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The Embargo of 1807

France and England participated in the Napoleonic wars, which began from 1803 to 1815, they started on the American ships they caught and kept on the high seas

England impressed badly with America because of their actions with American sailor, the problem overcontrolled when the HMS Leopard ship from British shooted the Chesapeake ship from U.S in 1807 off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia and British took 4 U.S sailors.

Jefferson passed , the Embargo Act of 1807 , this law forbided American ship leave their ports until Britain and France stopped seizing them on the high seas

The reason for the embargo was stopping all trade led to the the end of the seizures at sea, however, this embargo also hurted the American economy.

The goverment could not enforce the embargo easily, especially in the states near British Canada due to the smuggling

Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act of 1808 at the very end of his second term to remove unfamous embargoes on trade except with Britain and France

In the election of 1808, James Madison won, he got foreign policy problems related to Britain and France from Jefferson

Tecumseh and the Western confederacy

The supporting of British for native resistance to U.S. was the main cause of the War of 1812

Under Jefferson, two policies happened involving agriculture and lands

1809, a Shawnee war leader, Tecumseh rejuvenated the Western Union, Tenskwatawa urged a revival of indigenous ways and rejection of Anglo-American culture, including wine. In 1811, Harrison sent army to attack Prophetson and Tenskwatawa to remove all traces of the natives.

The war of 1812

War against Great Britain was gradually bursted with strident calls due to the seizure of American ships and sailors.

From June 1812, the declaration of war between the U.S. president and England really took place. It took place when the British gained the upper hand in the Napoleon war and the main army of the war was on the run, helping

England keep the circumstance in front of the US, however, they could not win when trying to defeat the U.S. army after the victory with Baltimore in the summer of 1814.

Then, they want to end the conflict with America when the war is over in Europe with Treaty of Ghent, and luckily that the boundaries between the United States and British Canada still remained as they were before the war.

Epilogue: The battle of New Orleans

The last battle in 1812 War in New England still occurred due to the slow communication In spite of the signed Treaty of Ghent

Android Jackson was a highlight of this battle thanks to the Creek Natives defeated.

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8.1 (qt, mkhue)
The Report on a National Bank

Hamilton (secretary of the treasury): wanted to stabilize the American economy by establishing a national bank -> delivered his “Report on a National Bank” in 5/1790, proposing a Bank of the United States

The bank will be in charge of the loans, bills, and repositioning of government revenue

Stockholders and government will own the bank

However: gained opposition

Jefferson argued that the Consitution did not allow to create of a national bank, but Hamilton invoked the Constitution’s implied power

President Washington signed legislation creating the bank in 1791

The Report on Manufactures

Hamilton’s third report “Report on Manufactures”: the aim was to raise revenue to pay the interest on the national debt using tax

Tax on American-made whiskey and on all foreign products (also to stimulate American goods)

His program received support in Congress to be implemented -> helped to rescue America from bankruptcy in the late 1780s

Marked the beginning of an American capitalism

The Democratic-Republican party and the first party system

James Madison and Thomas Jefferson felt that the government has overstepped its authority, and found Hamilton’s plan offensive and unsuitable

Jefferson tried unsuccessfully to convince Washington to block their creation of the national bank, he believed that self-sufficient, poverty-owning , or yeoman farmers are true keys to the success and longevity of a nation. He seemed Hamilton’s program as it encourages economic inequality and works against the original yeoman.

With his friend Philip Freneau’s help, he published the Gazette of the United States and the National Gazette which attacked Hamilton’s program -> newspaper became an important part of American culture in 1790

-> led to the formation of Democratic-Republican societies

the 1760s-1770s: British Parliament and the federal constitution tried to impose their wills on the colonies -> American Revolution (the goal was to eliminate betrayal and aristocracy)

Members of Democratic-Republican in Philadelphia and New York: worked against the Federalists to preserve republicanism.

Defining citizenship

A consensus existed among men who did and did not qualify as a citizen

1790 Naturalization Act: immigrant had to be a “free white person” and “good character” (excluding slaves, free blacks) -> foundation for the US as a republic of white men

Women’s right was restricted, they even did not have the right to vote

Democratic-Republicans fought against Federalists for New Jersey women's right to vote

8.3(Viet Anh)

The presidency of John Adams

The war between Great Britain and France in the 1790 s shaped U.S foreign policy. America, a very new country, posed a problem with France. During the war Britain-France war, the French Directory declared to attack any ships with British goods that led to some issues for the American to trade with the British. This caused the Quasi War (1796-1800). In 1797, Adams tried to cease the tension between America and France. The French demanded America to pay a lot of money for them, yet had made American public turned their view against France. In the late 1790s, Haiti was still a colony of France. With the help of President Adams and the Congress, the rebellion leader Toussaint finally secured an independent black republic in Haiti by 1804.

