufism, Native American religions, and other faiths.

Cite error: A

1. ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kohler, Kaufmann (1901-1906). "Judaism". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

2. ^ "History of Judaism until 164 BCE". History of Judaism. BBC.

3. ^ "Knowledge Resources: Judaism". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 27 August 2011.

4. ^ Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 92-93. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.

5. "Rabbinic Judaism". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

6. ^ "Sadducee". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

7. ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kohler, Kaufmann; Harkavy, Abraham (1901-1906). "Karaites and Karaism". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

8. ^ Ackerman, Ari (2010). "Eliezer Schweid on the Religious Dimension of a Secular Jewish Renewal". Modern Judaism. 30 (2): 209-228. doi:10.1093/mj/kjq005. ISSN 0276-1114. JSTOR 40604707. S2CID 143106665.

9. ^ Myers, David N., ed. (2018). "Can We Excommunicate God?". Can We Excommunicate God?: April 30, 1965. The Eternal Dissident. Rabbi Leonard I. Beerman and the Radical Imperative to Think and Act (1 ed.). University of California Press. pp. 69-74. ISBN 978-0-520-29745-6. JSTOR j.ctv941t1h.14.

10. ^ Ferziger, Adam (2009). "From Demonic Deviant to Drowning Brother: Reform Judaism in the Eyes of American Orthodoxy". Jewish Social Studies. Indiana University Press. 15 (3): 56-88. doi:10.2979/jss.2009.15.3.56. JSTOR 10.2979/jss.2009.15.3.56. S2CID 152221663 - via JSTOR.

11. ^ Cohen, Steven M.; Bubis, Gerald B. (1990). "The Impact of Denomination: Differences in the Israel-Related Opinions of American Rabbis and Jewish Communal Workers". Jewish Political Studies Review. 2 (1/2): 137-163. ISSN 0792-335X. JSTOR 25834177.

12. ^ Lachoff, Irwin (2019). "Reform in Mid Nineteenth-Century Jewish New Orleans: Achieving "the Spirit of Progress and Enlightenment" Through Acculturation, Residential Patterns, and Personality". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 60 (2): 171-198. ISSN 0024-6816. JSTOR 2686469.

13. ^ "Bet Din". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

14. See, for example, ^ Deborah Dash Moore, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p. 303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890-1940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 55; Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman, Donald Altschiller, Charles Walker Bassett, Jews in American politics: essays, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p. 158; Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W.W. Norton & Company, 1997, p. 169.

15. ^ Berman Jewish Data Bank. "World Jewish Population, 2019" (PDF). jewishdatabank.org. Berman Jewish Data Bank, Number 26, 2019.

16. ^

17. ^ ἰουδαΐζειν . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon at the Perseus Project

18. Skarsaune, Oskar (2002). In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity. InterVarsity Press. pp. 39ff. ISBN 978-0-8308-2670-4.

19. Wilhelm Bacher. "Talmud". Jewish Encyclopedia.

20. ^

21. ^ Gen. 17:3-8 Genesis 17: 3-8: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, "As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" Gen. 22:17-18 Genesis 22: 17-18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring, all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me."

22. ^ Exodus 20:3 "You shall have no other gods before me; Deut. 6:5 Deuteronomy 6:5 "Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength."

23. The ^ Books of Melachim (Kings) and Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah) in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's "wives turned away his heart after other gods...[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4-10); King Ahab "went and served Baal, and worshiped him...And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (1 Melachim 16:31-33); the prophet Isaiah condemns the people who "prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny" (Yeshaiahu 65:11-12). Translation: JPS (Jewish Publication Society) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at Mechon Mamre.

24. ^

25. ^ "Theology on Tap Winter 2014 under way in Mandeville: Keeping the Faith". NOLA.com.

26. ^ Daniel Septimus. "The Thirteen Principles of Faith". MyJewishLearning.com.

27. ^ Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). The JPS guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication Society. p. 509. ISBN 978-0-8276-0760-6. The concept of "dogma" is...not a basic idea in Judaism.

28. ^ Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. "How Do You Know the Exodus Really Happened?". Archived from the original on 18 September 2004. The word "emunah" has been translated incorrectly by the King James Bible as merely "belief" or "faith", when in actuality, it means conviction, which is a much more emphatic knowledge of God based on experience.

29. ^ Kosior, Wojciech (2015). Some Remarks on the Self-Images of the Modern Judaism. Textual Analysis. Filozofia kultury. Kraków. pp. 91-106.

30. ^ "Judaism 101: A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts". Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in America. 12 April 2006. Archived from the original on 19 February 2001.

31. Abraham ben David, ^ Seder Ha-Kabbalah Leharavad, Jerusalem 1971, p.16 (Hebrew) (as cited on Judah haNasi)

32. Neusner, Jacob 2003 ^ Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii-vix; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New York: Basic Books. 3-9; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95; Stern, David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 132-161

33. Cohen, Abraham 1949 ^ Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95

34. Cohen, Abraham 1949 ^ Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95

35. ^ Boyarin, Daniel (14 October 1994). "Introduction". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 13-38. ISBN 978-0-520-08592-3. LCCN 93036269. Paul was motivated by a Hellenistic desire for the One, which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence, beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity, however, was predicated (and still is) on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit, such that while the body is particular, marked through practice as Jew or Greek, and through anatomy as male or female, the spirit is universal. Paul did not, however, reject the body-as did, for instance, the gnostics-but rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place, albeit subordinated to the spirit. Paul's anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component, so also is language itself. It is composed of outer, material signs and inner, spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited, the physical, fleshy signs of the Torah, of historical Judaism, are re-interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal requirements and possibilities for humanity.

36. ^ Boyarin, Daniel (1994). "Answering the Mail". A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08592-3. Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension with one another.

37. ^ Kertzer, Morris (1996). What is a Jew?. New York: Touchstone. ISBN 0-684-84298-X. and

38. Samuel G. Freedman, ^ "Strains Grow Between Israel and Many Jews in the U.S." The New York Times, 6 February 2015

39. ^

40. ^ Leviticus 24:10

41. ^ Ezra 10:2-3

42. ^ Robert Gordis. "Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views". A Modern Approach to a Living Halachah. Masorti World. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. The Torah is an emanation of God...This conception does not mean, for us, that the process of revelation consisted of dictation by God.

43. ^ Dynner, Glenn (2011). Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe. Wayne State University Press. pp. 358-9. ISBN 9780814335970.

44. ^ Feldman, Rachel Z. (August 2018). "The Children of Noah: Has Messianic Zionism Created a New World Religion?" (PDF). Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions. 22 (1): 115-128. doi:10.1525/nr.2018.22.1.115. S2CID 149940089 - via Project MUSE.

45. ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hirsch, Emil G.; et al. (1901-1906). "Sabbath". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

46. Elliot Dorff, ^ "On the Use of All Wines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2009. (2.19 MB), YD 123:1.1985, pp. 11-15.

47. ^ Y. Lichtenshtein M.A. "Weekly Pamphlet #805". Bar-Ilan University, Faculty of Jewish Studies, Rabbinical office. ...certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for example eating non-kosher food

48. Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 15.

49. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bacher, Wilhelm; Lauterbach, Jacob Zallel (1901-1906). "Niddah". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

50. ^ Sara E. Karesh; Mitchell M. Hurvitz (2005). Encyclopedia of Judaism. Infobase Publishing. pp. 444-. ISBN 978-0-8160-6982-8. The Sadducees disappeared when the second Temple was destroyed in the year 70 C.E and Pharisaic Judaism became the preeminent Jewish sect.

51. ^ Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. pp. 205-207.

52. ^ Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. pp. 202-204.

53. ^ "National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) 2000-01".

54. ^ Taylor, Humphrey (15 October 2003). "While Most Americans Believe in God, Only 36% Attend a Religious Service Once a Month or More Often" (PDF). HarrisInteractive. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2011.

55. ^ Burrows, Edwin G. & Wallace, Mike. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. pp. 60, 133-134

56. ^ "Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, 1st Baronet". Encyclopædia Britannica.

57. Richard Harries. ^ After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-926313-4

58. Hans Küng. ^ On Being a Christian. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y., 1976 ISBN 978-0-385-02712-0

59. Lucy Dawidowicz ^ The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945. First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p. 23. ISBN 0-553-34532-X

60. ^ Gottfried, Ted (2001). Heroes of the Holocaust. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 24-25. ISBN 9780761317173. Some groups that are known to have helped Jews were religious in nature. One of these was the Confessing Church, a Protestant denomination formed in May 1934, the year after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. One of its goals was to repeal the Nazi law "which required that the civil service would be purged of all those who were either Jewish or of partly Jewish descent." Another was to help those "who suffered through repressive laws, or violence." About 7,000 of the 17,000 Protestant clergy in Germany joined the Confessing Church. Much of their work has gone unrecognized, but two who will never forget them are Max Krakauer and his wife. Sheltered in sixty-six houses and helped by more than eighty individuals who belonged to the Confessing Church, they owe them their lives. German Catholic churches went out of their way to protect Catholics of Jewish ancestry. More inclusive was the principled stand taken by Catholic Bishop Clemens Count von Galen of Munster. He publicly denounced the Nazi slaughter of Jews and actually succeeded in having the problem halted for a short time....Members of the Society of Friends-German Quakers working with organizations of Friends from other countries-were particularly successful in rescuing Jews....Jehovah's Witnesses, themselves targeted for concentration camps, also provided help to Jews.

61. ^

62. Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20

63. ^ Bernard Lewis (June 1998). "Muslim Anti-Semitism". Middle East Quarterly: 43-49.

64. Feher, Shoshanah. ^ Passing over Easter: Constructing the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism, Rowman Altamira, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7619-8953-0, p. 140. "This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the 1960s, when Messianic Judaism arose."

65. Melton, J. Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Infobase Publishing, 2005,ISBN 978-0-8160-5456-5, p. 373. "Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith....By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews."

66. [^ Vittorio Lanternari it] 'Messianism: Its Historical Origin and Morphology,' History of Religions Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer, 1962), pp. 52-72:'the same messianic complex which originated in Judaism and was confirmed in Christianity.' p.53

67. Michael L. Morgan, Steven Weitzman, (eds.,) ^ Rethinking the Messianic Idea in Judaism, Indiana University Press 2014 ISBN 978-0-253-01477-1 p.1. Gershom Scholem considered 'the messianic dimensions of the Kabbalah and of rabbinic Judaism as a central feature of a Jewish philosophy of history.'

68. ^ Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (2000). "Messianic Jewish mission". Messianic Judaism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8264-5458-4. OCLC 42719687. Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement.

69. ^ Ariel, Yaakov S. (2000). "Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism". Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America, 1880-2000. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8078-4880-7. OCLC 43708450. Messianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly, the missions' publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism, it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.

70. ^ "What are the Standards of the UMJC?". Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations. June 1998. Archived from the original on 20 October 2015. 1. We believe the Bible is the inspired, the only infallible, authoritative Word of G-d.
2. We believe that there is one G-d, eternally existent in three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
3. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua, the Messiah, in His virgin birth, in His sinless life, in His miracles, in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood, in His bodily resurrection, in His ascension to the right hand of the Father, and in His personal return in power and glory.

71. ^ Israel b. Betzalel (2009). "Trinitarianism". JerusalemCouncil.org. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. This then is who Yeshua is: He is not just a man, and as a man, he is not from Adam, but from God. He is the Word of HaShem, the Memra, the Davar, the Righteous One, he didn't become righteous, he is righteous. He is called God's Son, he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem, and he is "HaShem" who we interact with and not die.

72. ^ "Do I need to be Circumcised?". JerusalemCouncil.org. 10 February 2009. Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech, accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after one's heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah-as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God, and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come....Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem, and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come-at which point, what good is Messiah Yeshua, the Word of HaShem to you? He would have died for nothing!...As a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is, being made righteous before HaShem, and thus obtaining eternal life), but it is a requirement of obedience to God's commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death, the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the Messiah.

73. *^ "Jewish Conversion - Giyur". JerusalemCouncil.org. JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism), a sect of Judaism.

74. ^
Orthodox

Simmons, Shraga (9 May 2009). "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus". Aish HaTorah. Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because:
#Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. #Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on national revelation.

Conservative

Waxman, Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 28 June 2006. Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the Christian side....we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.

Reform

"Missionary Impossible". Hebrew Union College. 9 August 1999. Archived from the original on 28 September 2006. Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to "Jews-for-Jesus," "Messianic Jews," and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries.

Reconstructionist/Renewal

"FAQ's About Jewish Renewal". Aleph.org. 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called "Messianic Judaism" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.

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Bibliography

Avery-Peck, Alan; Neusner, Jacob (eds.), The Blackwell reader in Judaism (Blackwell, 2001).

Avery-Peck, Alan; Neusner, Jacob (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Blackwell, 2003).

Boyarin, Daniel (1994). A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Cohen, Arthur A.; Mendes-Flohr, Paul, eds. (2009) [1987]. 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought: Original Essays on Critical Concepts, Movements, and Beliefs. JPS: The Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0892-4.

Cohn-Sherbok, Dan, Judaism: history, belief, and practice (Routledge, 2003).

Day, John (2000). Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Chippenham: Sheffield Academic Press.

Dever, William G. (2005). Did God Have a Wife?. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co..

Dosick, Wayne, Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice.

Finkelstein, Israel (1996). "Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up?" The Biblical Archaeologist, 59(4).

Gillman, Neil, Conservative Judaism: The New Century, Behrman House.

Gurock, Jeffrey S. (1996). American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective. KTAV.

Guttmann, Julius (1964). Trans. by David Silverman, Philosophies of Judaism. JPS.

Holtz, Barry W. (ed.), Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts. Summit Books.

Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826463-1.

Jacobs, Louis (2007). "Judaism". In Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred (eds.). Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-866097-4 - via Encyclopedia.com.

Johnson, Paul (1988). A History of the Jews. HarperCollins.

Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8.

Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7.

Mayer, Egon, Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar, "The American Jewish Identity Survey", a subset of The American Religious Identity Survey, City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in The New York Jewish Week, 2 November 2001.

Mendes-Flohr, Paul (2005). "Judaism". In Thomas Riggs (ed.). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, Mi: Thomson Gale. ISBN 9780787666118 - via Encyclopedia.com.

Nadler, Allan (1997). The Faith of the Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rapture. Johns Hopkins Jewish studies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801861826.

Plaut, W. Gunther (1963). The Rise of Reform Judaism: A Sourcebook of its European Origins. World Union for Progressive Judaism. OCLC 39869725.

Raphael, Marc Lee (2003). Judaism in America. Columbia University Press.

Segal, Eliezer (2008). Judaism: The e-Book. State College, PA: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. ISBN 97809801633-1-5.

Walsh, J.P.M. (1987). The Mighty from Their Thrones. Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Weber, Max (1967). Ancient Judaism, Free Press, ISBN 0-02-934130-2.

Wertheime, Jack (1997). A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America. Brandeis University Press.

Yaron, Y.; Pessah, Joe; Qanaï, Avraham; El-Gamil, Yosef (2003). An Introduction to Karaite Judaism: History, Theology, Practice and Culture. Albany, NY: Qirqisani Center. ISBN 978-0-9700775-4-7.

Jews in Islamic countries

Khanbaghi, A. (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. IB Tauris.

Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0.

Simon, Reeva; Laskier, Michael; Reguer, Sara (eds.) (2002). The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa In Modern Times, Columbia University Press.

Further reading

External links

See also Torah database for links to more Judaism e-texts.

Wikimedia Torah study projects

Text study projects at Wikisource. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English.

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Judaism ( Hebrew: יַהֲדוּת‎‎ Yahăḏūṯ) is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age.

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Hinduism () is an Indian religion or , a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with approximately 1.2 billion followers, or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The word Hindu is an exonym and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described as sanātana dharma ( Sanskrit: सनातन धर्म, ''the eternal dharma''), a modern usage, based on the belief that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts. Another endonym is Vaidika Dharma, the dharma related to the Vedas.

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought marked by a range of philosophies and shared concepts, rituals, cosmological systems, pilgrimage sites, and shared textual sources that discuss theology, metaphysics, mythology, Vedic yajna, yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life; namely, dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from the passions and the cycle of death and rebirth), as well as karma (action, intent and consequences) and saṃsāra (cycle of death and rebirth). Hinduism prescribes eternal duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (), patience, forbearance, self-restraint, virtue, and compassion, among others. Hindu practices include worship ( puja), fire rituals ( homa/havan), devotion ( bhakti), fasting ( vrata), chanting ( japa), meditation ( dhyāna), sacrifice ( yajña), charity ( dāna), selfless service ( sevā), learning and knowledge ( jñāna), recitation and exposition of scriptures ( pravacana), homage to one's ancestors ( śrāddha), family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages ( yatra). Along with the various practices associated with yoga, some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions and engage in lifelong Sannyasa ( monasticism) in order to achieve moksha.

Hindu texts are classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"), the major scriptures of which are the Vedas, the Upanishads, the , the Mahābhārata, the , and the . There are six āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, who recognise the authority of the Vedas, namely Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā, and Vedānta. While the Puranic chronology presents a genealogy of thousands of years, starting with the Vedic rishis, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of Brahmanical orthopraxy with various Indian cultures, having diverse roots and no specific founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500-200 BCE and c. 300 CE, in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the epics and the first Purānas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.

Currently, the four major denominations of Hinduism are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and the Smarta tradition. Sources of authority and eternal truths in the Hindu texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition. Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal, Mauritius, and in Bali, Indonesia. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in other countries of South Asia, in Southeast Asia, in the Caribbean, Gulf states, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other regions.

The word Hindū is derived from the Sanskrit root Sindhu, believed to be the name of the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.

The Proto-Iranian sound change *s > h occurred between 850 and 600 BCE, according to Asko Parpola. According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550-486 BCE). The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta - equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. In Arabic texts, al-Hind referred to the land beyond the Indus and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".

Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang, and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami. Some 16-18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts mention Hindu and Hindu dharma to distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction. The term Hinduism was first used by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1816-17. By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians. Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, varna, jāti, occupation, and sect.

Definitions

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. According to Mahatma Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu". According to Wendy Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle - vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste - are subjects of debate, not dogma."

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it". Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life". From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the Western term "religion".

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Shaivism (Shiva), Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as equals). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman (self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.

June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus. The major kinds, according to McDaniel are Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions". The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga", jnana-marga, bhakti-marga, and "heroism", which is rooted in militaristic traditions. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, Rama, believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu) and parts of political Hinduism. "Heroism" is also called virya-marga. According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism. He includes among "founded religions" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various " Guru-isms" and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests. Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project. From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.

Hindu views

Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Vishnu is said to be worshiped by Ikshvaku and the descendants of (Ikshvaku Vamsam).[85][86][87]

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life. Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as , "the eternal law" or the "eternal way". Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The Puranic chronology, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history as narrated in the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Puranas, envisions a chronology of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The Sanskrit word dharma has a much broader meaning than and is not its equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfillment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha), are part of dharma, which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.

According to the editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica, historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varṇa) and stage in life ( puruṣārtha). In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".

According to other scholars such as Kim Knott and Brian Hatcher, Sanātana Dharma refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and tradition with origins beyond human history, truths divinely revealed ( Shruti) in the Vedas - the most ancient of the world's scriptures. To many Hindus, the Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher. Hinduism, to them, is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era.

Some have referred to Hinduism as the Vaidika dharma. The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'. Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism. According to Arvind Sharma, the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term vaidika dharma or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE. According to Brian K. Smith, "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term Vaidika Dharma cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."

Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic varṇāśrama - 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, an extremely influential Hindu Puranic source, considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some Shaiva groups like the Paśupatas and Kāpālins to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).

According to Alexis Sanderson, the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of antinomian Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold. Some in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy considered the such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma. The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas. However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu," and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.

Hindu modernism

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and the United States, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.

Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation, meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems. This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west. Major representatives of "Hindu modernism" are Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.

Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance. He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism". Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today". Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".

This "Global Hinduism" has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism", both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity". It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation", or the pizza effect, in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".

Legal definitions

The definition of Hinduism in Indian law is: "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to Moksha are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".

Scholarly views

The term "Hinduism" was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century and refers to the fusion, or synthesis, of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between c. 500-200 BCE and c. 300 CE, in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the epics and the first Puranas were composed. It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.

Diversity and unity

Ganesha is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon.[citation needed ]

Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion. Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed", but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. According to the Supreme Court of India,

Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term Hinduism is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder. It is a synthesis of various traditions, the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".

Theism is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, other Hindus are or have been atheists.

Sense of unity

Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, though Louis Renou stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".

Classical Hinduism

Brahmins played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture. In the post- Gupta period Vedanta developed in southern India, where orthodox Brahmanic culture and the Hindu culture were preserved, building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."

Medieval developments

The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE. Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300-600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion. Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other". According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other" is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.

According to the Indologist Alexis Sanderson, before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged. This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain antinomian tantric movements. Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' ( saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy." The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Mikel Burley. Hacker called this "inclusivism" and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit". Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other", which started well before 1800. Michaels notes:

As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609-1649) and Ramdas (1608-1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.

Colonial period and neo-Vedanta

This inclusivism was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta, and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.

The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition" was also popularised by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism. These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils, while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature". Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention. He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.

Modern India and the world

The Hindutva movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times. And there are assumptions of political dominance of Hindu nationalism in India, also known as 'Neo-Hindutva'. There have also been increase in pre-dominance of Hindutva in Nepal, similar to that of India. The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as Yoga and Hare Krishna movement by many missionaries organisations, especially by Iskcon and this is also due to the migration of Indian Hindus to the other nations of the world. Hinduism is growing fast in many western nations and in some African nations.

Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices). However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterized by a belief in an Afterlife, with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as Śrāddha. Ancestor worship once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.

Purusharthas

Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas - Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism. The concept of dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living". Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:

Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth ( Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.

In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means eternal, perennial, or forever; thus, Sanātana Dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.

Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life)

A central premise of Hindu philosophy, claims John Koller, is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.

Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure)

In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian Epic the Mahabharata describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).

In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.

Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering)

Moksha ( Sanskrit: मोक्ष, mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from samsara (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.

Differing views on the nature of moksha

The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.

The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven).

More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.

According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self". Moksha when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.

Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the Vedantic school separates this into two views - Jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and Videhamukti (liberation after death).

Karma and saṃsāra

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect". The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives. This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called . Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances. The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the Rigveda. The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals. The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira.

Concept of God

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs; its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.

Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?

The Nasadiya Sukta ( Creation Hymn) of the is one of the earliest texts which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner. The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and One Ultimate Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the . The Self is believed to be eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic ( non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit or the Ultimate Reality. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's Self is identical to supreme Self, that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life. Dualistic schools ( Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual Selfs. They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called , , Parameshwara, or , and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualized as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances. There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents. It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the Vedic foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from animism, in which all things are themselves divine. The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, man and nature, etc. The Vedic view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.

The Hindu scriptures name celestial entities called (or in feminine form), which may be translated into English as gods or heavenly beings. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their , or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions. The multitude of Devas are considered manifestations of Brahman.

Hindu god Vishnu (centre) surrounded by his ten major avatars, namely Matsya; Kurma; Varaha; Narasimha; Vamana; Parashurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha, and Kalki

The word does not appear in the Vedic literature, but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE. Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the avatars of Hindu god Vishnu, though the idea has been applied to other deities. Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based Shaktism tradition, avatars of the Devi are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same metaphysical Brahman and Shakti (energy). While avatars of other deities such as Ganesha and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist, but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya, Mimamsa and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption". Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious". Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.

God in Hinduism is often represented, having both the feminine and masculine aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati ( Ardhanarishvara), Vishnu accompanied by Lakshmi, Radha with Krishna and Sita with Rama.

According to Graham Schweig, Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present. The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.

Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism. Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars. But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason." Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority. The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, 'by what' power something is the case. The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher's inferior answers. In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma. Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via Radha.

Main traditions

Denominations

A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Parvati (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, and Vaishnavism. These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook. The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars. These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers. Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism. The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations. Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedantic Hinduism.

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools. Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga. Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles ( Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva. Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela. Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother, and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices. Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.

Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions. The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes ( Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge). The term Smartism is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts. This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.

Ethnicities

Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or polyethnic religion. On the Indian subcontinent, it is widespread among many Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and other South Asian ethnic groups, for example, the Meitei people ( Tibeto-Burman ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state Manipur).

In addition, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the Greater India - from Afghanistan ( Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East ( Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly Philippines) - and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam, except several still Hindu minor Austronesian ethnic groups, such as the Balinese and Tenggerese people in Indonesia, and the Chams in Vietnam. Also, a small community of the Afghan Pashtuns who migrated to India after partition remain committed to Hinduism.

There are many new ethnic Ghanaian Hindus in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of Swami Ghanananda Saraswati and Hindu Monastery of Africa From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858-1914), Swami Vivekananda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.

Scriptures

The Rigveda is the first among four Vedas[note 27] and is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rigveda manuscript is in Devanagari.

The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is apauruṣeyā, "not made of a man" but revealed to the (seers), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority. They are the two highest sources of dharma, the other two being Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara (conduct of noble people) and finally ("what is pleasing to oneself")

Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down. Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.

Shruti (lit. that which is heard) primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (). There are four Vedas - , , and Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types - the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions. Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.

The most notable of the Smritis ("remembered") are the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content. The Puranas, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE onward, contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.

Tantra are the religious scriptures which give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, Radha, Parvati, Durga and Kali are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms. The Agamas in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti, while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva. In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.

A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic fire ritual (shown).

Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.

Vedic rituals of fire-oblation () and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding. Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.

The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred," and "do not constitute linguistic utterances." Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end." In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer. By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."

Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realization of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.

Life-cycle rites of passage

Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara ( saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism. The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally. Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras, while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras. The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.

The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (baby's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby's first feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear piercing), Vidyarambha (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite), Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child). In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.

Bhakti (worship)

Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. Bhakti-marga is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha. The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana-marga (path of knowledge), Karma-marga (path of works), Rāja-marga (path of contemplation and meditation).

Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine, or in a temple before a murti or sacred image of a deity. Hindu temples and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism. While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.

One form of daily worship is aarti, or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise". Notable aartis include Om Jai Jagdish Hare, a Hindi prayer to Vishnu, and Sukhakarta Dukhaharta, a Marathi prayer to Ganesha. Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar[s]". For instance, Aarti is offered to Hanuman, a devotee of God, in many temples, including Balaji temples, where the primary deity is an incarnation of Vishnu. In Swaminarayan temples and home shrines, aarti is offered to Swaminarayan, considered by followers to be supreme God.

Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarti, kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees. While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman. Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god. While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes ( saguna Brahman). Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman), and god within oneself.

Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma. Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon ( Holi) or the new moon ( Diwali), often with seasonal changes. Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival. The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:

Pilgrimage

Many adherents undertake pilgrimages, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today. Pilgrimage sites are called , Kshetra, Gopitha or Mahalaya. The process or journey associated with Tirtha is called Tirtha-yatra. According to the Hindu text Skanda Purana, Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a sadhu, a rishi, a guru; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self. Tīrtha-yatra is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.

Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the Puranas. Most Puranas include large sections on Tirtha Mahatmya along with tourist guides, which describe sacred sites and places to visit. In these texts, Varanasi (Benares, Kashi), Rameswaram, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Puri, Haridwar, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Mayapur, Nathdwara, twelve Jyotirlinga and Shakti Pitha have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet ( sangam) or join the sea. Kumbh Mela is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival Makar Sankranti. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, Haridwar near source of the Ganges, Ujjain on the Shipra river and Nashik on the bank of the Godavari river. This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.

Kedar Ghat, a bathing place for pilgrims on the Ganges at Varanasi

Some pilgrimages are part of a Vrata (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons. It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a rite of passage such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness. It may, states Eck, also be the result of prayers answered. An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death. This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honor the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by traveling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges. Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts. The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from traveling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.

The term " Hindu culture" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress codes followed by the Hindus which is mainly can be inspired from the culture of India and Southeast Asia.

Architecture

The architecture of a Hindu temple in Sunak, Gujarat.

Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

The Hindu calendar, Panchanga ( Sanskrit: पञ्चाङ्ग) or Panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka (Based on the King Shalivahana, also the Indian national calendar) found in the Deccan region of Southern India and the Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of India - both of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Tamil calendar (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and Malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as Panjika in Eastern India.

The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32-33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the Hindus all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient Jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.

The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as Ekadashi.

Person and society

Priests performing Kalyanam (marriage) of the holy deities at Bhadrachalam Temple, in Telangana. It is one of the temples in India, where Kalyanam is done everyday throughout the year.[citation needed ]

Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varṇas. They are the : Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the : farmers and merchants; and the : servants and labourers. TheBhagavad Gītā links the varṇa to an individual's duty ( svadharma), inborn nature ( svabhāva), and natural tendencies (). The Manusmriti categorises the different castes. Some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists, although some other scholars disagree. Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom. And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.

A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varṇatita or "beyond all varṇas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varṇas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, tranquility, and spiritual insight. Texts dedicated to yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) of Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), and Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom) An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of yoga as exercise (traditionally Hatha yoga) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.

Some of the most prominent Hindu symbols: Om (left) and the Swastika (right)

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable (which represents the and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness, and (literally, seed) on forehead - considered to be the location of spiritual third eye, marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite of passage. Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, lingam, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.

Ahiṃsā and food customs

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā ( nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals. The term appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal. The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish. Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers Bos indicus to be sacred. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving, selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance. There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood. Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs. Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad and Svātmārāma recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous Self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the Shaktism tradition, and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal practise animal sacrifice. The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food. In contrast, the Vaishnava Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice. The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.

Institutions

A Hindu temple is a house of god(s). It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru - reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe, the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksha and karma. The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs. Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram style found in south India, and Nagara style found in north India. Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples. Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.

Many temples feature one or more idols ( murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point ( darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple. In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa ( Brahman), the universal essence.

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery). The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vānaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation). Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world. The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism. Combined with four proper goals of human life ( Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.

Monasticism

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation. A Hindu monk is called a , Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple ahiṃsā-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) - believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.

Hinduism's varied history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism ( c. 320-650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.

Hinduism under both Hindu and Islamic rulers from c. 1250-1750 CE , saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. The colonial period saw the emergence of various Hindu reform movements partly inspired by western movements, such as Unitarianism and Theosophy. In the Kingdom of Nepal, the Unification of Nepal by Shah dynasty was accompanied by the Hinduization of the state and continued till the c. 1950s. Indians were hired as plantation labourers in British colonies such as Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago. The Partition of India in 1947 was along religious lines, with the Republic of India emerging with a Hindu majority. During the 20th century, due to the Indian diaspora, Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the United States, and the United Kingdom.

In the 20th-21st century, many missionary organizations such as ISKCON, Sathya Sai Organization, Vedanta Society and so on. have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India. There have also been an increase of Hindu identity in politics, mostly in India, Nepal and Bangladesh in the form of Hindutva. The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like RSS, BJP and other organisations of Sangh Parivar in India, while there are also many Hindu nationalist parties and organisations such as Shivsena Nepal and RPP in Nepal, HINDRAF in Malaysia, etc. In September 2021, the State of New Jersey aligned with the World Hindu Council to declare October as Hindu Heritage Month.

Demographics

Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 79.8% of the country's population of 1.21 billion ( 2011 census) (966 million adherents). India contains 94% of the global Hindu population. Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million). A significant population of Hindus are also present in Pakistan (4 million). The majority of the Indonesian Tenggerese people in Java and the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in Ninh Thuận Province. Hinduism is the third fastest-growing religion in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.

Percentage of Hindus by country[525]

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Tradition

Followers

% of the Hindu population

% of the world population

Follower dynamics

World dynamics

Cumulative

948,575,000

100

13.8

Growing

Growing

Persecution and debates

Persecution

Hindus have experienced both historical religious persecution, ongoing religious persecution and systematic violence. These occur in the form of forced conversions, documented massacres, demolition and desecration of temples. Historic persecutions of Hindus happened under Muslim rulers and also by Christian Missionaries. In the Mughal Period, Hindus were forced to pay the Jizya. In Goa, the 1560 inquisition by Portuguese colonists is also considered one of the most brutal persecutions of Hindus. Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the Partition of India. In modern times, Hindus face discrimination in many parts of the world and also face persecution and forced conversion in many countries, especially in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Fiji and others.

Conversion debate

In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Some state the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.

It is known that, unlike ethnic religions, which exist almost exclusively among, for instance, the Japanese ( Shinto), the Chinese ( Taoism), or the Jews ( Judaism), Hinduism in India and Nepal is widespread among many, both Indo-Aryan and non-Aryan ethnic groups. In addition, religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from the Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism outside India. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, Hinduism was the state religion in many kingdoms of Asia, the so-called Greater India: from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, partly Philippines), and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam. Therefore, it looks quite natural for the modern Hindu preaching in the world.

Within India, archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd-century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century.

Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.

The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism, and vice versa, has been and remains an actively debated topic in India, Nepal, and in Indonesia.

Related systems and religions

1. Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" (Sharma 2003, pp. 12-13) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood 2003, pp. 1-17

2. There is ^ no single-word translation for dharma in Western languages.(Widgery 1930)(Rocher 2003)
The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions,Dharma, defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See Dharma (righteousness, ethics).

3. There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:

Flood 1996, p. 6 states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."

Sharma 2002 and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar Xuanzang, whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated term In-tu whose "connotation overflows in the religious".(Sharma 2002) Xuanzang describes Hindu Deva-temples of the early 7th century CE, worship of Sun deity and Shiva, his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at Nalanda. See also Gosch & Stearns 2007, pp. 88-99, Sharma 2011, pp. 5-12, Smith et al. 2012, pp. 321-324.

Sharma 2002 also mentions the use of the word Hindu in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text Tarikh Al-Hind, and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term Hindu retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".

Lorenzen 2006 states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, Futuhu's-Salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".(Lorenzen 2006, p. 33)

Lorenzen 2006, pp. 32-33 also mentions other non-Persian texts such as Prithvíráj Ráso by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.

Lorenzen 2006, p. 15 states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.

4. See: ^

Fowler 1997, p. 1: "probably the oldest religion in the world."

Klostermaier 2007, p. 1: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.

Kurien 2006: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."

Bakker 1997: "it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".

Noble 1998: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."

Smart 1993, p. 1, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century."
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."(Sponsel 2012: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.")
Australianlinguist, R. M. W. Dixon discovered that Aboriginal myths regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago.(Dixon 1996)
See also:

5. ^ Knott 1998, p. 5: "Many describe Hinduism as sanatana dharma, the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history."; Knott 1998, p. 117: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."

6. Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."
Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."

7. Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320-467 CE)."

8. See: ^

Samuel 2008, p. 194: "The Brahmanical pattern"

Flood 1996, p. 16: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative'"

Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "Brahmanical synthesis"

According to Heesterman 2005, Brahmanism developed out of the Historical Vedic religion; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to Witzel 1995, this development started around 1000 BCE in the Kuru Kingdom, with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.

9. See also:

Ghurye 1980, pp. 3-4: "He [Dr. J. H. Hutton, the Commissioner of the Census of 1931] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."

Zimmer 1951, pp. 218-219.

Sjoberg 1990, p. 43. Quote: [Tyler (1973). India: An Anthropological Perspective. p. 68.]; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."

Sjoberg 1990.

Flood 1996, p. 16: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin [...] The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to varnasramadharma."

Werner 1998.

Werner 2005, pp. 8-9.

Lockard 2007, p. 50.

Hiltebeitel 2002.

Hopfe & Woodward 2008, p. 79: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."

Samuel 2010.

10. Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2008, pp. 48-53), but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation (Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2007, p. xviii) the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of northeastern India (Flood 1996, p. 16; Gomez 2013, p. 42), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture (Bronkhorst 2007); and "popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996, p. 16) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."Doniger 2010, p. 66)

11. The Indo-Aryan word ^ Sindhu means "river", "ocean". It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta, "the land of the Aryans".

12. In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practicing or non-practicing or ^ Laissez-faire. The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as Sarnaism. The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states Julius Lipner, to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.

13. In ^ D. N. Jha's essay Looking for a Hindu identity, he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity." He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."

14. See ^ Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu studies.

15. The term ^ sanatana dharma and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.

16. ^ Hinduism is derived from Persian hindu- and the suffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".

17. ^ Pennington describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine-prone Bengal - now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."

18. ^ Sweetman (2004, p. 13) identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":

The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)

The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13)

[T]he identification of Vedanta, more specifically Advaita Vedanta, as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.(Sweetman 2004, p. 13) (Sweetman cites King 1999, p. 128.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13-14)

According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favored because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 13-14)

"The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".(Sweetman 2004, p. 14)

The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004, pp. 14-16) According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites Dirks 2001, p. xxvii.)

"[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"(Sweetman 2004, p. 15)

Anti-colonial Hindus(Sweetman 2004, pp. 15-16) "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".(Sweetman 2004, p. 15) (Sweetman cites Viswanathan 2003, p. 26.)

19. Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times: ^

Klaus Witz states that Hindu Bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.

John Henderson states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognized attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.

Patrick Olivelle and others state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.

20. * Hinduism is the fastest growing religion in Russia, Ghana and United States. This was due to the influence of the ISKCON and the migration of Hindus in these nations.

21. For translation of ^ deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. For translation of as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.

22. According to ^ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."[dubious ]

23. Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest ^ Indo-European texts.

24. According to ^ Bhavishya Purana, Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are four sources of dharma: (Vedas), (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara (conduct of noble people) and finally (Self satisfaction). From the sloka:

वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥

vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah
etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam

- Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7

The meaning isvedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's Self (conscience), the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma.

25. Klostermaier: "^ Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds, p.4.

26. The cremation ashes are called ^ phool (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called asthi sanchayana, then dispersed during asthi visarjana. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.

27. Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of ^ Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."

28. Among its roots are the ^ Vedic religion of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans, but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of east India, and "popular or local traditions".

29. ^ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. Flood mentions 1500 BCE.

30. The controversy started as an intense polemic battle between Christian missionaries and Muslim organizations in the first half of the 19th century, where missionaries such as ^ Karl Gottlieb Pfander tried to convert Muslims and Hindus, by criticizing Qur'an and Hindu scriptures. Muslim leaders responded by publishing in Muslim-owned newspapers of Bengal, and through rural campaign, polemics against Christians and Hindus, and by launching "purification and reform movements" within Islam. Hindu leaders joined the proselytization debate, criticized Christianity and Islam, and asserted Hinduism to be a universal, secular religion.

References

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Hinduism () is an Indian religion or , a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with approximately 1.2 billion followers, or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Religion in Austria is predominantly Christianity, adhered to by 68.2% of the country's population according to the 2021 national survey[a] conducted by Statistics Austria.[1] Among Christians, 80.9% were Catholics, 7.2% were Orthodox Christians (mostly belonging to the Eastern Orthodox Church), 5.6% were Protestants, while the remaining 6.2% were other Christians, belonging to other denominations of the religion or not affiliated to any denomination.[1] In the same census, 8.3% of the Austrians declared that their religion was Islam, 1.2% declared to believe in other non-Christian religions (including Buddhism, Hindusim, Judaism and others), and 22.4% declared they did not belong to any religion, denomination or religious community.[1]

According to church membership data, in 2021 53.9% of the population were Roman Catholics[2] and 3.0% adhered to Protestant churches.[3]

Austria was historically a strongly Catholic country, having been the centre of the Habsburg monarchy (1273-1918) which championed Roman Catholicism. Although in the 16th century many Austrians converted to Protestantism, Lutheranism in particular, as the Protestant Reformation (begun in 1517) was spreading across Europe, the Habsburgs enacted measures of Counter-Reformation as early as 1527 and harshly repressed Austrian Protestantism, albeit a minority of Austrians remained Protestant. A few decades after the fall of the Habsburg monarchy at the end of the World War I, and the transformation of Austria into a federal republic, at least since the 1970s there has been a decline of Christianity (with the exception of Orthodox churches) and a proliferation of other religions, a process which has been particularly pronounced in the capital state of Vienna.

Between the censuses of 1971 and 2021, Christianity declined from 93.8% to 68.2% of the Austrian population (Catholicism from 87.4% to 55.2%, and Protestantism from 6% to 3.8%, while Orthodox Christianity grew from 2.2% to 4.9% between 2001 and 2021).[1] During the same timespan, Islam grew from being the religion of 0.2% to 8.3% of the Austrian population, and the proportion of people neither affiliating with nor belonging to any religion grew from 4.3% to 22.4%.[1]

Census statistics, 1921-2021

Religion

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

2021

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Christianity
6,632,500

95.7

6,763,400

95.6

7,022,400

93.8

6,821,300

90.2

6,489,100

83.2

6,485,700

80.7

6,093,700

68.2

-Catholicism 6,170,100 89.0 6,295,100 89.0 6,548,300 87.4 6,372,600 84.3 6,081,500 78.0 5,915,400 73.6 4,933,300
55.2

-Orthodox Christianity**
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-
179,500 2.2 436,700
-

4.9

-Protestantism 429,500 6.2 438,700 6.2 447,100 6.0 423,200 5.6 388,700 5.0 376,200 4.7 340,300
3.8

-Old Catholicism 32,900 0.5 29,600 0.4 27,000 0.4 25,500 0.3 18,900 0.2 14,600 0.2 4,900
0.1

-Other Christians***
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-
378,500
-

4.2

Islam**
-

-

-

-

22,300

0.3

76,900

1.0

158,800

2.0

339,000

4.2

745,600

8.3

Buddhism****
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

10,400

0.1

26,600

0.3

Hinduism****
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3,600

0.0

10,100

0.1

Judaism
11,200

0.2

9,000

0.1

8,500

0.1

7,100

0.1

7,300

0.1

8,100

0.1

5,400

0.1

Other religions

23,100

0.3

31,400

0.4

74,400

1.0

118,900

1.6

197,400

2.5

62,200

0.9

62,100

0.7

No religion

264,000

3.8

266,000

3.8

321,200

4.3

452,000

6.0

672,300

8.6

963,300

12.0

1,997,700

22.4

Not stated

3,100

0.0

4,000

0.1

42,800

0.6

79,000

1.0

271,000

3.5

160,700

2.0

-

-

Total population

6,933,900

7,073,800

7,491,500

7,555,300

7,795,800

8,032,900

8,935,800

*1951-2001: religious affiliations of the entire population counted in the census. 2021-: religious affiliations counted in a microcensus and extrapolated to the total population.[1][a]
**Orthodox Christianity and Islam were counted as part of "other religions" until, respectively, the censuses of 1971 and 2001, in which they began to be counted separately.[1]
***In 2021, 378,500 people were counted in the "Christianity" category in one census table but in the "other religions" category in another table, making the distinction blurry.[1]
****Buddhism and Hinduism were counted separately, albeit only in some data reports, at least since the census of 2001.[1]

Line chart of the trends, 1951-2021

Census statistics 1951-2021:[1]

Other religions, including other Christians

Federal state

Christianity total

Catholicism

Orthodox Christianity

Protestantism

Islam

Other religions

No religion

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

N.b. Percentages do not add up to 100%; the remainder, which is not reported in this table, was counted as part of "Christianity" by the 2021 census compilers.[1]

Much of eastern Austria adopted Lutheranism until counterreformational efforts changed it in the late 16th century.

The Protestant Reformation spread from northern Germany to Austria. By the Council of Trent in 1545, almost half of the Austrian population had converted to Lutheranism, while a minority also endorsed Calvinism. Eastern Austria was more affected by this phenomenon than western Austria. After 1545, Austria was recatholicized in the Counter Reformation. The Habsburgs imposed a strict regime to restore the influence of the Catholic Church among Austrians and their campaign proved successful. The Habsburgs for a long time viewed themselves as the vanguard of Catholicism, while all the other Christian confessions and religions were repressed.

In 1775, Maria Theresa gave official permission to the Mechitarist Congregation of the Armenian Catholic Church to settle in the Habsburg Empire.

In 1781, in the era of Austrian enlightenment, Emperor Joseph II issued a Patent of Tolerance for Austria that allowed other confessions a limited freedom of worship. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right in Cisleithania after the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich in 1867, thus paying tribute to the fact that the monarchy was home to numerous religions besides Catholicism such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian Orthodox Christians (Austria neighboured the Ottoman Empire for centuries), both Calvinist and Lutheran Protestants, and Jews. In 1912, after the annexation of Bosnia Hercegovina in 1908, Islam was officially recognised in Austria.[6]

The Austrian Jewish community of 1938-Vienna alone counted more than 200,000-was reduced to around 4,500 during the Second World War, with about 65,000 Jewish Austrians killed in the Holocaust and 130,000 emigrating.[7] The large majority of the current Jewish population are post-war immigrants, particularly from eastern Europe and central Asia (including Bukharan Jews).[8] Buddhism was legally recognised as a religion in Austria in 1983.[9]

Austria was greatly affected by the Protestant Reformation, to a point where a significant part of the population became Protestant. Lutheranism was the most successful Protestant confession; that was the case among other German-speaking populations across the Holy Roman Empire and Austria was indeed one of them. Calvinism did not receive that much support. The prominent position of the Habsburgs in the Counter-Reformation, however, saw Protestantism all but wiped out beginning in 1545, restoring Catholicism as the dominant religion once more.

The significant Jewish population (around 200,000 in 1938), mainly residing in Vienna, was reduced to just a couple of thousand through mass emigration in 1938 (more than 2/3 of the Jewish population emigrated from 1938 until 1941), and the following Holocaust during the Nazi period. Immigration in more recent years, primarily from Turkey and the former Yugoslavia, has led to an increased number of Muslims and Serbian Orthodox Christians.[10] As in other European countries, there has been a growth of Pagan movements in Austria in recent years.

The Lutheran Christuskirche (Church of Christ) in Salzburg.

A mosque in Telfs.

Catholicism is the largest religion in Austria, representing 57.9%[11] of the total population in 2017. The Catholic Church's governing body in Austria is the Austrian Conference of Catholic Bishops, made up of the hierarchy of the two archbishops (Vienna, Salzburg), the bishops and the abbot of territorial abbey of Wettingen-Mehrerau. Nevertheless, each bishop is independent in his own diocese, answerable only to the Pope. The current president of the Conference of Catholic Bishops is Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, who belongs to the Central European noble family of Schönborn. Although Austria has no primate, the archbishop of Salzburg is titled Primus Germaniae ( Primate of Germany).

Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches grew over the last decades due to the coming of South Slavic immigrants from the Balkans to Austria. The largest group of Eastern Orthodox in Austria are Serbs. The Vienna Institute of Demography of the Austrian Academy of Sciences estimated in that there were 397,219 Eastern Orthodox Christians in Austria in 2016, representing the 4.6% of the total population.

The Protestant Reformation spread from northern Germany to Austria. By the Council of Trent in 1545, almost half of the Austrian population had converted to Lutheranism, while a much smaller minority also endorsed Calvinism. Eastern Austria was more affected by this phenomenon than western Austria. After 1545, Austria was recatholicized in the Counter Reformation. The Habsburgs imposed a strict regime to restore the influence of the Catholic Church among Austrians and their campaign proved successful; the Habsburgs for a long time viewed themselves as the vanguard of Catholicism, while all the other Christian confessions and religions were suppressed.

Protestantism reached a peak percentage of 6.2% by 1951 for the first time in Austrian history since the success of the Counter-Reformation. Currently, it claims around 3.5% of the population. Austrian Protestants are overwhelmingly Lutheran (3.4%), with a small Reformed community (0.1%). New arriving Protestant churches are growing in membership, especially Evangelical Protestants and Pentecostals, a study from the Vienna Institute of Demography of the Austrian Academy of Sciences found that there were an estimate of 412,423 Protestants of all types in Austria in 2016.[12]

Lutheranism

The Lutheran Protestant Church of the Augsburg Confession in Austria has about 300,000 (3.4%) members.[13]

Calvinism

The Reformed Church in Austria, a Calvinist body, has roughly 13,590 members.

Due to immigration, especially from the Balkans and Turkey, the number of Muslims in Austria has grown exponentially over the latest decades, with an estimated number of Muslims of 686,599, or 7.9% of the total population as of 2016, up from 4.2% in 2001.[14][15][12]

Year

Absolute number

Percentage

Source

Buddhism is a legally recognized religion in Austria and it is followed by thousands of people. Although still small in absolute numbers (10,402 at the 2001 census), Buddhism enjoys widespread acceptance in Austria. A majority of Buddhists in the country are Austrian nationals (some of them naturalized after immigration from Asia, predominantly from China and Vietnam), while a considerable number of them are foreign nationals.

As in most European countries, different branches and schools of Buddhism are represented by groups of varying sizes. Vienna not only has the largest number of foreign residents, but is also the place with the longest tradition of Buddhism in the country. Most of Austria's Buddhist temples and centres of practice can be found there; some with a specific Chinese, Vietnamese, Tibetan or Japanese appearance. The latest development has been the establishment of a "Buddhist cemetery" around a stupa-like building for funeral ceremonies at the Vienna Central Cemetery.

Hinduism is a minority religion in Austria, and according to the 2001 census, it was the religion of 3629 people. Since 1998, the 'Hindu Community in Austria' (HRÖ), the official representative of Hindus in Austria, has been able to call itself an 'Official registered confessional community', yet does not enjoy full legal recognition from the state.[17][self-published source? ]

Austria has seen a growth of Pagan movements in recent years, especially Druidic ( Druidentum), but also Germanic Heathen ( Heidentum), Wiccan and Neopagan witchcraft ( Hexentum) groups. As of 2010 Austrian motorway authorities have been hiring Druids for geomantic works intended to reduce the number of accidents on the worst stretches of Austrian speedways.[18][19]

Celtic Neopaganism and Neo-Druids are particularly popular in Austria, by virtue of Austria being the location of the proto-Celtic Hallstatt culture. The Keltendorf in Diex, Kärnten combines archaeological reconstruction with "European geomancy". The Europäische Keltische Gemeinschaft has been active since 1998.

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom;[20] in 2021, the government established a new staff unit in the fight against antisemitism sentiment and violence.

Main denominations in Austria[21][22][23][13][11]

Year

Population

Catholics

Percentage

Protestants[24]

Percentage

2017

8,823,054

5,112,330[11]

57.9%

296,338

3.4%

2019

4,980,000[25]

2022

8,978,929

4,830,000 [26]

53.7%

Since 2011, Statistics Austria switched the census methodology from the traditional face-to-face and module-based census to a register-based census; the latter does not allow populations to be directly queried about certain topics, such as religious affiliation. As a consequence, the 2011 census did not provide information about the religious affiliations of Austrians. In 2021, Statistics Austria adopted a combined census methodology, and the question about religion was introduced again through a microcensus, or national survey, complementing the register-based census.[1]

1. ^ Official census data provided by Statistics Austria:

2. ^ Austrian church statistics, katholisch.at

3. ^ "Imperial Gazette −1912". IGGIO Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Osterreich. 2011.

4. ^ Bukharian Jews find homes on Long Island, Bukharian Reviews, 16 September 2004

5. ^ "Religionsbekenntnis". AEIOU.

6. ^ "Religion in Austria on Sacred Destinations". Archived from the original on 2006-05-23.

7. ^ Austrian Catholic Church data 2017

8. ^ Goujon, Anne; Jurasszovich, Sandra; Potančoková, Michaela (August 2017). "Religious denominations in Austria" (PDF). Vienna Institute of Demography of the Austrian Academy of Sciences: 102.

9. "Zahlen und Fakten" [Numbers and Facts]. Evangelical Church in Austria. 31 December 2010.

10. ^ Mathias Vogl; Alexander Janda, eds. (2010). "Islam in Österreich" [Islam in Austria] (PDF). Österreichischer Integrationsfonds (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2014.

11. Elsaidy, Amro (2014). Muslimische Jugendliche in Österreich am Beispiel Graz: Ein Leben zwischen Moschee und Diskothek (PDF) (Thesis). Universität Wien. p. 39. S2CID 194611223. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-18.

12. ^ "HRÖ - Our History". Hroe.at. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016.

13. ^ "Bevölkerung nach dem Religionsbekenntnis und Bundesländern 1951 bis 2001" [Population by religious denomination and Federal State from 1951 to 2001] (PDF) (in German). Statistical Office of Austria. 1 June 2007.

14. ^ "Katholische Kirche Österreich: Statistik" [Catholic Church Austria: Statistics] (in German). Katholisch.at. Archived from the original on 2013-03-14.

15. ^ "Statistical Data 2001-2016" (in German). Evang.at. 12 February 2016.

16. ^ Only Evangelical Lutherans & Evangelical Reformed

17. ^ "Kirchenaustritte in Österreich um 14,9 Prozent gestiegen". 15 January 2020.

18. ^ "Kirchenaustritte stiegen nach CoV-Beruhigung wieder". 12 January 2022.

Hödl, Hans Gerald; Pokorny, Lukas, eds. (2012-2021). Religion in Austria. Vol. 1-6. Praesens Verlag.

Kosinsky, Danuta; Stiegnitz, Peter, eds. (1990). Religions in Austria. Federal Press Service.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Religion in Austria is predominantly Christianity, adhered to by 68.2% of the country's population according to the 2021 national survey[a] conducted by Statistics Austria.[1] Among Christians, 80.9% were Catholics, 7.2% were Orthodox Christians (mostly belonging to the Eastern Orthodox Church), 5.6% were Protestants, while the

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The main religion in Italy is Roman Catholicism. According to the CIA's World Factbook, 80 percent of Italians are Christian, with the vast majority of those belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. The remaining 20 percent are non-believers or agnostics, and there is a small but growing population of Muslims, mostly from Africa.

