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Sexual reproduction- each creature either male or female
Female releases eggs (up to a million)
Male fertilizes eggs in water
Larvae develop and settle on sea floor
Asexual reproduction
Starfish limb regeneration
Some juveniles can split into two organisms
Parthenogenesis
Fertilization of eggs without sperm

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During trying conditions; usually alternate with sexual reproduction
Not all are capable of asexual
Arms go in two different directions; animal splits down the middle
Very few can regenerate from a single arm (fragmentation)

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Population of Sea stars in the Northwestern Mediterranean that are exclusively monoclonal
Population has been maintained for a number of years (study was done over two) entirely asexually
A few specimen have reproductive organs (all male)- possibility for future asexual reproduction

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Ocean acidification (more CO2) affects echinoderm embryos and larvae
Development slower, produces abnormalities
100% mortality rate among experimental group, 70% survival rate among control

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Echinoderms 3 modes of reproduction
How sexual reproduction works (eggs and sperm released into water)
How asexual reproduction works (split apart clones)

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Eaves, Alexandra A., and A. Richard Palmer. "Reproduction: Widespread cloning in echinoderm larvae." Nature, vol. 425, no. 6954, 2003, p. 146. Research in Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A187749387/MSIC?u=mnamlkcl&sid=MSIC&xid=1e620257. Accessed 24 Mar. 2019.

Dolmatov IY., Afanasyev SV, Boyko AV (2018) Molecular mechanisms of fission in echinoderms: Transcriptome analysis. PLoS ONE 13(4): e0195836. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0195836

Garcia-Cisneros A., Perez-Portela R., Wangensteen O.S., Campos-Canet M., Palacin C "Hope springs eternal in the starfish gonad: preserved potential for sexual reproduction in a single-clone population of a fissiparous starfish."(2017)  Hydrobiologia,  787  (1) , pp. 291-305.

Pauline M. Ross 1,*, Laura Parker 1, Wayne A. O’Connor 2 and Elizabeth A. Bailey " The Impact of Ocean Acidification on Reproduction, Early Development and Settlement of Marine Organisms"  Water, 2011.

Sea Urchin Fertilization Lab Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology Education Program Clyde Tamaru, Ph.D. Malia Rivera, Ph.D. Roxanne Haverkort Kelvin Gorospe

"Smallest Seastar Discovered." Australian Science Volume for March 2008. p. 15. Accessed 24 Mar. 2019.