The alien and Sedition acts

These 1798 war measures were to increase national security against the French. They deported the French immigrants until 1800 when there was no more left. They also imposed harsh penalties such as 5+ years of imprisonment and massive fine for writing or speaking in a manner that against the government. Democratic-Republican argued that the acts were Federalists’ intent to squash individual liberties and enlarging national government’s power. It was also argued that the acts were illegal and unconstitutional, but it was rejected by most states. After the French war ended in 1800, a treaty reopened trade between the two countries and stopped taking American ships on the high seas.

The revolution of 1800 and the presidency of Thomas Jefferson

The revolution of 1800 refers to the transfer of power from one party to the other in American history, this case the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson in the new election. Jefferson had an optimistic view about democracy, and trusted that the yeoman could make the right decisions. He also cheered for the French Revolution and against Napoleon’s creation of dictatorship. In his next term of president, he turned away from urban commercial development and promoted agriculture through the sale of western public lands in small and affordable lots, exporting to the world and not worrying about industrialization and urbanization. Jefferson as well removed some internal taxes and reduced the investment in military.

The Louisiana Purchase

In 1803, the US bought the Louisiana territory from France to bring about his “empire of liberty” and doubled US size. Jefferson then bolstered trade in the West, typically the new crucial ports in New Orleans and Mississippi to trade with the European.

8.2 M.Duc B
The French and The United States developed a special relationship after their alliance helps them to secure the victory against the British Empire. In the same time, the Democratic-Republican take chance at France is struggle against monarchy to spread while the Federalists sees it as the action of anarchy. The French Revolution rise during 1789,  which deepens the hatred between the Democratic-Republicans, believed the Americans as the trend inspired by the American Revolution. In 1792,French people declared a republic which leads to numerous of disastrous actions such as the execution of the French King in 1793, and The Terror, a period of bloody violence against the enemy of the revolutionary government. The controversy got even more intense when the French government decided to declare war with the British Empire with the help of the U.S despite Washington says that U.S is a neutral force, causing hostile and violence between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists. In 1793, Edmond-Charles Gêment was sent by the French revolutionary government to form an alliance with the U.S, allow French to gain an opportunity to attack Britain; as the British try to narrow down the conflict which leads to the 1794 agreement (a.k.a Jay’s Treaty), allow the U.S to trade freely in the West Indies and force British to settle the debt with the colonials; at the same time, negotiating the Pinckney’s Treaty, allowing American commerce to flow through the Spanish port of New Orleans, confirmed the fear of the Democratic-Republicans by cementing the idea of Federalists favor.  Contrast to the American Revolutionary with strengthens slavery society and slave holders, the French Revolution encourages slave rebellions in the Haiti islands we know nowadays. In 1794, French abolished slavery in the Empire while both England and Spain attacked Saint-Domingue to have more colonies in their empire; as the slave uprising prove to be successful, Federalist living in fear knowing the French slaves could inspire for a slave rebel in the American coastlines. The Whiskey rebellion originally started in 1791 when the Congress authorized a 7.5 cent tax per gallon of wine for the Hamilton’s financial program which cause controversy between the Pennsylvania farmers and the tax supporters which lead to the rebellion in 1794. The people used violence and intimidation to protect the policies they see as unfair; they also aligned with the Democratic-Republicans, sees the tax as the Federalists plot to ruin their society leads to the lowering of the taxes by the federal as the federal officials tried to subpoena the taxes, Washington sent 13000 men to put down the rebellion, making sure that the Government will do anything to ensure the survival of the U.S. After the War of Independence, white settlers all went to Appalachian Mountains during 1785-1795, causing a war between the settlers and the Indians live in Ohio. In 1794, Wayne was victorious in the Fallen Timbers battle, giving up Treaty of Greenvile claims to Ohio

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8.4: The United State goes back to war (Hà My)
- The origins of the War of 1812, often called the Second War of American Independence, are found in the unresolved issues between the United States and Great Britain.
- One major cause was the British practice of impressment, whereby American sailors were taken at sea and forced to fight on British warships; this issue was left unresolved by Jay’s Treaty in 1794.
- Though Jefferson wanted to avoid what he called “entangling alliances,” staying neutral proved impossible.