Italy is home to the heart of the Roman Catholic Church. Although the Vatican City, which is located in the heart of Rome, is technically a separate country, it is deeply embedded into Italian and Roman culture. For many years, popes came exclusively from Italy, and one of the pope's official titles is "Bishop of Rome." This historic link with the Roman Catholic Church pervades Italian culture. Another study reports that 88 percent of Italians are Roman Catholic, though only 37 percent consider themselves to be active in the Church.

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The main religion in Italy is Roman Catholicism. According to the CIA's World Factbook, 80 percent of Italians are Christian, with the vast majority of those belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. The remaining 20 percent are non-believers or agnostics, and there is a small but growing population of Muslims, mostly from Africa.

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Are Polish People Religious?

Poland is often characterised as one of the prime examples of staunch and orthodox Eastern European Catholicism. But, while this is definitely true of the Poland we know today, it's not always been the case. Since the so-called 'Baptism of Poland' (the Chrzest Polski) on the 14th of April 966 AD, the religious climate that existed in Poland has fluctuated in a similar fashion to the borders that defined the land itself. The process of changing religiosity is a story that mirrors, and in many ways describes the very formation of Poland's unique modern national identity. It's a story of a metamorphosing nation, ever changing, growing and diminishing, under the multifarious influences of its place, on a geographical confluence of East meets West.

Before 966 Poland was broadly pagan. It's thought that religion was organised tribally, so it's very likely that many 'border tribes' would have assimilated Christian ideas from the Czech Christians, long before. Indeed, it's also thought that the wife of Mieszko I, the Polish king who heralded the Christianisation, was already a staunch and zealous follow of Christ, and probably a Lady Macbeth-esque key player in bringing her husband round to the idea of a national conversion. However, there's two sides to every coin, and it's often noted that the Chrzest Polski coincides perfectly with Mieszko's choice of alliance with the Czech Christians to the south; a timely shun to the German states amidst a European power-struggle that was using Christianity as a major civil weapon.

The site of Miesko's baptism is disputed, but most agree on the west-central city of Poznan. After that, it took several centuries for Christianity to propagate all the way through Poland, during which time a number of political changes and conflicts saw constant alteration to the borders and organisation of the country; each had their own effect on how religion developed in Poland.

One marked feature of Polish religious history is the establishment of a flourishing Jewish community. Until the dark and scarring history of the Nazi holocaust in the last century, and the partitioning of Poland by overwhelmingly anti-semantic nations in the late 19th, the Jews flocked to Poland from all over Europe. It was known as a haven of tolerance from around the tenth century, where a variety of religions were allowed to practice unhindered. In fact the 'Statute of Kalisz', a 13th Century edict issued by the Polish state, was the first of its kind on the continent and guaranteed legal, civil and humanitarian rights for Jews.

The enduring Christian identity of Poland could be said to have been as much a spiritual path as it has political one for many people who have identified themselves as 'Polish' throughout history. This is a country with a hard fought presence and a difficult history; it has been partitioned and invaded by foreign powers on many occasions. It's commonly assessed the overwhelming Roman Catholic majority in the country provided something like a cultural identity to the dislocated and partitioned Poles of the 19th and 20th centuries; so much so that Poland has emerged impervious to geographical obliteration.

Today, Poland's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and provides rights to religious minorities to practice. In the later decades of the 20th century there has been a Jewish revival, and while the numbers of practicing Catholics in the country is dwindling slightly, the zeal and passion with which most Poles still follow the Vatican is evident in most corners of the country (not least of all in the name of the late Jan Pawel Drugi (JP II), the nationally esteemed Pope who hailed from southern Poland).

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Poland is often characterised as one of the prime examples of staunch and orthodox Eastern European Catholicism. But, while this is definitely true of the Poland we know today, it's not always been the case.

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Considerations when choosing a supplier ad

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'buying local keeps money circulating within the local economy'
'The main health benefit of locally grown food is that it's fresher. Fruits and vegetables begin to lose their nutrients within 24 hours of being picked, so fresher produce is more nutritious

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Discover why it's important to buy local food, the health benefits of eating locally grown produce, and why choosing local food benefits the environment.
Have you wondered why it's important to buy local food?

Local food is now a mainstream trend, with more and more people seeking out fresh, local options for produce and other foods. And more restaurants are sourcing locally grown ingredients as well, often using the term farm-to-table.

But what is "local" food? How big of an impact does eating local food have on your health and the planet? And why is it important to know more about where your food comes from?

What Is Local Food and Why Should You Care?

There's no formal definition of the term local food. But one common definition of "local" food is food grown within 100 miles of its point of sale or consumption.

But it's up to you to decide what buying local food means to you. Maybe it means foods grown and produced in your state or your region. Or maybe it means that it comes from farmers you know and can talk to - for example, at a farmer's market or through a CSA. And for some people, "local" is more about the values of small-scale and community-based than about a specific geographic configuration.

More and more people want to know where their food comes from and the farming practices of the farmers that grow and produce it. And this is important for many reasons:

It helps you develop a connection with food.

You become more aware of what you're putting in your body.

You vote every time you shop, and with knowledge comes the ability to support foods and growers you believe in.

Why Buy Local Food? For One Thing, It May Be Better for Your Health

Local food can be better for your health for a few reasons. To begin with, local foods often retain more nutrients. Local produce is allowed to ripen naturally, while food that travels long distances is often picked before it's ripe. And food picked fresh and in season doesn't have far to travel before being sold.

Choosing fruits and vegetables grown in season may also be healthier. When researchers at Montclair State University compared the vitamin C content of broccoli grown in season with broccoli imported out of season, they found the latter had only half the vitamin C.

Another study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry found that the levels of health-promoting anthocyanin pigments more than quadrupled as blackberries became fully ripe.

In addition, locally grown produce may be safer. When they are imported and out of season, fruits like tomatoes, bananas, and pears are often picked unripe. And then, they are artificially "ripened" with ethylene gas.

Also, foods from local growers may contain less (or no) pesticides. Farmers have to pay an extra fee to become certified organic. Some small-scale farmers use organic methods but aren't certified because they simply aren't big enough to be able to afford the certification fees. Even if they aren't organic, small farmers tend to use fewer chemicals than large, industrialized farms.

If you can, talk to your farmers at your local market and ask them what (if any) pesticides they use. And be sure to wash your produce thoroughly to reduce your exposure to pesticides - which is especially important for pregnant women and children.

Why Buy Local Food? It Can Be Better for the Environment

Food is one of the leading drivers of climate change.

Eating more local food reduces CO2 emissions by reducing food miles - the distance food travels from farm to consumer. The average piece of produce in the U.S. travels 1,500 miles, while local food may only travel 100 miles (or less), according to researcher Rich Pirog at the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University.

Local food helps preserve green space. When local farmers are well compensated for their products, they are less likely to sell their land to developers. Likewise, with growing consumer demand, young farmers are increasingly likely to enter the marketplace by developing unused space, such as empty lots, into thriving urban gardens - many of which are grown organically.

Eating more local food can be one part of the solution. But, local is not the whole picture of food sustainability. The impact our food choices have on the environment includes many factors.

In some cases, food produced farther away may be more sustainable if it's grown more responsibly, if it carries a smaller ecological footprint, or if it's in season.

Choosing more plant-based foods is an important part of the equation as well. If you want to eat a more sustainable diet, look for foods that are local, organic, and low on the food chain. The higher the percentage of your protein intake that comes from plant foods, the more earth-friendly and healthful your diet will be.

Other Reasons Why It's Important to Buy Local Foods

Health and sustainability are two excellent reasons to eat more local food. But they're not the only reasons. Here are some surprising, and not-so-surprising, benefits:

Fresher food tastes better - When food is picked and eaten at the peak of freshness, it not only retains more nutrients, it also tastes better.

Small, local farms offer more variety. Our industrial agricultural system uses a monocrop system. But smaller, organic farmers may grow a variety of organic and heirloom produce, which you might not find at the supermarket.

Supporting local food aids your local economy. By choosing food produced locally, you're supporting your community, and you help keep local producers in business.

Local food creates community and connection. In our increasingly online and isolated world, loneliness is a growing problem. Getting to know your local growers and shopping or volunteering at a local farmer's market, co-op, or community supported agriculture (CSA) counteracts this trend. And doing so can help you build meaningful human connections.

How to Find Farmers Markets in Your Area

Depending on your area and the time of year, farmer's markets may offer everything from fresh produce and flowers to freshly baked bread, as well as fresh-pressed juices and even specialty items like homemade cashew-based gelato.

Farmers markets also often offer local clothing and jewelry made by local artisans. And at many of them, local musicians often play while you walk around. All in all, a weekend morning at the farmer's market can be a welcome way to connect with local farmers, local people, and vendors of all types who create inspiring foods and local wares.

Farmers markets have been around for thousands of years. They were in decline during the development of the supermarket in the middle of the twentieth century.

But with growing consumer demand in local and organic foods, the number of farmers markets in the U.S. has quadrupled in the past two decades - from almost 2,000 in 1994 to more than 8,700 in 2014.

Still, farmers markets are only a tiny fraction of the food market. The more consumers continue to shop at local markets, the more these local farmers will thrive and grow.

To find a farmers market in your area, you can visit:

What about CSAs?

Community supported agriculture programs (CSAs) allow people to purchase seasonal produce directly from local farmers.

Typically, a CSA-participating farm will offer a certain number of "shares" to the public. And then the farm will commit to growing food for participating members. Community members, in turn, agree to support the farm through financial contributions, which are typically paid up-front.

Membership dues help to pay for seeds and plants, greenhouse expenses, equipment, labor, and other costs related to the workings of the farm. Members receive a weekly or biweekly share of the farm's harvest. Essentially, the community members become shareholders in the farm - and the farm has a steady supply of revenues it can count on.

The concept of a CSA began in Japan in the mid-1960s and 1970s, in response to consumer concern about the increasing use of pesticides in industrial farming. It began to make its way to North America in the mid-1980s.

Since then, different farms and communities have tailored the same model to their own needs and preferences. CSAs can operate on very different scales, with some serving only a dozen families while others provide food for more than a thousand households.

While it's hard to know exactly how many CSAs there are, the USDA's last official estimate was that there were 12,549 farms participating in the program in the United States alone. CSAs are also spreading rapidly throughout Europe - with thousands of initiatives now feeding more than a million eaters. In France alone, an estimated 320,000 people enjoy food from CSAs.

Some CSAs offer home delivery options, some distribute shares at farmers' markets, and others require members to pick up their shares directly at the farm. At some farms, members get to choose what kinds of produce they want in their share each week, while other farms let the week's harvest dictate what will be included.

If you're in the United States, you can get information on CSAs programs and help finding one near you by clicking here.

How to Find Local Foods in Stores Near You

What if you can't make it to a farmers market on the weekend and your town doesn't have any CSAs? How can you find local foods near you?

You may want to seek out a local food co-op. A co-op is an organization that may look and feel like a conventional grocery store or natural foods store, but it's owned by customers.

Customers can purchase a share of the store. Food co-ops often carry food from local farmers, as well as other food items from local producers.

For a directory, visit this online directory of food co-ops. The local food co-op in your area may not be listed. So you may want to do further research online and offline.

If your area doesn't have a local co-op, seek out fresh, local produce options from your local grocery store. Locally owned grocery stores and natural food stores are often more likely to stock local foods.

At any food store, you can look for labels and signs that indicate locally grown and produced foods. And you can ask which foods are local. You can also ask your local grocery store to carry more fresh, local, organic produce and other foods from local vendors.

How Local is Your Food?

We want to hear from you in the comments below!

What questions do you have?

Why do you choose to buy local food?

What steps will you take to start buying more locally grown food?

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Why Buy Local Food? It's Healthier for You and Better for the Environment

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Discover why it's important to buy local food, the health benefits of eating locally grown produce, and why choosing local food benefits the environment. Have you wondered why it's important to buy local food? Local food is now a mainstream trend, with more and more people seeking out fresh, local options for produce and other foods.

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Local food benefits the environment. By purchasing locally grown foods you help maintain farmland and green and/or open space in your community. Local foodspromote a safer food supply. The more steps there are between you and yourfood's source the more chances there are for contamination.

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7 benefits of eating local foods

Questions about this information? Contact us.
Updated from an original article written by Rita Klavinski, Michigan State University Extension.
Eating locally grown foods has many benefits for the consumer, grower and the community.

Soon farmers markets and roadside stands will be open and offering early spring crops such as rhubarb and asparagus. Also, growers who have greenhouses or hoop houses can offer greens early in the growing season. After what seemed like a long, cold winter season the chance to have locally grown food available to add to meals is irresistible.

Having the option to purchase locally grown food has many benefits. Michigan State University Extension suggests the following benefits of buying locally grown food.

Locally grown food is full of flavor. When grown locally, the crops are picked at their peak of ripeness versus being harvested early in order to be shipped and distributed to your local retail store. Many times produce at local markets has been picked within 24 hours of your purchase.

Eating local food is eating seasonally. Even though we wish strawberries were grown year round in Michigan, the best time to eat them is when they can be purchased directly from a local grower. They are full of flavor and taste better than the ones available in the winter that have traveled thousands of miles and picked before they were ripe.

Local food has more nutrients. Local food has a shorter time between harvest and your table, and it is less likely that the nutrient value has decreased. Food imported from far-away states and countries is often older, has traveled and sits in distribution centers before it gets to your store.

Local food supports the local economy. The money that is spent with local farmers and growers all stays close to home and is reinvested with businesses and services in your community.

Local food benefits the environment. By purchasing locally grown foods you help maintain farmland and green and/or open space in your community.

Local foods promote a safer food supply. The more steps there are between you and your food's source the more chances there are for contamination. Food grown in distant locations has the potential for food safety issues at harvesting, washing, shipping and distribution.

Local growers can tell you how the food was grown. You can ask what practices they use to raise and harvest the crops. When you know where your food comes from and who grew it, you know a lot more about that food.

As the growing season starts and gets into full swing, you should think about how you can add more locally grown foods to your menus. By doing so you are supporting the many benefits of locally grown food.

MSU Extension has educators working across Michigan who provide community food systems educational programming and assistance. For more information, you can contact an educator by conducting a search with MSU Extension's Find an Expert search tool and using the keywords, "community food systems."

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Eating locally grown foods has many benefits for the consumer, grower and the community.

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'There is now a greater emphasis on sourcing local suppliers to help minimise food miles and to make the most of fresh seasonal produce.'

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What to look for when choosing a supplier

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What to look for when choosing a supplier

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When it comes to an Italian Christmas, food is an important-okay, possibly the most important-part of the tradition. But what exactly do Italians eat for their Christmas meals?

Like everything else in Italy, of course, exact Christmas foods depend on the region. But here are some of our favorite food traditions!

An Italian Christmas Eve-only fish, please!

According to tradition, the meal for Christmas Eve, La Vigilia, doesn't have any meat. It's all fish and vegetables. That's in keeping with most meals served on the eve before a religious festival in Italy: You're supposed to have a giorno di magro, eating lean to help purify your body for the holiday. Whether the fish dishes that are actually served qualify as "lean," of course, is another story!

One traditional Christmas Eve dish is capitone (eel), although it's becoming less and less popular. These days, more common fish include baccalà, octopus, and shellfish. In Rome, a favorite local dish is the pezzetti, which are fried cubes of ricotta or pieces of artichokes, zucchini, or broccoli; in Naples, a starter is a sauteed mix of broccoli and seafood.

Then, of course, come the pasta dishes. These also vary. In the north, especially Lombardy and Piedmont, lasagna is covered with anchovies, parmesan, and seasonings. In Naples, it's vermicelli with clams or mussels.

If you think we're talking about a 3-course meal here, by the way, think again. It's traditionally way more... but don't worry, there's a theological reason behind all of that indulgence! Seven courses might be served for the 7 sacraments, 9 for the Trinity (squared), 12 for the apostles, 13 for the disciples with Jesus, or 21 (yikes!) for the Trinity times the 7 sacraments.

"Lean day," indeed!

Christmas Day lunch... with the Madonna and Jesus?

After you've (ahem) refrained from indulging on Christmas Eve, you're allowed to really tuck in on Christmas Day. Lunch is the main meal. Pasta in brodo -pasta in broth-is a common kickoff to the meal across Italy, but particularly in the north. In Bologna, it's all about meat-filled tortellini in capon (eel) broth; in Ferrara, the pasta's stuffed with pumpkin filling.

Eel used to be the main course for most Italian families, but now, many in Italy eat turkey-stuffed, not unlike what you see for an American Thanksgiving!

And if you're at a Christmas Day meal in Calabria, don't be surprised if the table stays set even after everyone's finished eating and left. Traditionally, the dishes are left because they're waiting for the Madonna and the baby Jesus to come... to taste the food!

Then, of course, there's the dessert. Italians aren't generally big on desserts, but when it comes to sweets and the Christmas season, all bets are off. Of course, sweet breads, like panettone and are popular across Italy. Other desserts include cavallucci, cookies with the image of a horse (from, of course, Siena); dita degli apostoli ("fingers of the apostles"), chocolate- or coffee-flavored ricotta-filled omelettes, a Puglian tradition; and mostaccioli, spiced nut pastries gobbled up by Romans.

As much (delicious!) food as that is, though, Italians aren't done! The Christmas season in Italy continues all the way until January 6, the day of the Epiphany.

Stay tuned for an upcoming post on what to eat for New Year's and the Epiphany in Italy!

