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2.   Laryngitis, Bronchoscopy and Spirometry: Riya and Autumn

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2.   Laryngitis, Bronchoscopy and Spirometry: Riya and Autumn

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Laryngitis occurs when your voice box or the vocal cords become inflamed from overuse, irritation or an infection. Some conditions that cause the inflammation that result in laryngitis are viral infections, environmental factors and bacterial infections. Acute laryngitis is a temporary condition caused by overuse of the vocal cords. It could also be caused by an infection. Acute laryngitis usually goes away within weeks however doctors may give antibiotics. Chronic laryngitis results from the long term exposure to irritants. Things that cause chronic laryngitis are frequent exposure to harmful chemicals, frequent sinus infections, smoking and overusing your voice. Symptoms of laryngitis are weakened voice, loss of voice, dry throat, dry cough and throat irritation. Laryngitis can be diagnosed by going to the doctors.  They look for signs of laryngitis such as irritation, redness, swelling, lesions on the voice box. If the doctor detects a lesion or a suspicious mass, they may order a biopsy where they remove a small piece of tissue so it can be examined in the lab.

Bronchoscopy is a form of technology which test the health of your lungs or find the causes of a lung problem.  Bronchoscopy is where specialized doctors take a long thin tube and feed it down the mouth or nose and which can go as far as the bronchioles in your lungs.  This tube has a camera at the tip where the tube goes in.  This allows doctors to see in your trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and allows them to find problems in a person’s respiratory system/lungs.  Things that would indicate someone may want to do this procedure are: persistent coughing, infection or unusual sighting on an X Ray.  Another reason this procedure is performed can be to obtain mucus or tissue samples.  These samples are gathered by sharp pinchers (also known as as an electrocautery probe) which can latch onto a part of tissue and rip it out to be used as a sample, there is also a brush which can be rubbed against the bronchioles to remove cells or even a laser to decrease the size of a tumor.  Other things this procedure can do are: take out foreign bodies, blockages in your airways, or to help provide treatment for any lung diseases.  Although this procedure can be very beneficial, there are also some downsides and risks.  Some common downsides after having this procedure done on you is that you can have sore lungs, bleeding in your bronchi, and its not uncommon for people to get a fever.   More severe risks can be if your lung collapses.  This could happen if a bronchiole is punctured because the air can then escape and go into the space around the lung will eventually will collapse it.  The whole entire procedure including prep and recovery of bronchoscopy can take about 4 hours, but the bronchoscopy itself takes in between 30-60 minutes.

Spirometry is a common test used to assess how well your lungs work by measuring the amount of air inhaled, how much you exhale and how fast you exhale. Spirometry is usually done when your doctor suspects symptoms or signs of a chronic lung condition such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema or pulmonary fibrosis. They use a machine called a spirometer, this device records the amount of air you breathe in and out and the speed of your breathing. There are no side effects to taking the test, spirometry is generally a safe test. You may feel short of breath or dizziness after taking the test. The entire procedure takes about less than 15 minutes. You will be seated and asked to take deep breaths and exhale into the tube several times. You have to do the test at least three times for the results to be consistent.  The results are measured by a comparison between the person’s measured value and their reference value.

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Pneumonia is the inflaming of your air sacks in either both or only one of your lungs. The inflaming is caused by infection in your lungs which then results in your air sacks filling up with fluids such as pus. Due to all these factors you can had difficulty breathing and will develop an uncontrollable cough

Pneumonia can range in how bad it is from life threatening to mild and curable. Depending on the strength of your immune system this infection will affect you differently. It is more deadly to older people and infants because their immune system and lungs are weak cannot handle the infection.
There are many different causes of pneumonia meaning there are also many different types of pneumonia as well. The ways you can get pneumonia are:

Hospital-acquired – when you are admitted into a hospital your immune system is introduced to a whole bunch more bacteria and infection. It is common that people who enter a hospital with a problem can catch something else like pneumonia because they are surrounded by bacteria.

Flu viruses

Cold viruses

RSV virus (the top cause of pneumonia in babies age 1 or younger)

Bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae

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1.   Tonsillitis,  Blood gas and Sputum analysis: Julianna and Mackenna

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1.   Tonsillitis,  Blood gas and Sputum analysis: Julianna and Mackenna

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Tonsils- lumps of tissue on both sides of the back of the throat- a part of the immune system used to protect the body from infections (can be bacterial or viral). Tonsillitis
-an infection of the tonsils
-tonsils are inflamed, red, swollen, sore, and may be covered with a film or whitish/yellowish spots
Symptoms- a sore throat, fever, bad breath, swollen lymph nodes, trouble swallowing, stomach ache, and headache.
Cause-viruses such as Adenovirus, the flu, Epstein-Barr virus (mono).
-sometimes caused by an influx of bacteria such as streptococcus (strep throat).
Diagnosis- run a series of tests such as the rapid strep test, that is a quick swab with test results in minutes.
- a throat culture, another swab that will test the bacteria in the throat, but will be sent to the lab and will take much longer.
Treatment- depends if was caused by a virus or bacteria.
viral- the body will fight it off on its on.
bacterial- prescribed antibiotics.