1. The embargo of 1807
- France and England, engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, which raged between 1803 and 1815, both declared open season on American ships, which they seized on the high seas.
- The issue came to a head in 1807 when the HMS Leopard, a British warship, fired on a U.S. naval ship, the Chesapeake, off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia.
- Jefferson chose what he thought was the best of his limited options and responded to the crisis through the economic means of a sweeping ban on trade, the Embargo Act of 1807.
- As a result of the embargo, American commerce came to a near-total halt.
- The logic behind the embargo was that cutting off all trade would so severely hurt Britain and France that the seizures at sea would end.
- The embargo hurt American farmers, who could no longer sell their goods overseas, and seaport cities experienced a huge increase in unemployment and an uptick in bankruptcies.
- Enforcement of the embargo proved very difficult, especially in the states bordering British Canada.
- Jefferson attributed the problems with the embargo to lax enforcement.
- At the very end of his second term, Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act of 1808, lifting the unpopular embargoes on trade except with Britain and France.
- In the election of 1808, American voters elected another Democratic-Republican, James Madison.
- Madison inherited Jefferson’s foreign policy issues involving Britain and France.

2. Tecumseh and the western confederacy
- Another underlying cause of the War of 1812 was British support for native resistance to U.S. western expansion.
- Under Jefferson, two policies existed: forcing Native Americans to adopt American ways of agricultural life, or aggressively driving them into debt in order to force them to sell their lands.
- In 1809, Tecumseh, a Shawnee war chief, rejuvenated the Western Confederacy.
- In 1811, William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Territory, attempted to eliminate the native presence by attacking Prophetstown, a Shawnee settlement named in honor of Tenskwatawa.
- In the ensuing Battle of Tippecanoe, U.S. forces led by Harrison destroyed the settlement.
- They also found ample evidence that the British had supplied the Western Confederacy with weapons, despite the stipulations of earlier treaties.

đỗ ngọc linh
THE WAR OF 1812
The capture of American ships and sailors led stridence to call for war against Britain. The war of hawks was led by henry clay. The northerners opposed the war because it would disrupt their trade.
In June 1812, Congress authorized the president to declare war on Great Britain
In August 1812, the United States lost the detroit and its native allies included thousands led by lecumseh.
The following year, the United States scored several victories such as oliver hazard perry defeating the British on Lake erie. At the Thames in Ontario, the United States also defeated the British.
However, he prevailed in the two napoleonic wars and napoleon's French army
july 1814,405 British troops set fire to Washington causing President Madison to flee with his wife for their lives, but they still lost their battle against the American burly.
-In 1814, British and American diplomats met in Flanders in Belgium to sign the Treaty of Ghent (signed in December).
-The war of 1812 was unpopular in new england because it caused economic harm. This caused a revival of the federal party in new england.

EPILOGUE: THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS
-In March 1814, he transferred a force of Tennessee warriors to New Orleans to defend the strategic port against British attack.
-On January 8, 1815 (despite the official end of the war), an experimental force of British veterans of the Napoleonic wars attempted to take the port. New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley were successfully defended, securing the future of American settlement and commerce.
-The Battle of New Orleans made Jackson a war hero, and in 1820 he became the head of the New Democrats.

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8.2 The New American Republic ( Quang Trieu )
FRANCE REVOLUTION

The French Revolution began in 1978 and appeared in most of the United States. In 1791, a new constitution replaced that of King Louis XVI and in 1792 France was declared a republic. France continued to prosper in the years that followed, in 1793 the French king was executed, Catholicism was abolished and replaced by the cult of the Most High, stupid.

THE CITIZEN GENÊT AFFAIR AND JAY’S TREATY

In 1793, the French revolutionary government sent Edmond-Charles Genêt to America to negotiate an alliance with the American government, taking the opportunity to dominate in the states and regions related to England. Later, Presidents Washington and Halmiton denounced Genet. Britain and America then took action against each other, but they did not want war, both sides negotiated. And to correct it, the result was the agreement of 1794, known as Jay's Treaty. But this treaty also alarmed Spain when British and American trade was allowed to pass through Spain. Since then, a contradiction has arisen with the French.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION’S CARIBBEAN LEGACY

The French Revolution inspired non-Caribbean slaves, including an uprising in 1791 in France. Thousands of slaves banded together to overthrow the regime and control some areas. In 1794, the French revolutionaries abolished slavery. while Britain and Spain were colonizing to strengthen their empires. The fact that the French were able to make the uprising a success even on the shores of the United States is also very hard to believe.