Want to make some of these foods yourself? Here are some recipes to help:

Recipes for a whole Christmas meal, including tortellini in brodo, stuffed chicken, eel with peas and tomato, and panettone pudding

Recipes for various Christmas fish dishes from Puglia, with stunning photos

Recipes for a northern Italian Christmas, including braised veal, anchovies in green sauce, and apple tart
You might also like: Italy's 6 Sweet Christmas Breads: Panettone and Beyond What Does Being "Beatified" Really Mean? 10 of the Most Beautiful Castles in Italy

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When it comes to an Italian Christmas, food is an important-okay, possibly the most important-part of the tradition. But what exactly do Italians eat for their Christmas meals? Like everything else in Italy, of course, exact Christmas foods depend on the region. But here are some of our favorite food traditions!

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Religious and traditional festivals in Italy

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Religion is a great influence in Italy especially Christianity since it is the official religion in Italy, and there are a lot of festivals and celebration.

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Science and technology in Brazil - Wikipedia

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Science and technology in Brazil has entered the international arena in recent decades.

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Caipirinha ( Portuguese pronunciation: [kajpiˈɾĩj̃ɐ]) is Brazil's national cocktail, made with cachaça ( sugarcane hard liquor), sugar, and lime. Cachaça, also known as caninha, or any one of a multitude of traditional names, is Brazil's most common distilled alcoholic beverage.

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Colonized by a catholic country, Brazilians have recently been open to different religions, what has led to a constant migration among beliefs and practices. Learn in this article what are the major religions in Brazil.

General overview

Before the arrival of the Portuguese colonizers, Brazil already had natives living here. These natives, who were composed by different indigenous tribes, had their own religions that ended up being prohibited as the natives were forced to convert to Catholicism. This introduction of Catholicism to indigenous people was very violent and nearly erased all the religious and cultural features of these communities. This is why we don't see indigenous communities among the major religions practiced in Brazil.

As Brazil was shaping its cultural identity and immigrants began to arrive, new religious patterns have started to be developed. Apart from the Portuguese, Brazil was also strongly colonized by African people, who came to the country as slaves. These people brought their traditions and beliefs that later on were to be incorporated to the Brazilian culture and identity.

In the 20th century the massive arrival of Japanese people along with other Asians (such as Koreans and Chinese) brought different religious practices into the country and the intensive process of globalization has provided the opportunity of getting in touch with several different religions and practices.

Religion in Numbers

According to the last census, the Brazilian population is constituted by:

Roman Catholics - 64,6%

Protestants - 22,2%

No religion - 8%

Other religions - 3,2%

Spiritualists - 2%

According to a study made by Galileu magazine, there are 125,5 million Catholics in Brazil. The Brazilian Catholic Church has 10.218 parishes, 298 bishops and 18.685 priests. The same study has estimated that per each priest there are four ministers and that Catholics give only 0,54% of the family earnings to the church, while Protestants give from 1,48% to 2,26% of the family earnings.

As for the family income, the minorities are on the top, as we can see below:

Oriental religions - monthly family income of BRL 5.447,00

Spiritualists - monthly family income of BRL 4.422,00

Catholics - monthly family income of BRL 2.023,00

Protestants - monthly family income of BRL 1.496,00

Still according to the same study, Scientology only have 200 followers in Brazil, while the Islam would have 27.239 Brazilian followers and Santo Daime, a religion from the Amazonian area, would have 200 thousand followers.

Even though most Catholic people (94% to be more specific) claim they have always been Catholic, the Catholic Church is the one that has lost the greatest number of followers over the years, with many of them migrating to protestant churches.

Catholicism

The Catholic Church in Brazil is divided into three major groups:

The Roman Catholic Apostolic Church;

The Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church;

The Orthodox Catholic Church;

The one with the greatest number of followers is the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church, with a total number of 123.280.172 followers, according to the 2010 Census. The Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church is the second major Catholic Church in Brazil, with 560.781, followed by the Orthodox Catholic Church, with 131.571.

The area in Brazil where the Catholic Church has mostly lost its followers is the Southeast, where there is a major concentration of Protestants, especially in major cities and its metropolitan areas. The Northeast of Brazil is the region with the major number of Catholics, with Piauí state being the state with the major concentration of Catholics in Brazil (85% of the population). On the other hand, Rio de Janeiro is the Brazilian state with the lowest concentration of Catholics (45% of the population).

Protestantism

Known in Brazil as "evangélicos", Protestants used to be known for making a stricter interpretation of the bible. Most conservative protestant churches would impose several prohibitions to its followers, especially women. "Congregação Cristã do Brasil" (or "Brazilian Christian Congregation in free translation), for example, prohibit its female followers to get a haircut and wearing pants or shorts, having their clothing basically restricted to long dresses and skirts. They were also prohibited of wearing makeup and painting their nails.

Such strict conduct has been one of the main causes for the rise of so many different protestant churches in Brazil. New churches with more relaxed codes of conducts started to pop up everywhere in Brazil to the point that having one single street with three different protestant churches is not uncommon.

The buildings of most traditional (and why not wealthier) Protestant churches obey a certain pattern, being easily identified as a church; but the ones that have not been in the market for too long are commonly placed in buildings that used to host stores and even bars.

According to IBGE, there are at least 20 types of Evangelical churches in Brazil, being divided into missionary and Pentecostal churches. Below are the churches, organized by the number of followers (data obtained from the last census, from 2010).
Missionary churches

Igreja Evangélica Luterana (Lutheran Evangelic Church) - 999.498 followers;

Igreja Evangélica Presbiteriana (Presbyterian Evangelic Church) - 921.209 followers;

Igreja Evangélica Metodista (Methodist Evangelic Church) - 340.938 followers;

Igreja Evangélica Batista (Baptist Evangelic Church) - 3.723.853 followers;

Igreja Evangélica Congregacional (Congregational Evangelic Church) - 109.591 followers;

Igreja Evangélica Adventista (Adventist Evangelic Church) - 1.561.071 followers;

Other Missionary churches - 30.666

Pentecostal churches

Igreja Assembleia de Deus (The House of God Church) - 12.314.410 followers;

Igreja Congregação Cristã do Brasil (Brazilian Christian Congregation) - 2.289.634 followers;

Igreja o Brasil para Cristo ( Brazil for Christ Church) - 196.665 followers;

Igreja Evangelho Quadrangular( Quadrangular Evangelic Church) - 1.808.389 followers;

Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus (Universal Church of the Kingdom of God) - 1.873.243 followers;

Igreja Casa da Benção (Blessing House Church) - 125.550 followers;

Igreja Deus é Amor (God is Love Church) - 845.383 followers;

Igreja Maranata (Maranata Church) - 356.021 followers;

Igreja Nova Vida (New Life Church) - 90.568 followers;

Undefined Neopentecostal churches - 23.461 followers;

Evangelic Community - 180.130 followers;

Other Evangelical churches from Pentecostal origin - 5.267.029 followers;

Undefined Evangelical churches - 9.218.129 followers.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Even though denominated as a Christian church, Jehovah's Witnesses (or "Testemunhas de Jeová" in Portuguese) have no Trinitarian beliefs, differing from mainstream Christianity. Known for their door-to-door preaching, Jehovah's Witnesses refuse military service and blood transfusions. They also do not celebrate Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays they consider to have pagan origins.

Jehovah's Witnesses have been strongly criticized by members of the medical community who see their refusal to blood transfusion as a risk to their own lives. The Watchtower, series of books distributed to disseminate their preaching, has been accused of racism, with black people being explicitly considered to be inferior, a belief that has only started to change in the 50's, when Jehovah's Witnesses started to see them as "capable of being taught". In Brazil, there are 1.393.208 Jehovah's Witnesses, according to the last census, dating from 2010.

Spiritualism

Spiritualism was first observed in Brazil in 1845, in Bahia state, but it was in Rio de Janeiro that the religion started to gain visibility through the work of Allan Kardec, that later on would be responsible for the Spiritualistic denomination called Kardecismo. Spiritualism in Brazil followed the principles of the two books published by Allan Kardec named "O Livro dos Espíritos" (The book of Spirits) and "O Livro dos Médiuns" (The Psychics' book).

The popularity of Spiritualism in Brazil occurs greatly through literature, with Zíbia Gasparetto and Chico Xavier as major exponents. Its followers still face prejudice from Brazilians, especially Christians, who believe that Spiritualism is related to witchcraft and devilish practices, a prejudice that is also extended to African religions.

According to IBGE, there are 3.848.786 spiritualists in Brazil.

Umbanda

Umbanda is a 100% Brazilian religion, based on Catholicism and Spiritualism, as well as Indigenous and African religions. In the early 20th century, Umbanda followers (as well as any practitioner of African religions) were victims of religious persecution, being chased and beaten up by government representatives.

Umbanda followers believe in the existence of a supreme god named Zambi, preaching fraternity, charity and respect to others. As Umbanda has incorporated practices originated from Spiritualism, the practice of mediumship is adopted as means of contact between the physical and the spiritual world.

Umbanda is based on the pursuit of a peaceful life and respect to humankind, nature and god, respecting all different beliefs, regardless on religion. However, its followers still suffer a great prejudice in Brazil, especially because most Brazilians believe that African religions are directly connected to witchcraft.

Another practice highly condemned in Brazil is the sacrifice of animals to be offered as gifts to "orixás", who are important deities of Umbanda. Its followers claim that they do not practice animal sacrifice as this would go against the religion respect to life and nature.

The last Brazilian census has counted 407.331 Umbanda followers, mostly concentrated in Rio de Janeiro and Salvador, Brazilian cities with a greater number of African-descendants.

Candomblé

An African-derived religion, Candomblé worships orixás, Voduns and Nksis, depending on the nation. Differently from Umbanda, Candomblé is not restricted to Brazil, being practiced in Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Germany, Italy, Spain and other countries.

Originally, each African nation worships one orixá. The combination of different cults is a result of slavery that brought to Brazil Africans from several different nations. In Brazil, its presence is stronger in Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Pernambuco, Alagoas and Maranhão states. IBGE estimates that there are 167.363 Candomblé followers in Brazil.

Although having different deities according to the nation, Candomblé claims to be a monotheistic religion. Its deities are honored with "gifts" such as songs, dances, special clothes, vegetable and the sacrifice of hens, pigeons, sheep and goats.

As an attempt to escape from religious persecution, African slaves used elements from Catholicism as a disguise when worshiping their own god and deities. The usage of Catholic images and symbols ended up being incorporated to Candomblé, but was not enough to avoid persecutions from Christians and even government members saw the religion as pagan and witchcraft.

Unlike most religions in Brazil, homosexuality is openly accepted by Candomblé, being openly discussed by its members. However, the religion shares the Christian positioning of being against abortion as the birth of a child is considered to be holly.

The rise of contagious diseases such as HIV has caused changes in the Candomblé customs. Just to give an example, when a member was admitted he/she had his/her head shaved and the same razor would be shared among all members. As fear of contamination with HIV started to grow, the use of individual or disposable razors was adopted.
Macumba
Macuba is a musical instrument used during the religious rituals. Afro-Brazilian religions suffer greatly from prejudice and the term "macumba" is pejoratively used to refer to these religions, especially to the sacrifice of animals as offer to deities.

The practice of sacrificing animals is restricted to Candomblé as Umbanda followers see the practice as being contradictory to their beliefs of respect to life and nature. What Umbanda followers do - that is also directly associated to macumba - is to light candles for the angels to whom they have made a request.

Many Brazilians claim that Afro-Brazilian religions practice black magic and can harm other people through the spells they supposedly cast. These spells, known as "trabalhos", are practiced by some members of Candomblé, but this practice does not represent the religion.

Judaism

Brazil has the second largest concentration of Jewish people in Latin America, with a total of 107.329, according to the last census. The immigration of Jews to Brazil started in the early 19th century and went on until the first half of the 20th century. The Brazilian Jewish community is basically formed by Brazilians with Jewish heritage or beliefs.

Jewish people in Brazil are directly related to the upper-class, with very few (or none!) Jews living amongst the lower classes. This socioeconomic "privilege" is related to persistence and hard work. As an example is the story of Silvio Santos, who went from a poor child who worked as a street vendor to the owner of the TV broadcaster SBT, becoming one of the wealthiest and most popular personalities in Brazil.

The Brazilian states with the major concentration of Jewish people are:

São Paulo - 44.569

Rio de Janeiro - 29.157

Rio Grande do Sul - 8.330

Paraná - 2.408

Minas Gerais - 1.656

Pernambuco - 1.267

Pará - 899

Bahia - 855

Hinduism

According to IBGE, there are 5.675 Hindus living in Brazil. The religion is still not popular, being restricted to some small cities such as Nazário, (GO), Palmeiras (BA) and Itapina (ES).

Buddhism

Brazil is the largest Japanese community outside Japan and these immigrants have brought their traditions and beliefs to Brazil. Still, Buddhism is not so popular amongst the Japanese community in Brazil as most of them have converted to Catholicism.

The most popular Buddhist denominations in Brazil are the ones connected to the Buddhist leader Nitiren. Schools following this denomination have become popular because their purpose was to spread the religion to everyone and not only to those with a Japanese heritage.

As Japanese descendants born in Brazil were becoming more and more adepts to Christianity and the Japanese immigrants were dying, the number of Buddhists started to drop in Brazil. The last census counted 243.966 Buddhists in Brazil.

Islamism

Islamism has been gradually introduced to Brazilian people, with an expressive growth of 25% from 2001 and 2011. Most Muslims in Brazil are from a Syrian or Lebanese heritage and descend from immigrants who first came to the country during the World War I. After that, several other conflicts have contributed to the emigration of Muslims such as the conflicts between Israel and Palestine and the war in Iraq.

While the last census has counted 35.167 Muslims in Brazil, the Brazilian Muslim Association claims that there 1,5 million Muslins in the country. They would be mostly concentrated in São Paulo, Paraná, Mato Grosso do Sul and Rio Grande do Sul, especially in Foz do Iguaçu, PR.

New Oriental Religions
Igreja Messiânica Mundial
The Church of World Messianity is a new religion founded in Japan in 1935. The religion's key concept is Johrei, allegedly a method of channeling divine light into the body of another for the purposes of healing.

Church of World Messianity is strongly present in Brazil, where there is the largest concentration of Japanese descent outside Japan. According to IBGE, the new religion has 103.716 followers.
Seicho-no-Ie
Seicho-no-Ie is a syncretic and monotheist religion that emphasizes gratitude for nature, the family, ancestors and, above all, religious faith in one universal God. Another Japanese religion, Seicho-no-Ie inherited its basic characteristics from Buddhism, Christianity and Shintoism.

Seicho-no-Ie's communication department claims that the religion has 3,5 million followers in Brazil, but IBGE classifies it under the "new oriental religions" group, that has a total of 52.235 followers.

No Religion

The last census has revealed that 15.335.510 Brazilians have no religion, with only 615.096 declaring themselves as atheists and 124.436 as agnostics.

Atheists in Brazil still suffer a great deal of prejudice, being very often associated with Satanism. The Brazilian state with the greatest number of people with no religion is Rio de Janeiro, with 18% of its population declaring themselves as having no religion. Nova Ibiá, a small town in Bahia state, is the one with the highest concentration of atheists (59,85%) and the second one is Pitimbu, in Paraíba state, with 42,44% of atheists. Curiously the two cities are located in the Northeast of Brazil.

A very profitable business

It is not uncommon to see famous parishes with luxurious mansions and cars, especially Pentecostals and Neopentecostals. This is because unlike the Catholic church, the payment of the tenth in the great majority of Pentecostal and Neopentecostal churches is mandatory and as the name suggests, corresponds to 10% of the church-goer income. The tenth is not only a donation made spontaneously; many churches charge it as a monthly fee, as if the church-goers were paying for the services provided by the church, causing an uncomfortable feeling in those who cannot compromise 10% of their income or have no income at all. In Brazil, it is said that the profit of Protestant churches is only behind the profit generated by drug dealing.

As an attempt to obtain a more effective collection, churches like the Pentecostal "Assembleia de Deus-Vitória em Cristo" accept cash, checks, debit and credit cards, having employees circulating with credit card machines during the cult. Some churches also commercialize items that they claim to be sacred such as a pair of socks or a cloth to help those who are indebted and bring luck.

An important particularity of churches in Brazil is that they are exempted from declaring income. To that extent, everything the church receives (from tenth to donation of cars, furniture, real estate, etc) cannot be taxed. Also, some states exempt churches from paying state taxes such as IPVA and some municipalities do not receive IPTU from the churches. Also, in Rio de Janeiro, Protestant churches were exempted from paying COSIP, a tax destined to defray public lighting.

Do Brazilians tolerate different religions?

Overall, yes. There is no religious persecution in Brazil as there is no official religion either. Also, Brazil declares itself as a secular country, with no intervention of the church in political affairs, however, ministers and other religious representatives can run for city councilman, senator, congressman and even president and address directly to their audience if they like.

Even though there is a certain prejudice against some religions (such as the Afro-Brazilian ones and Spiritualism, not to mention prejudice against atheism), hate crimes related to religion in Brazil are very rare. What happens in some cases is that some religions have a very strict code of conduct and condemn practices that are said to go against god's will such as homosexuality, what can lead to hate crimes, even though indirectly.

Every religion finds its place in Brazil and can be practiced freely. In case of religions that still in expansion (such as new oriental religions and Islamism), it is easier to find temples in major metropolitan areas such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Natal, Goiânia, Brasília, Salvador, Cuiabá and Belo Horizonte.

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Colonized by a catholic country, Brazilians have recently been open to different religions, what has led to a constant migration among beliefs and practices. Learn in this article what are the major religions in Brazil. Before the arrival of the Portuguese colonizers, Brazil already had natives living here.

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Feijoada (Portuguese pronunciation: ) is a stew of beans with beef and pork. The name feijoada comes from feijão, 'bean' in Portuguese. It is widely prepared in the Portuguese-speaking world, with slight variations.

The basic ingredients of feijoada are beans and fresh pork or beef. In Brazil, it is usually made with black beans ( feijoada à brasileira). The stew is best prepared over low heat in a thick clay pot.