Blood Gas Analysis:
-measures the amount of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide in the blood. -also used to determine the pH of the blood, or how acidic it is.
-carbon dioxide and oxygen are blood gases because they are carried in red blood cells.
-can determine medical issues such as heart failure, kidney failure, diabetes, hemorrhage, chemical poisoning, drug overdose, and/or shock.
-can determine how well your lungs are able to diffused oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood stream.
- A person might have this test done because they suffer from symptoms of these medical conditions, or if they suffer from symptoms such as difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, confusion, or nausea.
Procedure
-collect a small sample of blood via artery or vein.
-The blood sample will then be analyzed by a portable machine or in an on-site laboratory.
-The sample must be analyzed within 10 minutes of the procedure to ensure an accurate test result.

Sputum Analysis:
-used to screen for disease and to monitor patient response to drug and/or nondrug therapy.
Procedure
-patient will cough as deeply as you can and cough your phlegm into a special container.
-The sample is sent to a lab.
-it is placed in a special dish (culture).
-watched to see if bacteria or other disease-causing germs grow.
Analysis-
-There are two factors to the analysis; macroscopic and microscopic testing.
Macroscopic- you can look at colour, odor, viscosity, and volume. -Mucus is supposed to be relatively clear, and discoloured mucus can mean many things.
--Purulent (pus) looking mucus contains pus and is associated with some sort of infection.
-Rust-looking mucus indicates Streptococcus pneumonia and red streaks indicate Klebsiella pneumoniae pneumonia
- greenish-black sputum is associated with an infection of gram-negative Bacilli.
-normal sputum is more or less odourless and watery
-A foul smelling sputum is significant of a bacterial infection. -thick and sticky indicates asthma.
-an abnormally high amount of sputum possibly indicates bronchitis, pneumonia, or tuberculosis.
-Microscopic,
-test the samples further under a microscope in order to spot small differences
-Curschmann’s spirals (a spiral shaped mucus plug)
-Eosinophils (white blood cells already stained by eosins)
-Neutrophils (white blood cells stained by neutral dye).
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These all are indicators of medical conditions such as asthma, bronchial obstruction and/or infection, as well as bacterial and/or fungal pneumonia.

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Cystic fibrosis is a progressive genetic disorder. it is an autosomal recessive disorder so it needs to bad chromsomes to be affected. Cystic fibrosis is caused by defects in a protein found in many tissues, including the airways and the sweat glands. As a result, these tissues do not work properly. Early signs include salty sweat, poor growth and weight gain, constant coughung and wheezing, thick mucus or phlegm. as the disorder progresses the stymptoms get worse. CF is characterized by the production of abnormal mucus that is excessively thick and sticky. The abnormal mucus leads to blockages within the lungs and airways. This leads to repeated, serious lung infections that can damage the lungs. About 30,000 people have cystic fibrosis. It is one of the most common inherited diseases among Caucasians. Cystic fibrosis has no cure. However, treatments have greatly improved in recent years. Treatment may include nutritional and respiratory therapies, medicines and excercise. Early treatment for cystic fibrosis can improve both quality of life and lifespan.

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10.Spiral CT scan and two-photon microscopy: Waleed  and Owen. 

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10.Spiral CT scan and two-photon microscopy: Waleed  and Owen. 

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Spiral CT scan:
A procedure that uses a computer linked to an X-ray machine to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. The machine  scans the body in a spiral path. This allows more images to be made in a shorter time than with older CT methods. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly on the X-ray. Spiral CT scans also creates more detailed pictures and may be better at finding small abnormal areas inside the body. It may be used to help diagnose disease, plan treatment, or find out how well treatment is doing. Also called helical computed tomography. Usually, the exam can take up to an hour, while the scan will take up to only 10-15 minutes. One of the main diseases that the spiral CT scan is used for is lung cancer and look in the adrenal glands, brain and other organs to see if the cancer has spread throughout the bod y into other areas. This technique emerged when they were in need of a new way to scan patients for (PE) Pulmonary Embolism.
Two-photon microscopy:
Two-photon microscopy offers two advantages over other live cell imaging techniques: It penetrates up to 1 mm into tissue and it minimizes photo-toxicity because the beam excites just a single focal point at a time. In order to excite a fluoroscope labeling the tissue, two long-wavelength, low-energy photons must meet nearly simultaneously, combining their energy to create a quantum excitation event. The probability that such an event will occur is extremely low, but increases quadratic ally with laser intensity; a special laser is thus main element of the technology. A titanium sapphire laser emits pulsed near-infrared light (red beam) at a rate of about 80 million pulses per second. The beam passes through a pair of computer-controlled galvo mirrors that control its movement along the X and Y axes of the tissue. The beam then passes through the chronic mirror to the objective lens where it is focused to the desired focal plane in the tissue . Photons that are scattered by the tissue cannot pair up with others to cause an excitation event. When one occurs, however, the two photons combine to excite a single fluoroscope, which then releases light at its emission frequency (pullout). The emitted fluorescence (yellow beam) is then redirected 90 degrees by the chronic mirror to the set of photo multiplier tubes that detect it.