THE WHISKEY REBELLION

While the war was dividing American citizens, the US government experimented with a Whiskey tax on the new country in 1794 to the displeasure of many citizens. In 1791, there were four countr revolts in the Pennsylvania region known as the whiskey revolt. They both had to pay heavy taxes and also had some economic problems for their products, which the tenants considered normal, so they decided to distill the grain into gin and whiskey because it was cheap. and save more. But it wasn't long before they had to revolt to fight for their rights, protesting the Whiskey tax - which was believed to be a plot to destroy the republican freedom.

WASHINGTON’S INDIAN POLICY

After the war of independence, white people settled in the western Appalachian Mountains. And from 1785 to 1795, there was a state of war among the Indians in the Ohio territory. In 1974, Anthony Wayne won the battle and re-unified the tribes and Washington issued the Treaty of Greeville just a year later

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8.3 PARTISAN POLITICS ( Đức Anh)

In 1792, George Washington, with an overwhelming majority, refused to run for a third term, setting a precedent for future presidents. In 1796, this was the first competition between the Federalist party and the Democratic-Republican party. An election loomed in reverse, and Jefferson began a long period of Democratic-Republican government.During the 1790s, the war between England and France shaped the foreign policy of the United States. Through this war, it can be seen that America is at a disadvantage, France has conducted attacks on American ships, where the United States conducts rapid trade with the British. Following that incident, France declared its 1778 treaty with the United States null and void and led to an undeclared war between 1796 and 1800. In early 1799, Congress ended the ban. Trade with Haiti and Toussaint was able to secure an independent Black republic in Haiti in 1804.In 1798 came the Aliens Act and the Alien Enemies Act specifically aimed at French immigrants but then expired in 1800 with no immigrants. who are deported. With the harsh penalties imposed by the Sedition Act, 25 men, all Democratic-Republicans, were prosecuted under the act, and 10 were convicted. Many people believe that this is the intention to stifle the freedom of citizens. In 1800, the war between the two sides with France ended, President Adams was able to secure the Treaty of Mortefontaine.The Revolution of 1800 referred to the first transfer of power from one party to another in American history. Jefferson saw participatory democracy as a positive engine of the republic, and Jefferson reversed Federalist policies during his two terms in office. He also believed in austerity. belly, but it was he who created the first American conflict abroad in 1801.But he also had a great success during Jefferson's administration, the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which helped realize his vision of the United States as an agricultural republic.

8.4 THE UNITED STATES GOES BACK TO WAR
(Nguyễn Gia Khánh)

THE EMBARGO OF 1807

The Second War of American Independence, which occurred in 1812 took place when the U.K. was joining Napoleonic Wars, together with France declared open season on American ships on the high seas. In 1807, a British warship HMS Leopard, fired on an America naval ship called the Chesapeake, created a big crisis between two countries, called “the Embargo of 1807”. Jefferson, who used to be a member of the United States of America selected the best of his limited options in his mind and introduced “the Embargo Act of 1807” to deal with this wave. However, this law not only affected the U.K. economy to a certain extent but also burdened America commerce, especially with American farmers due to unable to sell their good overseas. The 75% decline in business activities in two next years proved this situation. Meanwhile, enforcement of the embargo evinced very hard, made a lot of problems around them. After only one year, Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act of 1808, lifting the unpopular embargoes on trade except with Britain and France.

TECUMSEH AND THE WESTERN CONFEDERACY

The War of 1812 caused by lots of reasons, the basic one is the support of British people for native resistance to U.S. western expansion.

1809, a Shawnee war chief, Tecumseh rejuvenated the Western Confederacy. His brother, Tenskwatawa urged a revival of native ways and rejection of British-American culture, including wine. In 1811, Harrison gave his force to attack Prophetson and Tenskwatawa to eliminate traces of the natives.

THE WAR OF 1812

War against Great Britain was gradually bursted with strident calls due to the seizure of American ships and sailors. From June 1812, the declaration of war between the U.S. president and England really took place. It took place when the British gained the upper hand in the Napoleon war and the main army of the war was on the run, helping England to keep the circumstance in front of the US. However, they couldn’t win when trying to defeat the U.S. forces after the victory with Baltimore in the summer of 1814.
After that, they want to end the conflict with America when the war is over in Europe with Treaty of Ghent, and luckily that the boundaries between the United States and British Canada still remained as they were before the war.

EPILOGUE: THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS

Despite the signed Treaty of Ghent, the last battle in 1812 War in New England still occurred due to the slow communication. Andrew Jackson was a highlight of this battle thanks to the Creek Natives defeated.