It is usually served with rice and assorted sausages such as , ( blood sausage), farinheira, and others, which may or may not be cooked in the stew.

Many modern variants of the dish are based on feijoada recipes popularized in the Brazilian regions of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Recife, and Salvador. In Brazil, feijoada (feijoada brasileira) is often considered a national dish.

Registered for the first time in Recife, State of Pernambuco, feijoada has been described as a national dish of Brazil, especially of Rio de Janeiro, as other parts of Brazil have other regional dishes. The Brazilian version of feijoada (feijoada completa) is prepared with black beans, a variety of salted pork or beef products, such as pork trimmings (ears, tail, feet), bacon, smoked pork ribs, and at least two types of smoked sausage and jerked beef (loin and tongue). The final dish has the beans and meat pieces barely covered by a dark purplish-brown broth. The taste is strong, moderately salty but not spicy, dominated by black bean and meat stew flavors. It is customary to serve it with white rice and oranges, the latter to help with digestion, as well as couve, a side dish of stir-fried, chopped collard greens, and a crumbly topping called , made of manioc flour.

As a celebratory dish, feijoada is traditionally served on Saturday afternoons or Sunday lunch and intended to be a leisurely midday meal. It is meant to be enjoyed throughout the day and not eaten under rushed circumstances. The meal is usually eaten among extended family and paired with an event like watching a soccer game or other social event. Because of the dish's heavy ingredients and rich flavors, feijoada is viewed as Brazilian soul food. In the city of São Paulo, feijoada is a typical dish in working-class restaurants on Wednesdays and Saturdays, mainly in the commercial area. In Rio de Janeiro, restaurants traditionally serve it on Fridays. The dish is normally served with a choice among a selection of meats, e.g. pork, bacon, pig ears, pig feet, to fulfill the customer's needs. Other variations of feijoada, such as the low fat version or the vegetarian.

The practice of cooking a meat (pork) stew with vegetables that gave origin to the feijoada from the Minho Province in Northern Portugal is a millenary Mediterranean tradition that can be traced back to when the Romans colonized Iberia. Roman soldiers would take this habit to every Latin settlement, i.e., the Roman Empire, and this heritage is the source of many national and regional dishes of today's Europe, such as the French cassoulet, the Milanese cassoeula from Lombardy, Italy, the Romanian fasole cu cârnați, the fabada asturiana from Northwestern Spain, and the also Spanish cocido madrileño and olla podrida, not to mention non-Romanic regions with similar traditions that might be derived from this millennial Roman soldiers' dish like the Polish golonka. [see Eisbein]

Black beans were domesticated by indigenous peoples in the Americas. Cheap and easy to cultivate, they became a staple among European settlers in Brazil. Both the upper classes and the poor ate black beans, but the upper classes particularly enjoyed them with an assortment of meat and vegetables, similar to feijoada. In contrast, the poor and enslaved usually ate a mixture of black beans and manioc flour.

The culinary historian Jessica B. Harris compares Feijoada to American soul food, arguing that it, along with some of its traditional accompaniments which are native to Africa, arose from the cooking of slaves who made the best of scraps afforded to them.

Regional variations

The type of bean used in feijoada varies by region. While in the southeast, including Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, feijoada is typically prepared with black beans, in Bahia, Sergipe and Goias brown or red beans are more commonly used.

In most of Brazil, feijoada consists of only beans and meat, but in Bahia and Sergipe it is common to add vegetables including plantains, kale, potatoes, carrots, cabbage, and pumpkin, usually near the end of the cooking process, when they are cooked from beneath by the vapors of the stew,

Feijoada was featured on the Netflix TV series, Street Food volume 2, which focused on Latin American Street Foods.

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Feijoada (Portuguese pronunciation: ) is a stew of beans with beef and pork. The name feijoada comes from feijão, 'bean' in Portuguese. It is widely prepared in the Portuguese-speaking world, with slight variations. The basic ingredients of feijoada are beans and fresh pork or beef.

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The culture of Brazil is primarily Western, being derived from Portuguese culture,[1] as well as the cultural and ethnic mixing that occurred between the Indigenous peoples, Portuguese colonizers and Africans. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Austrians, Arabs,…

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Australian food recipes and its culture is influenced by the migration of people from diverse countries taken place from the last 400 years

Australian Food, the cocktail of various culture is famousfor its miscellany rich cuisines. Traditionally Australian cuisines were depending on British cooking from the conception. Later Australian-cookery was enriched with multi-cultural contribution produced by German, Italian, Greek, Asian and South African immigrant communities. The inhabitants of Australia are keen on both veg and non-veg foods consisting pies, roasted cuts of meat, grilled steak and chops, along with other types of meat generally combined with vegetables For hundreds of years the native Australians are utilizing the fruits and plants growing within their local lands to create mouth-watering delicacies like, Calamari seasoned with lemon myrtle, Lemon myrtle linguine tossed with local scallops and prawns, Native spinach fettuccine with Springs Smoked Salmon with creamy bush tomato and macadamia sauce etc.

Australia food culture is heavily relying on many years of migration took spot in final 4 centuries. Settlers within this continental nation have formulated mixed cuisines that represent a number of people in addition to ant their food habits. A number of the leading cuisine kinds around australia came from China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam from Asia side. Similarly, whereas European settlers have brought English, French in addition to Italian food, Mediterranean settlers have gave diversity in addition to Greek in addition to Lebanese are not unheard of amongst travelers.

Settlers from India have diverse food culture in addition to their cuisines are as diverse as diverse are India's food. Besides, all the outside folks in addition to their food culture, Australia has it's original folks in addition to their food culture that's depending on 40,000 years history in addition to traditions caught up successfully create immediately after generation. European settlers brought Anglo-Celtic British in addition to Irish food that serves the bottom for contemporary Australian food. British brought present day techniques of residing, farming in addition to cooking within the land of Australia.

Whereas earlier food culture of contemporary day Australia was relying on British in addition to Irish settlers, the twentieth century food culture continues to be heavily relying on Mediterranean in addition to Asian cuisine the the fact is continues to be a result of immigrants in the respective regions. The approach of globalization has wonderful influence in present cuisine in addition to food culture in addition to nowadays, the country includes a global food culture wherein veg in addition to non-veg foods consisting pies, roasted cuts of meat, grilled steak in addition to chops, and so on. may be discovered simply.

A few of the essential ingredients of Australian delicacies are :-

Lemon myrtle: Fresh leaf or ground dried leaf from the Lemon Myrtle tree
Mountain Pepper: ground leaf or berries from the mountain pepper tree
Native spinach: Local spinach growing in coastal areas
Bush tomatoes: small tomato-like fruits, also known as desert raising
Macadamia nuts: a nut, native of Australia, now grown elsewhere
Wattle seed: A little, oval, black number of the Acacia seed. Wattle seed can be used in

A few of the traditional Australian bakeries are:-

Damper: A damper is traditional yeast-less Australian bread.
Lamingtons: A chocolate coated cube of sponge cake rolled in desiccated coconut usually served with whipped cream and afternoon tea.
Pavlova: This can be a confection of sugar and egg white meringue, engrossed in delicious whipped cream and seasonal fruits.
Anzac Biscuits: A tough and crisp biscuit of rolled oats and molasses.
Soldier's Cake: An extended keeping boiled fruit cake.

A few of the typical Australian desserts are listed below: - Anzac biscuits, Frozie cup, Lamingtons Pavlova, Vanilla slice.

Travelers to Australia can can appreciate organic in addition to bio-dynamic, kosher in addition to halal food at different food outlets. Similarly, different restaurants around australia give contemporary adaptations fusion cuisines that popularly named "Modern Australian Food." Nevertheless, British traditions nonetheless seen in domestic cooking and the takeaway food sector. Pies, fish, chips, and so forth.

are well-known in addition to quick food centers across Australia are frequent spot. Australians have practice of taking meals 3 instances in daily. Their breakfast is rather light that could possibly include cereals, toast, in addition to fruit. Several folks in cooler regions around australia take weighty breakfast wherein they eat fried bacon, egg, mushroom, baked beans, sausages, tomatoes, and so forth.

Lunch around australia comprises practically the identical points which are consumed inside the morning. Lots of of Australian take weighty breakfast in addition to skip lunch. Dinner or dinner would be the primary meal during the day for a lot of Australians wherein folks possibly visit restaurant or stay at comfortableness of residence. Based upon the growing season in addition to area around australia, cuisine differ in dinner. Several common alternatives in dinner incorporate roasted meat, vegetables, pasta, pizza, casseroles, barbecued meat, vegetables, salad, soup, stir-fries., and so on. amongst others.

The country has several quick food outlets which are common amongst folks. Almost all main American-style sequence shops including of KFC, Hungry Jack's (the nearby Mcdonalds franchise name), Domino's Pizza, Subway, Pizza Hut, in addition to McDonald's, and so forth. get their outlets around australia. The country has it's personal Australian chicken quickly food chains like Red Rooster in addition to Chicken Treat, pizza chains Eagle Kids in addition to Pizza Haven, and so on.

Wide selection of Australian seafood and barbecues will also be popular at weekend family gatherings.

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Australia Food Delicacies and Traditional Culture

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Australian food recipes and its culture is influenced by the migration of people from diverse countries taken place from the last 400 years Australian Food, the cocktail of various culture is famousfor its miscellany rich cuisines. Traditionally Australian cuisines were depending on British cooking from the conception.

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From key festivals and superstitions to fresh vegetable and historical trends, John Bensalhia investigates some of the key facts linked with delicious Italian food...
No one will argue with the fact that food in Italy is out of this world. Well-made, rich in taste and texture and guaranteed to leave you hungry for more, there's nothing quite like Italian cuisine. There's a detailed, fascinating tapestry of history, customs and trends for what you're eating - so with that in mind, let's explore some of the key aspects...
THE STOMACH FOR SUPERSTITION
When you're eating your food, it's still worth being a little cautious. For there are some superstitions that are common throughout Italy.

For example, not only is it said to be bad luck to spill olive oil, it's also bad luck to spill salt. That's a common superstition that is said to derive from the days when old civilisations would salt the earth of conquered territories to make the ground sterile as punishment.

The Bible is also said to be the source of some other superstitions. For instance, it's bad luck to seat 13 people at a dinner table (relating to the Last Supper) and it's also crucial that bread should never be placed upside down on a table. This latter example is said to relate to the religious significance of bread in the Catholic faith.
Leonardo's Last Supper LIGHT BREAKFASTS
But let's also bring some good luck into this section: At the time of New Year, it's good luck to eat lentils. The consumption of lentils represents good luck and prosperity for anyone who eats them as they look similar to small coins.

In Britain, it's traditional to have a good old-fashioned fry-up for breakfast. Sausages, eggs, bacon, beans, mushrooms... the list goes on. It's a particular delicacy for Brits abroad looking to eschew the local culinary treats for something closer to home.

Italians on the other hand, have the right idea. By and large, breakfast in Italy is a refreshingly modest affair in comparison. The typical Italian breakfast runs along the lines of a coffee (such as caffe latte or cappuccino - although the latter is a no no after 10 am), bread rolls, cookies and pastries. Other popular choices include fruit salad, yoghurt and muesli.
KEEPING IT FRESH
Some of these snacks can be eaten later in the morning as a kind of elevenses. But by and large, the reason that breakfast tends to be on the lighter side is because Italians are saving their appetites for the main meal of the day: lunch!

When it comes to buying food in Italy, it's a common trend to choose local markets and stores as opposed to larger-scale supermarkets. The big advantage of the market is that it offers home-grown and fresh produce that's both healthy and delicious in equal measures.

A recent report from Euromonitor International has said that Italians are continuing to love their fresh food. 2014 saw a period of recovery after a recent slump as a result of the global economic crisis. The report said that 2014 had seen a greater upswing in traditional consumption in Italy with more home cooking and baking.
VEGETABLES FOR ALL SEASONS Fresh market in Rome's Campo de Fiori
The report also claimed that fresh food sold more than pre-packaged food in retail volume sales. Particularly popular were fresh fruit and vegetables, and there was also growth in seafood and fish products.

Talking of fresh vegetables, there is a very definite pattern as to what you can eat throughout the year.

It's a seasonal thing, with certain vegetables being produced in prolific quantities for a specific spell and then making way for a different selection. So, with Summer coming up, for example, particular favourites include aubergines, beans, beetroot, cucumbers, courgettes, peas, radishes and tomatoes.
HUNGRY HOLIDAYS
When Winter comes again, the colder months bring along the likes of artichokes, broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbages, cauliflowers, fennel, spinach and turnips.

However, there are still a select few vegetables to be grown throughout all of the year - and these include chicory, lettuce and carrots.
grilled lamb with rosemary
One of the great things about Italian food is its unique feel for the holiday seasons. Christmas and Easter alone bring a selection of specially made foods, both sweet and savoury that will tempt the taste-buds.

A number of traditional goodies are laid on at Easter including Minestra di Pasqua. This is a soup that contains ingredients such as beef, pork, kale and herbs, and is a dish that is especially popular in Naples. Agnello - or lamb - is a common main course in Italy at Easter time.
THE GOOD OF GELATO
Desserts at Easter include Gubana Easter Bread (which is plated up in northern Friuli) and Ciambelone, which hovers somewhere between bread and cake. Its very distinctive flavour comes from the zest of lemons, and is a delicious dessert to enjoy during this season.

Christmas of course, brings a Santa's sack full of festive favourites including perennial favourite, Panettone. Shaped like a dome, this sweet bread fruit loaf includes a healthy mix of ingredients such as raisins, candied orange and lemon zest. Another popular fruit cake is Panforte which also features nuts, honey, spices and almonds - not to mention a sneaky topping of icing sugar.

Common savoury dishes include mixed meats such as beef, veal and Cotechino sausage (served with ingredients like onions, celery and carrots). Popular festive fish meals include calamari (squid), baccala (salted cod) and swordfish. Pasta dishes are also widely eaten at Christmas including Anolini, a stuffed pasta served in broth, vermicelli with clams or mussels (a speciality in Naples) and of course, all types of lasagne!
SIMPLE SUPPERS
Gelato vs Ice Cream: It's the age-old battle.

Before you know it, Summer will be here, and it'll be that time of year when you can enjoy the delights of Gelato and Ice Cream. But Gelato (which means "frozen" or to "freeze") does make for a healthier alternative, containing less sugar. Another difference between Gelato and Ice Cream is that the former involves a slower churning process.

As if that's not enough with differences, there is also the difference between Gelato and Sorbetto. It's a north-south divide as Gelato hails from Northern Italy while Sorbetto comes from the South. And of course, one key ingredient substitute difference between the two to add to the mix of fruit and sugar is that of milk for Gelato and water for Sorbetto. But whatever you choose, both make for very tasty Summer treats!

Fine dining. A common trend in today's culinary world. But while the fancy arrangements, carefully selected ingredients and rather eye-popping prices may be for some tastes, let's not forget that simple is sometimes the best. It's like at the end of the month when the money's run out and you're looking to create what you can from what's left in the larder. But many times, this can result in a truly delicious culinary creation: it's food serendipity at it's finest.
MARGHERITA TIME
This has proved to be the case with a good number of dishes that have started out from more humble beginnings. Peasant dishes have stood the test of time and are still popular today. Ribollita is a soup that began with peasant origins - it is a simple but delicious soup that was created by using leftover minestrone or vegetable soup from the previous day.

Polenta comes from earlier types of grain-based meals that were popular in the Roman era - while it was common peasant food in Europe, it's still immensely tasty and continues to be a popular choice at dinner tables today. Meanwhile, the simple pudding of Mantova's Torta Sbrisobna comprises ingredients such as flour, butter, eggs, almonds and lemon peel to great effect.

And of course, another simple dish is that of...

...Pizza!

Way back in the 18 th century, pizza existed in a somewhat more basic form than is known today. Strictly speaking, it was just the base: No topping, just the flat, round base. But it was still a hit with the poorer side of Naples where street vendors would sell these at a very cheap price.
SAUCE FOR GOOD
Come 1889, and the Italian queen, Margherita (Margherita of Savoy) had also sampled a pizza the action. While there were raised eyebrows in the Court Circle, Margherita had enjoyed the food enough to request a similar meal from chef Rafaelle Esposito.

However, Rafaelle produced something a little more elaborate for the queen. In addition to the base, there was mozzarella cheese, tomatoes and fresh basil. All of these ingredients were cleverly created to represent the red, white and green colours of the Italian flag.

Not only did the end result become Queen Margherita's favourite pizza, it also became one of her favourite foods. And so began the tradition of the Margherita pizza!
FILLING FESTIVALS
Sitting down to eat a traditional pasta dish in 2016, it's common practice to use either the classic combination of knife and fork or of course, spoon and fork. But once upon a time, you could just eat the pasta using your hands. The pasta itself isn't too difficult to negotiate without cutlery, providing you've got a napkin ready and waiting.

However, one innovation changed all that. Tomato sauce (also known as Marinara sauce) with pasta these days is an unbeatable combination and for many having pasta without sauce is like having salad without lettuce.

The first written record of pasta and tomato sauce is said to be found in L'Apicio Moderno, a cookbook written in 1790 by Roman chef Francesco Leonardi. The archetypal mix for this includes tomatoes, olive oil, garlic and herbs. The best way to serve up this dish is to cook the pasta until it's al dente. After draining, it's then traditional to toss the pasta with the added sauce in order for it to absorb the added ingredients for the ultimate in pasta perfection.

For a bit of extra insight and knowledge about your favourite food, it's worth checking out some great food festivals.

Throughout the year, there are countless festivals that are dedicated to specific foods and ingredients. For one thing, a common element of traditional events and festivals is that of food stalls as locals serve up tasty home-made foods and snacks to fill up the bellies of locals and tourists who have come to see the show.