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Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. 3 things happen: constriction of the airways, thickening of the inner lining and secretion of sputum into the airways. During an asthma attack the bronchiole contracts (bronchospasm) while the lining expands and fluids build up, further constricting the airway. Children have smaller airways, which makes asthma attacks more severe. Asthma is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and produce extra mucus. This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath. Life long disease - no cure, but symptoms can be controlled.

Some of the symptoms are; Narrowed/swelling of airways, Extra mucus production, Shortness of breath, and Chest pain or tightness. Anyone can get it, increased chance if you are a smoker, exposed to secondhand smoke, overweight, or have other allergic conditions. Inhalers - send medicine directly to the lungs and relax the muscles surrounding airways

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-X-Ray
X-rays can produce images of heart. lungs blood vessels, airways, and bones.
They can also reveal fluid in lungs and/or around the lungs. Can help doctors determine if you have heart problems, a collapsed lung, pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, cancer etc. If you are getting a treatment done for some sort of disease, it can also help determine if the treatment is working or not. X-rays can also be helpful for detecting Cancer, infections or air collections.

-CT Scans
A computerized tomography scan (or CAT scan) consists of a series of different X-rays taken at all different angles. These X-rays can be used to make cross sectional pictures of your bones, as well as provide images of blood vessels and soft tissue. Since they are more accurate then X-rays, CT scans can be used for spotting tumours, infections or blood clots, things an X-ray often misses. They can also be used to diagnose internal injuries or internal bleeding, as well as a range of muscle and bone disorders. It can also spot cancer, lung nodules, liver masses and heart disease.

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An inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, that carry air in and out of your lungs. Your bronchi become red, inflamed, and filled with thickened mucus that is often coughed up. A short term form of bronchitis is known as acute and is caused by a bacterial infection that may be treated with antibiotics. Typically develops from common colds or infections. Acute bronchitis is also known as a chest cold and clears up within 7-10 days. Chronic bronchitis is a long-term disorder caused by exposure to concentrations of dust or chemicals (usually in the workplace), or from smoking. The cilia lining of the bronchi are gradually destroyed. Within cleansing of the cilia the bronchi will grow increasingly infected and have a higher chance of developing an infection. It is known as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or a COPD. It is incurable, but symptoms can be managed by quitting smoking, taking medication and being put on specialized exercise programs. Symptoms include; cough, production of mucus (sputum), fatigue, loss of breath, fever and chills, chest discomfort. Chronic bronchitis is described as a persistent cough that lasts for at least three months, with recurring bouts lasting for two consecutive years. Even a single episode of bronchitis can lead some people to develop pneumonia. It can often be difficult to differentiate symptoms of bronchitis to a common cold, but a doctor may request a chest X-Ray, sputum tests, or pulmonary function test. You may be prescribed cough medicine or other medications to reduce inflammation or open airways.

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Caused by smoking and air pollution. It occurs when the alveoli are damaged and cannot support the bronchial tubes. The tubes can collapse and block the airway, trapping air inside the lungs as the alveoli enlarge. The tubes and alveoli are no longer accessible so the body can't have as much oxygen in the bloodstream.  As more air gets trapped the symptoms worsen.

Possible symptoms:
-barrel shaped chest
-shortness of breath, long term cough, wheezing, mucus production, fatigue and not being able to get enough air. It is most common in men around 50-70 years old and around 3 million Americans have been diagnosed.

- no cure for emphysema.  As alveoli are being damaged more air will get trapped. Usually quitting smoking can stop the effects from getting worse.

People may have genetic factors that can increase the chance or even cause emphysema. AAT deficiency is when there isn't enough of a natural protein called alpha antiritrypsin. This protein circulates in the blood and prevents white blood cells form damaging the lungs. If someone doesn't produce enough AAT they can have emphysema. Smoking and air pollution can also contribute and damage your lungs faster.
In severe cases fatal.

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Lung Cancer

Happens when cells in the lungs mutate

Often mutate from chemicals that we breath

Four types

Adenocarcinoma. This is the most common type and starts in the mucus making gland cells in the lining of your airways.

* Squamous cell cancer. ...

* Large cell carcinoma. ...

* Undifferentiated non small cell lung cancer

Causes

Smoking

Second hand smoke

Exposure to radon gas

Family history of lung cancer

Will start can spread all over the body. Starts in lungs can then go to lymph nodes or can get into the blood stream and travel any where in the body

Creates tumors in the lungs that can make it hard to breath

Symptoms

* A new cough that doesn't go away.

* Coughing up blood, even a small amount.

* Shortness of breath.

* Chest pain.

* Hoarseness.

* Losing weight without trying.

* Bone pain.

* Headache.