But for more specific themed festivals, take your pick. April's Artichoke Festival is held in Ladispoli, serving up a selection of artichoke-related dishes and a contest to find the best artichoke sculpture. Meanwhile, Bologna's annual Potato Festival takes place in September for a week with some special events and local restaurants providing local potato meals.
Want to try your hand at making some fabulous Italian food? Try our recipes ranging from simple antipasti to more complicated main courses, and of course...dessert!
The Olive Festival, Frontoi Aperti, is one of the best known of the October/November season in Umbria. This event offers a good number of tastings, guided tours and a special session in which the local miller presses the fresh olives before your eyes to later sample.

If you have more of a sweet tooth, then Turin's November-based Cioccolato will be right up your street. There are many stalls showcasing all types of chocolate including luxury Boutique chocolates along with cultural activities and plenty of sounds and sights to add to the flavour.

There are also many examples of all-round food festivals. One that's coming your way soon is Tipicita which is held in Fermo in March. High quality food and drink is showcased at a series of exhibitions and thematic sectors along with traditional market stalls. Come and see and taste the foods including cheeses, meats, cereals, oils - and of course, the finest wines!

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10 Basics Of Italian Food Culture You Need To Know

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From key festivals and superstitions to fresh vegetable and historical trends, John Bensalhia investigates some of the key facts linked with delicious Italian food... No one will argue with the fact that food in Italy is out of this world. Well-made, rich in taste and texture and guaranteed to leave you hungry for more, there's nothing quite like Italian cuisine.

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Australian cuisine in the 21st century reflects the influence of globalisation, with many fast-food restaurants and international trends becoming influential. Organic and biodynamic foods have also become widely available alongside a revival of interest in bushfood.

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Talk about what region it is from

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If you're looking for quality wine, Italian wines are definitely some of the best to consider. Italy is a wine-making country on par with France and Spain, and is famous for having a wide range of grape varieties - nearly 400 in total!

This diversity is primarily due to two factors: the varied topography and climate, and the strong identities of each region - Italy was only united as one country in the 19th Century. As well as great diversity, Italy is one of the countries that can claim to produce the "best wines in the world".

Italy is one of the oldest wine-producing countries in the world, with regions that have produced wine at least as far back as the 2nd Century B.C. - more than 2,000 years! There's a lot of demand for wine within Italy and internationally, so it's no surprise that there are so many amazing Italian wines!

Take a look at this wine map of Italy, featuring all of the best Italian wine regions:

As you can see, a large portion of the Italian countryside is dedicated to producing Italian wines. Below, you'll learn everything you need to know about the wine regions of Italy, and the quality wines that come from these regions.

By the time you reach the end of this page, you'll know exactly how to pick some of the best wines from each of these Italy wine regions...​

Veneto

Located in Northeastern Italy, the Veneto wine region is one of the most important of the Italian wine regions. While not as large as most of the other wine regions of Italy, this region is famous for producing more wine than the rest of the country.

​A few of our favourite Italian wines from the Veneto region include:

Marche and Abruzzo

Marche and Abruzzo are neighbouring regions that run along the centre of Italy. These two regions are famous for their production of white Verdicchio and red Montepulciano grapes, respectively.

Marche's winemaking heritage dates back to the Etruscans, and Romans, with a highly versatile terroir perfect for growing grapes. With more than 25,000 hectares of vineyards growing Trebbiano and Verdicchio grapes, it is famous for its high-acidity, crisp, green-hued white wines, and ageworthy sweet wines. The Sangiovese and Montepulciano grapes produce amazing quality reds.

Directly to the south of Marche is Abruzzo, a region where winemaking has been in full force for over two millenia. The region has more than 89,000 hectares of planted land, growing native grape varieties such as Trebbiano, Pecorino, and Cocciola alongside Chardonnay and Merlot, but it is Montepulciano d'Abruzzo that is the most famous.

We at Vintageroots love these two quality wines from this region:

Tuscany

Of all the wine regions of Italy, none are as renowned as the Tuscany wine region. With its romantic landscape of rolling hills, country roads, and picturesque villages, it's a wine-lover's paradise.

Sangiovese grapes flourish in Tuscany. Though it goes under a number of names (depending on the sub-region), it's used in the production of a wide range of Italian wines - including Chianti.

Two of our favourite wines from Tuscany are:

Piedmont

The Piedmont wine region is the primary rival to Tuscany, striving to claim the spot as Italy's "top wine region". It produces more DOCG wines than any other region, and is home to some of Italy's most famous wines and wineries - from long-lived Barolo to the delightfully light, sparkling Moscato d'Asti.

Its location at the foot of the Alps makes it prime grape-growing country. The region has been called "Italy's Burgundy" due to the diversity of small vineyards.

Looking for a good Piedmont wine? We at Vintageroots recommend :

Lombardy

Lombardy is one of the largest of the Italian wine regions, with the highest population. However, it only produces two famous wines, both of which are sparkling: Franciacorta and Lambrusco. Located in northern Italy, this landlocked region gets most of its water from four massive lakes.

One of the most famous sub-regions in Lombardy is the Lugana region, which straddles the line between Lombardy and Veneto. The Lugana wines are of particularly good quality, thanks to the fact that the vineyards surround the massive Lake Garda, which moderates the temperature. The region is known for its Soave, Bardolino, and Valpolicella wines.

Our VintageRoots sommelier recommends:

Sicily

As the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily is the southernmost Italian wine region. For two and a half millennia, Sicily has been one of the primary hubs of Mediterranean viticulture. Thanks to its constant sunshine and reliable rainfall, wine production in Sicily has flourished.

For a good Sicilian wine, we believe you should try:

These Italian wine regions are some of the best, and they're famous for producing top quality wines. If you want some of the best wine Italy can offer, these are the regions to consider, but there's a vast range to choose from - keep an eye out for regions such as Sardinia, Puglia and Alto-Adige which can offer widely different styles, but plenty of excitement.

Looking for good quality Italian wines? Check out our VintageRoots virtual wine cellar to find only the best wines from these Italian wine regions...

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Top 6 Italian Wine Regions and Grapes, Map Included - Vintage Roots

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If you're looking for quality wine, Italian wines are definitely some of the best to consider. Italy is a wine-making country on par with France and Spain, and is famous for having a wide range of grape varieties - nearly 400 in total!

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Top 10

The following export product groups represent the highest dollar value in Australian global shipments during 2018. Also shown is the percentage share each export category represents in terms of overall exports from Australia.

1. Mineral fuels including oil: US$87.7 billion (34.6% of total exports)

2. Ores, slag, ash: $59.7 billion (23.5%)

3. Gems, precious metals: $16.1 billion (6.3%)

4. Meat: $10.2 billion (4%)

5. Inorganic chemicals: $8.2 billion (3.2%)

6. Cereals: $4.9 billion (1.9%)

7. Machinery including computers: $4.8 billion (1.9%)

8. Aluminum: $3.8 billion (1.5%)

9. Electrical machinery, equipment: $3.2 billion (1.3%)

10. Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $3.2 billion (1.3%)

Australia's top 10 exports accounted about three-quarters (79.5%) of the overall value of its global shipments.

Australian inorganic chemicals were the top gainer up i by 33.3% from 2017 to 2018.

The second-fastest increase belongs to mineral fuels including oil via its 33.8% gain, propelled by Australia's expanding international sales of petroleum gases and coal.

The third-strongest improvement was for aluminum (up 22.2%) trailed by Australian exports of meat (up 11.7%).

Two product categories declined from 2017 to 2018 led by cereals (down -25.6%) notably lower global sales for wheat and barley. The other category was ores, slag and ash which slowed -0.7% due to the year-over-year reduction for iron ores and concentrates.

Note that the results listed above are at the categorized two-digit Harmonized Tariff System (HTS) code level. For a more granular view of exported goods at the four-digit HTS code level, see the section Searchable List of Australia's Most Valuable Export Products further down near the bottom of this article.

Advantages

Overall Australia generated an $26.5 billion surplus in 2018 up by 216.6% from $8.4 billion one year earlier.

The following types of Australian product shipments represent positive net exports or a trade balance surplus. Investopedia defines net exports as the value of a country's total exports minus the value of its total imports.

In a nutshell, net exports represent the amount by which foreign spending on a home country's goods or services exceeds or lags the home country's spending on foreign goods or services.

1. Ores, slag, ash: US$58.8 billion (Down by -0.8% since 2017)

2. Mineral fuels including oil: $57.4 billion (Up by 30.1%)

3. Meat: $9.7 billion (Up by 12.6%)

4. Gems, precious metals: $9.5 billion (Up by 8.7%)

5. Inorganic chemicals: $7.2 billion (Up by 61.6%)

6. Cereals: $4.7 billion (Down by -26.7%)

7. Wool: $2.9 billion (Up by 4%)

8. Copper: $2 billion (Up by 14.6%)

9. Aluminum: $1.9 billion (Up by 29.3%)

10. Cotton: $1.7 billion (Up by 11.6%)

Australia has highly positive net exports in the international trade of iron ores in particular, but also for copper, zinc, precious metals and aluminum ores and concentrates. In turn, these cashflows indicate Australia's strong competitive advantages under the ores, slag and ash product category.

Opportunities

Below are exports from Australia that are negative net exports or product trade balance deficits. These negative net exports reveal product categories where foreign spending on home country Australia's goods trail Australian importer spending on foreign products.

1. Vehicles: -US$28.7 billion (Up by 3.9% since 2017)

2. Machinery including computers: -$27.1 billion (Up by 11.9%)

3. Electrical machinery, equipment: -$22.4 billion (Up by 13.8%)

4. Plastics, plastic articles: -$5.5 billion (Up by 12.4%)

5. Pharmaceuticals: -$5.2 billion (Down by -2.5%)

6. Optical, technical, medical apparatus: -$5.1 billion (Up by 8.6%)

7. Furniture, bedding, lighting, signs, prefab buildings: -$4.6 billion (Up by 9.5%)

8. Articles of iron or steel: -$4.4 billion (Up by 23.5%)

9. Clothing, accessories (not knit or crochet): -$3.2 billion (Up by 7.1%)

10. Knit or crochet clothing, accessories: -$3.1 billion (Up by 4.2%)

Australia has highly negative net exports and therefore deep international trade deficits for vehicles especially cars, trucks and automotive parts or accessories.

These cashflow deficiencies clearly indicate Australia's competitive disadvantages in the international vehicles market, but also represent key opportunities for Australia to improve its position in the global economy through focused innovations.

Companies

Here are some of the larger international trade players for Australia:

BHP Billiton (diversified metals)

Fortescue Metals Group (iron, steel)

Woodside Petroleum (oil, gas)

CSL Limited (biotech)

Amcor (containers, packaging)

Santos (oil, gas)

Orica (diversified metals)

Newcrest Mining (diversified metals)

According to global trade intelligence firm Zepol, the following companies are also examples of Australian exporters:

Australia Meat Holdings (bovine meat, offal)

Spiral Guard Australia (plastic items, tubes/pipes/hoses, plates/sheets/film/foil)

Maersk Logistics Australia (wine, malt beer)

Elektromotive Australia (bicycles, motorcycles)

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The following export product groups represent the highest dollar value in Australian global shipments during 2018. Also shown is the percentage share each export category represents in terms of overall exports from Australia.

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Italy is placed on the ninth position in the top exporters of the world. For more information regarding imports and export in Italy, contact our agents.

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- No national dish but few popular choices
- Food choices influenced heavily by migration.

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- Where does the dish originate?

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A classic ragu alla Bolognese sauce served with tagliatelle pasta.

Ragu alla Bolognese, also known simply as Bolognese, is recognized as the national dish of Italy, and it enjoys widespread popularity by Italians both domestically and abroad. Ragu alla Bolognese is a meat-based sauce prepared through the sweating, sautéing, and braising of its ingredients, which include meat (either pork, beef, or veal), onions, carrots, pancetta, and butter. The cuisine traces its origins in Bologna, Italy, the city from which the meal gets its name.

History of the Dish

While the meal has been enjoyed in Italy for more than a century, the earliest written record of Bolognese was a recipe dating back to the 18th century, which was found in Imola, a town near the city of Bologna. Pellegrino Artusi, renowned 19th-century Italian chef, is credited with writing a recipe for the meat sauce in his 1891 publication. Artusi named the meat sauce "Maccheroni alla bolognese," which is believe to have signify the origin of the sauce in Bologna. In his book, Artusi states that the key ingredients in the preparation of Bolognese were lean veal fillet, butter, carrot, onion, and pancetta. These ingredients were cooked with butter and later with broth.

Authentic Ragu Alla Bolognese

Authentic Ragu alla Bolognese prepared in Bologna is supposed to be served with tagliatelle, which is a pasta made of soft wheat flour and eggs. If tagliatelle is unavailable, certain types of pasta can be used as alternatives, including fettuccine, rigatoni, pappardelle, and penne. However, use of the more popular pasta, spaghetti, as the accompanying meal with Ragu alla Bolognese is discouraged by traditionalists of Bologna. Italian chefs are known for using Ragu alla Bolognese together with béchamel in the preparation of the lasagna, which is traditionally baked in the local Bolognese style.

Variations

In addition to the authentic Ragu alla Bolognese prepared by traditionalists in Bologna, the meal is also prepared in other distinct variations across Italy. The cuisine has evolved throughout the years since Chef Pellegrino Artusi wrote his famous recipe in the late 19th century. For example, in recent years tomato puree or tomato concentrate paste has become an essential ingredient in the preparation of the dish, which was absent in the traditional preparation of Ragu alla Bolognese. Another variation is the use of beef as the main ingredient in the preparation of the cuisine, which has replaced lean veal among modern Bolognese chefs. Other contemporary chefs use pork instead of lean veal. The other significant alteration in the traditional preparation of the dish is the addition of milk and white wine. In recent years, the use of spaghetti as a replacement for tagliatelle has been embraced by contemporary chefs in Italy, and the dish is known as spaghetti Bolognese.

Standardized Recipe

Ragu alla Bolognese is distinct from other cuisines in Italy, primarily because its preparation method involves several processes, including braising, sweating and sautéing. This long process is prone to alterations by professional chefs or home cooks to suit their preferences, such as changing the ingredients (using pork or beef instead of veal) or the process, which has led to the development of many different recipes of the dish. However, most Italian chefs recognize the recipe published and registered by the Accademia Italiana Della Cucina in 1982 as the most authentic recipe in existence.

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3. What Is the National Dish of Italy?

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Ragu alla Bolognese, also known simply as Bolognese, is recognized as the national dish of Italy, and it enjoys widespread popularity by Italians both domestically and abroad. Ragu alla Bolognese is a meat-based sauce prepared through the sweating, sautéing, and braising of its ingredients, which include meat (either pork, beef, or veal), onions, carrots, pancetta, and butter.

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The Geography of Food looks at the global pattern of food production and consumption. It reveals a complex pattern of global connections. The map of the Geography of food shows a pattern that...

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As the old adage goes, you are what you eat. This is especially true when it comes to the food choices people make, which are are influenced by a wide variety of internal and external factors that may actually have little to do with the food itself. Consciously or unconsciously, individuals choose particular foods over others. Six factors in particular influence these choices.

Taste

The most obvious factor that makes you choose one food over another is its taste. Food that tastes good is understandably appealing, although what is considered tasty may vary widely from individual to individual. Caviar, for example, is considered a rich, delicious delicacy to those who enjoy it, while a child would probably turn up his nose. People often tend to feel hungry for -- and thus seek out -- foods which they subjectively find appealing.

Marketing and Advertising

A TV commercial extolling the virtues of a mouth-watering brand of frozen pizza may make you want to rush out and buy one, which is exactly the hope of most advertising executives. In fact, many food choices are heavily influenced by advertising and media marketing specifically designed to make customers choose one food or brand of food over another. Children, for example, are influenced by factors such as toys that come with fast-food meals and cartoon characters promoting breakfast cereal.

Culture

Your ethnic and cultural background can play a key role in influencing your food choices. A Mexican-American, for example, is likely to choose very different foods than a Chinese-American would, for purely cultural reasons. Many people will gravitate toward food they find comforting or familiar, which can differ widely from culture to culture.

Health

Concerns over health and fitness can also influence food choices. An overweight person trying to lose weight by dieting will usually choose different foods than someone whose metabolism allows her to eat whatever she wants without concerns of weight gain. Taste is still a factor in these decisions, but often comes second to caloric value and fat content.

Emotion

Many people have an emotional connection with food, which is often tapped as a source of comfort in times of sadness and distress. As a result, emotions often influence food choices. Conditions such as depression, stress and anxiety can cause people to make choices about food that they might not make in a different emotional state. Most of the time, this leads to impulse eating, often involving unhealthy usually leading toward less-healthy "junk" foods.

Economic Status

Your income and monetary status will heavily influence which food you decide to eat. A person on a small fixed income is likely to look for the most inexpensive food possible. Budget shoppers often try to make multiple recipes with the same basic family of ingredients, and purchase less expensive prepared and canned foods. Someone for whom money is no object is more likely to indulge in more expensive dishes or impulse buys.

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6 Factors That Influence Our Food Choices

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As the old adage goes, you are what you eat. This is especially true when it comes to the food choices people make, which are are influenced by a wide variety of internal and external factors that may actually have little to do with the food itself. Consciously or unconsciously, individuals choose ...

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Emerging trends in the food and beverage sector

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Changes for F&B businesses have been driven by shifting consumer preferences, in particular health and convenience

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- A vast range of food commodities is available today due to the various influences on food culture/gastronomy explored in Task A.

- As a chef choosing sources of supply, competitive price and best quality are significant factors. However, there are many other considerations which should be taken into account.

- Produce a report explaining the wider considerations for a chef when selecting suppliers and purchasing commodities and products.

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-Produce an evaluative checklist covering the factors to be considered when analysing and evaluating dining experiences.

-Analyse and evaluate two contrasting meal experiences. Identify the meal types, meals chosen and include beverages.

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Explore the food culture and gastronomy of a chosen country or region. Produce material for a presentation explaining the following influences on the food culture/gastronomy and:

- cultures/religions and migration

- science and technology

- lifestyle changes, the media and individuals

- geography and transportation

- emerging trends

- sustainability

Choose one dish associated with that country or region and suggest a beverage to complement the

dish, outlining the reasons for your choice. Your information can be presented in any format. It could include examples of dishes, products for tasting, visual, display boards, information leaflets etc.

As much as the information found should be related to the country you have chosen, SOME information on SOME countries will be hard to find, don't give up immediately but IF this is the case then talk more generally about the topic.

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What considerations to take into account when choosing a supplier

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What considerations to take into account when choosing a supplier

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Encouraging people to improve the 'free range'

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Hugh's Chicken Run was a programme as part of Channel 4's 'Food Fight' series in which celebrity chef Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall launched the campaign to encourage more consumers to demand free range chicken. Hugh was joined on the campaign by fellow celebrity chef, Jamie Oliver, who chose to highlight the issues in the more graphic Jamie's Fowl Dinners.

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How it has actively improved grades

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Jamie Oliver's school dinners shown to have improved academic results

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Absences down after chef changed junk food menu - a result which is a boost for celebrity as he struggles for US support

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Saving fish waste and reduced money lost by fishermen

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River Cottage ← Return to River Cottage website

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You can do this, help eachother!

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It was the debacle over the European exchange rate mechanism that made Tim Martin a Eurosceptic.

The founder and chairman of JD Wetherspoon, one of Britain's most successful pub companies and now the UK's biggest retailer of coffee, was frustrated when, just over a month before she was toppled by her party, Margaret Thatcher took the UK into the system set up to reduce exchange rate instability in readiness for the launch of the single currency.

The system meant the UK's exchange rate was pegged to those of other international currencies, chiefly the old Deutsche Mark, which meant keeping interest rates higher than they would otherwise have been - creating a nightmare for businesses.

Since then, Mr Martin has become a doughty campaigner, firstly against Britain joining the single currency and then, more recently, for Britain to leave the EU.

His sector, food and drink, is one of enormous importance to the UK economy. According to the Food and Drink Federation, the main industry body, food and drink is the single most important player in UK manufacturing. It accounts for one-sixth of manufacturing activity and employs around 400,000 people across 6,620 businesses. It estimates that the sector's total contribution to the economy, in terms of Gross Value Added, is £21.9bn which, it argues, is almost equal to the combined contribution of the automative and aerospace sectors.

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So, whatever happens in the referendum, this is an important sector. The remain campaign argues it will be better off with Britain in the EU as the zone accounts for just under three-quarters of all UK food and drink exports and that therefore the sector benefits from access to the single market.

It also benefits, the campaign argues, from free trade deals between the EU and other countries around the world. Leaving the EU, the campaign argues, could be problematic if it entails the re-negotiation of deals involving the EU's protection of products that have a specific origin, such as Scotch whisky and Melton Mowbray pie, with which other countries, such as the US, have been unhappy.

The UK has some 73 protected food names, including West Country Farmhouse Cheddar, Cornish clotted cream, Arbroath Smokies, Yorkshire forced rhubarb, traditional Cumberland sausage and Gloucestershire cider.

Other concerns for the Remain campaign include the free movement of labour - the UK food and drink sector is a key employer of migrant labour from eastern Europe - and what a Brexit would mean for the payments made to British farmers under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). These, according to the National Farmers Union, came to £2.4bn in direct payments in 2015 while British farmers are also able to tap a £4bn pot made available by the EU to fund rural development programmes between 2014 and 2020. Just over 55% of the UK farming sector's total income is estimated to come from the CAP.

For its part, the Leave campaign argues that leaving the EU would enable the UK food and drink sector to bypass some of the fussier EU regulations on food and drink, saving it money. However, some of the more extreme rules, such as those concerning 'bendy' cucumbers are no longer in place, while a relaxation of the remaining rules could expose the sector to suggestions that food and drink from the continent is safer than that produced in the UK.

Brexiteers note that the strict rules that the EU has in place governing food and drink did nothing to prevent the horsemeat scandal some years ago - an affair that highlighted the interconnectedness of supply chains in the sector right across Europe.

The Leave campaign also argues that a Brexit, if accompanied by an expected fall in the value of the pound, could go towards making British-produced food and drink more competitive locally.

It also argues that, while the EU currently dominates UK food and drink exports, the sector has been enjoying a sharp increase in the amount of products it sells elsewhere. Food exports to Saudi Arabia, for example, are up 25% year-on-year.

And then there's the EU's fisheries policy, often credited with turning the whole of Cornwall Eurosceptic, having led to a dramatic decline in the size of the UK's fishing industry. Bremainers argue that the policy has actually protected the UK's waters from over-fishing and that, even in the event of a Brexit, some controls to protect stock levels would need to be imposed.

Tim Martin, founder and chairman of Wetherspoons, told Sky News food costs would go down if the UK left the European Union.

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The Brexit voter said: "The EU operates as a customs union and agricultural products in particular pay very high tariffs to gain access to the EU markets so our food sales, which are heading for 50% of our overall sales - or our food costs, rather - will reduce.

"We buy 95% of our wine from outside the EU and we pay tariffs on much of that. So we'll get a reduction in wine prices, reduction in food prices. What's not to like?"

Somnath Saha, chief executive of Typhoo Tea, is adamant that the UK should remain in the EU, saying that being part of the single market "makes us stronger and safer and it makes the whole (business) very simple".

He told Sky News: "We don't produce tea in this country - most of the tea we have to import so, for us, staying in a single market is very important and key to the business.

"For a company our size...it is much better for us. There is stability in the economy. People don't realise how much food and drink comes from the European side."

It's a sector then, like any others, where opinions are strongly divided.
Also in this series: How Brexit might affect the UK education sector How Brexit might affect the UK manufacturing sector

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How Brexit May Affect Food And Drink Industry

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It was the debacle over the European exchange rate mechanism that made Tim Martin a Eurosceptic. The founder and chairman of JD Wetherspoon, one of Britain's most successful pub companies and now the UK's biggest retailer of coffee, was frustrated when, just over a month before she was toppled by her party, Margaret Thatcher took the UK into the system set up to reduce exchange rate instability in readiness for the launch of the single currency.

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The cultures or societies that people live in, along with the type of contact that individuals have with one another (social factors), influence food choices. The importance of beliefs, traditions...

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Globalization, safety, regulation, efficiency, and refrigerants are now leading variables in the complex food-delivery equation. What the food delivery system will be in a decade will depend largely on industry creativity. Innovation across a wide range agenda will be required. It's important to first look at the full range of forces driving industry change and how they interact.

People and Production

In 1910, the U.S. population was about 92 million people, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, of which about 46 percent lived in cities. A century later, in 2010, the population had exploded to more than 300 million people, approximately 80 percent of which lived in cities. In three generations, the U.S. transitioned from largely rural to overwhelmingly urban, while more than tripling its population. These trends continue today.

Simultaneously, agricultural production experienced a revolution. In 1870, 70 to 80 percent of America's population worked in agriculture. According to USDA estimates, a mere 2 to 3 percent of the population provided the national food supply in 2008-made possible by advanced industrial technology and modernized management.

The fundamentals are shifting not only in the U.S. It is estimated that the global population will increase by two billion in the next 25 years, a number that cannot be fed unless advanced agriculture becomes a global tool. But if it does, the quality of life around the world will be transformed.

The picture that emerges is of a new kind of global society and a new kind of global agriculture making possible a quantum leap in the conditions of lives everywhere. But these changes can be viewed from other angles. For example, food prices in the U.S. have increased 35 percent since 2009 and 48 million people in the U.S. become sick each year because of foodborne illness. Shifts in U.S. population growth and urbanization, plus the development of technology, more sophisticated supply chains, and the broad need to do more with less, have transformed American food delivery. And growing reliance in the U.S. on globally sourced food will fuel a similar movement beyond American borders. It will also provide both added price pressures and greater support for embracing safety and efficiency as central themes of all future strategic thinking on food worldwide.

Globalization

Retailers now reach around the world to optimize costs, as well as for wider varieties and substitutes for foods scarce on local shores. But globalization has large implications for food safety, not least because exporting countries vary in safety standards. For example, global food supply chains now dominate the seafood marketplace for Americans. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 91 percent of the seafood consumed in the U.S. is imported. But a 2011 study by Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future notes that only 2 percent of imported seafood is tested for contamination. So, while profit margin pressures have driven globalization of the food chain, globalization has also imported a vast breach in the U.S. food safety regime, which carries risks for brands and of financial liability.

The Demand for Safety

Food safety has long been a keystone in food-delivery strategy. But improvements in food delivery have created new vulnerabilities in safety, even as earlier risks are better addressed. Changes in warehousing strategy, for example, mean refrigeration needs change as well-both within buildings and during transportation. More processed food means less spoilage of whole foods, but also more and varying points of contamination risk-during processing and in moving from the processing plant to the grocery store.

More fundamental safety challenges, however, may now arise from technology. Technology makes modern food possible. It also gives rise to a delivery chain that is steadily more complex, agile, dynamic, and multi-dimensional. Each link in the chain involves discreet and quickly evolving possibilities and needs-in the field (whether domestic or overseas), perhaps at more than one location, in multiple transportation avenues, and in new storage and display facilities. The safety challenges resulting from such changes in food delivery are essentially the result of the broad trend toward faster, deeper technological innovation. They will be as complex and ever changing as the technologies that create them.

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How Technology is Changing, Challenging the Food Industry - Food Quality & Safety

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Globalization, safety, regulation, efficiency, and refrigerants are now leading variables in the complex food-delivery equation. What the food delivery system will be in a decade will depend largely on industry creativity. Innovation across a wide range agenda will be required. It's important to first look at the full range of forces driving industry change and how they interact.

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How has it helped us?

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The subject has become a key issue in the Brexit debate: who gets in and who has to stay out. And what will Britain look like if we put up insurmountable barriers to people from other countries and cultures who want to live and work here?

The Conservative government has already been tightening up immigration controls for the very people British industries say are most needed - unskilled workers - and is considering a points-based system that would allow only the best-qualified professionals in.

Coupled with plans to make it far tougher for foreign students to study here, the political measures being taken in Westminster are likely to have far-reaching effects on British culture.

But whether in universities, farming, the NHS, in the care or the catering industries, there is a growing sense of unease over who exactly will plug the gaps - especially in filling the low-paid jobs that many British-born workers won't touch.

Migrants are disproportionately employed in low-skilled work - half of all those working in canning or bottling factories, for example, are foreign born - and since people come here looking for work, most will gravitate to where there are vacancies, leading to a report commissioned by the government advising: "The implication is that in terms of low-skilled employment at least, there are large parts of England and Wales where competition between UK-born and migrant workers will be very small or virtually non-existent."

Few industries illustrate the positive impact of immigrants on our society as clearly as food. The wealth of tastes and flavours available in our kitchens and supermarkets, the huge variety of takeaways and restaurants on our high streets, is something many British people take for granted.

While the impact of foreign-born workers on the wages and employment opportunities of British-born workers is hotly debated, there are already reports of dozens of curry houses closing down due to a shortage of staff, something that was acknowledged by Theresa May when she was home secretary.

The Observer spoke to five people working in the British food industry, each of whom has contributed something unique to their adopted country.

Enam Ali came from Bangladesh as a teenager in 1974 and went to work in a Southampton burger bar while supporting himself through his studies, quickly abandoning the law degree his parents wanted him to take for a degree in hospitality. He has worked for restaurants and run his own, opened a trade magazine for the sector and advised the government on regulation in the industry. But it was establishing the British Curry Awards in 2005 that makes Ali most proud, and that won him his MBE in 2009.

Former British Prime Minister David Cameron is shown around the kitchen by the founder of the British Curry Awards, Enam Ali, centre left, at the 2013 awards ceremony in London. Photograph: Sang Tan/AP

"I do feel very proud of contributing," he said. "What has happened here in Britain is such a great story, an untold story, in how all these foods, from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, were distilled into something else here, the British curry. And it is British - after all there is nowhere else in the world you will find onion bhaji-flavoured crisps. We are exporting mango chutney to India!"

He is worried about the impact of the immigration controls on the curry house. "Already we have a skill shortage, nobody wants to work in the kitchens, not just the Indian restaurant but the top hotels too where half the staff is European or Indian. People want to come and make some money working hard and then go, and we need that contribution. This is a great country but if people are not allowed to come, we will lose a lot from their contribution. And we will lose our curry houses."

Marianna Leivaditaki was raised in her family's fish restaurant. "My dad caught the fish, my mum cooked it. I was there every night." She came to the UK when she was 18 to study and her first job to make ends meet was working behind a vegetable and cheese market stall in Canterbury.

After falling in love with the London restaurant Moro, she got a job there as a waitress. "I was completely shocked to see what people were eating - baked beans and pasta. I had never seen that before. At Moro, it was wonderful, I fought my way into the kitchen! I just worked really hard until they saw I was serious. It was terrifying, though. In Crete we didn't have chopping boards; we did everything with the hands, and this was a completely different world."

She became head chef of Moro and is now head chef of owners Sam and Samantha Clark's latest opening, Morito, in Hackney Road. "I have a lot of dishes from Greece or Crete - they all have stories and it seems everyone loves the stories. I think it's really sad what's happening at the moment. When I came here 16 years ago, I wasn't thinking, 'I'm migrating'. I was just going somewhere else, for a change. It was a happy exchange of people and I always thought England was a place where you could go, and if you worked hard you'd do well and people would appreciate that. I feel I have contributed."

Ruby Kughanathan of Papi's Pickles.

Ruby Kughanathan grew up in Sri Lanka, got married and then, fleeing the civil war that left some 100,000 people dead, came to the UK in 2004 with her husband and two young children. At first it was difficult to find work as she spoke very little English and had no qualifications or skills. But determined to do something in her host country, Kughanathan discovered a social enterprise called Papi's Pickles.

Run by a south Indian mother and daughter team, Shanthini and Abi Ramanan, it is a team of cooks who produce south Indian and Sri pickles for events, and for London's growing pop-ups and street food market scenes, while working with unemployed women from these communities.

"I wanted to work with Papi's Pickles, as we speak the same language [Tamil]; it was a huge relief. I was able to get started. This was my very first job." Kughanathan says she has been transformed from a shy, reserved person to someone who is so confident that she recently addressed a special dinner, talking about the project, and has developed her skills in the kitchen to become one of their most valued chefs, part of a team giving back to the community, completing training and vastly improving her English.

The best bit, she says, is that her children are proud of what their mother has achieved - and now she is part of something that helps other women too.

Edinburgh's latest restaurant will employ about 100 people when it opens next month, becoming the fifth Dishoom in the UK.

Dishoom was founded by Shamil and Kavi Thakrar and Amar and Adarsh Radia. The first restaurant opened in Covent Garden in 2010.

Its executive chef, Naved Nasir, learned to cook as a child in India. "It was a dream to come to London," he said. "It was a struggle at first but deep in my heart I had confidence that it would work. The great thing about being here is that you have access to the best-quality ingredients from all over the world. That's the amazing thing about being in Britain: you don't have to compromise. But I think the industry is struggling in terms of getting the right people already; the pool of staff with the right background in experience of cooking great Indian food is dwindling. And you need that experience or you lose quality.

It was a dream to come to London. It was a struggle at first but deep in my heart I knew it would work

Naved Nasir, Dishoom

"I'm really happy at not only how Dishoom has taken off but also inspired lots of other places. We're never shy about giving the industry ideas, and it's changing the perception of Indian food. We have around 450 employees at the moment, and it's important for me that there is a good career ladder here, so at the moment we have someone who started as a kitchen porter training for a junior manager role."

When Yan Liu's father came from Hong Kong in the early 1980s, he started a small supermarket in Hockley, Nottingham, to serve the small, Chinese community and the restaurants and takeaways that were springing up.

Now that he has retired, Yan Liu and his mother run the Orient Mart, a large store and online supplier that imports hundreds of ingredients from all over Asia and employs 10 people. Liu is a keen cook and hopes to open his own restaurant next year.

"My dad said that at the beginning it was pure graft, and it still is hard work. It's not just me in an office but I have to be pretty hands on, moving boxes and all that as I want to let the staff know that I work as well and as hard as they do.

Yan Liu at the Oriental Mart in Hockley, Nottingham. Photograph: Nottingham Post/SWNS.com

"There has been a real change in the sort of customer we have, less about the local community from Hong Kong, and it's great to have people in Britain so interested in different cuisines and you get people coming in asking for ingredients that I'm really surprised they've even heard of," says Liu.

"We get a lot of foreign students here now, from everywhere - Korean, Thai, Chinese, Japanese, Malaysian - who want a bit of home cooking and with Brexit and the pound dropping, they still have the money to spend because they are doing well from the exchange rate, their currency is strong against the pound. But we've had to put our prices up as import costs shoot up - they're sky high at the moment - and local people are feeling that. So yes, that's a real worry, especially if the numbers of foreign students drop."

This article was amended on 24 October 2016 to add the names of the founders of Dishoom.

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How migration has enriched the UK's booming food culture

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Few industries illustrate the benefits of immigration as clearly as food, but how has the industry changed for the kitchen staff, chefs and entrepreneurs who have made their life in Britain

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How can Religion affect our food choices?

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How can Religion affect our food choices?

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The Influence of Religion and Culture on Food Choices

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Lebanese cuisine consists of a lot of starches, grains, fruits, vegetables and sea food. It also consists of large amounts of garlic, olive oils and herbs. Mezze is a range of appetizers that create emotions in the guests with an array of colors, favors and scents. Lebanese flat

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Gastronomy Definition

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Etymologically, the word "gastronomy" is derived from Ancient Greek γαστήρ, gastḗr, "stomach", and νόμος, nómos, "laws that govern", and therefore literally means "the art or law of regulating the stomach". The term is purposely all-encompassing: it subsumes all of cooking technique, nutritional facts, food science, and everything that has to do with palatability plus applications of taste and smell as human ingestion of foodstuffs goes.