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8.2 The New American Republic (Trần Nguyễn Hoàng Minh)
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, further divided American thinkers into different ideological camps, deepening the political divide between the Federalists and the Democratic-Communist enemies. their peace. The revolutionaries advocated direct representative democracy, abolished Catholicism, replaced it with a new philosophy called the Cult of the Supreme Being, renamed the months of the year, and ceased using it. guillotine to fight their enemies. Democratic-Republicans interpreted similar events with more optimism, seeing them as an evil necessary to abolish the monarchy and aristocratic culture that favored the prerogatives of the monarchy. A hereditary ruling class.. Washington declared the United States neutral in 1793, but Democratic-Republican groups denounced the neutrality and declared support for the French republicans. The Federalists used the violence of the French revolutionaries as an excuse to attack Democratic-Republicanism in the United States, arguing that Jefferson and Madison would lead the country down a similarly disastrous path. self.. Supreme Court Justice John Jay was sent to England, guided by Hamilton to secure compensation for captured American ships; ensured the British left the Northwestern outposts they still occupied despite the 1783 Treaty of Paris; and reached an agreement for American trade in the West Indies. The treaty, however, did not address the important issue of impressionism — British naval activity in coercing or "impressing" American sailors working and fighting on British warships. Brother. Jay's treaty prompted the Spaniards, who worried that it signaled an alliance between the United States and Great Britain, to negotiate a treaty of their own—the Treaty of Pinckney—that would allow U.S. commerce to flow through. the Spanish port of New Orleans. Jay's Pact confirmed the fears of the Democratic-Republicans, who saw it as a betrayal of republican France, reinforcing the idea that the Federalists supported the aristocracy. and monarchy. Unlike the American Revolution, which ultimately strengthened the institution of slavery and the power of American slave owners, the French Revolution inspired slave revolts in the Caribbean, including the American Revolution. in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti). In 1794, French revolutionaries abolished slavery in the French empire, and both Spain and England attacked Saint-Domingue, hoping to add colonies to their empires. However, in the spring and summer months of 1794, angry citizens rebelled against the federal officials responsible for enforcing federal excise tax laws. They blind federal officials, block federal mail, and intimidate wealthy citizens. The federal government has slashed taxes, but when federal officials tried to subpoena distilleries that were still intractable, trouble escalated. Relations with Native Americans were an important issue for Washington's administration, but one on which white citizens agreed: Native Americans stood in the way of white settlement and, as Taoism, The Naturalization Act of 1790 made it clear that they were not citizens.
8.3 (Trần Gia Khánh)
George Washington refused to run for a third term after being reelected in 1792 so Federalist and Democratic-Repblican competed in 1796. John Adams defeated his rival by only three votes but then lost in 1800.

The presidency of John Adams

The war between Britain and France in the 1790s shaped U.S. foreign policy. The Amrican republic had no control over European events cause they were weak compared to Europe and they couldn’t trade freely in Atlantic. To John Adams relations with France is the biggest problem. Napoleon rose to power during the Terror. Because of the war American ships were targeted by the French in the West Indies where the U.S conducted a brisk trade with the British. Since then France and the United States started a war called the Quasi-War. Adam started the buildup of U.S. Navy. Adam sought a solution to the conflict with France in 1797. The French foreign minister then demanded the U.S. to repay all debts owed to France and pay a 50000 pounds bribe. The XYZ affair was released to Congress and made the American public turned opinion against France. The Fedralists appeared to have been correct while the pro-French Democratic-Republicans had been misled. In Haiti there remained a French colony in 1790s caught President Adam’s attention. He created a U.S. Navy with ships that cruised the Carribean giving them the edge over France. In Haiti, Toussaint, a rebellion leader was able to secure an idependent Black republic by 1804.

The Alien and Sedition Acts

The Alien Act is aimed to the French immigrants fleeing to the West Indies by deporting new arrivals that seems to be a threat but expired in 1800 be cuase noone was deported. The Sedition Act has more harsh penalties and has led to 25 men were indicted under the act. The Acts raised questions about freedom provided under the First Amendment. The acts were seen as evidence of the Federalists’ intent to squash individual liberties. The acts were argued as illegal and unconstitutional by statements known as Vrignia and Kentucky by Jefforson and Madison.

The revolution of 1800 and the presidency of Thomas Jefferson

The revolution of 1800 refers to the presidency being passed to Thomas Jefferson in the 1800 election. The Federalists were divided, the Democratic-Reblicans gained political ground. Alexander Hamilton wrote a letter, attacking Presidenr Adam fellow Fedralists’s character and judgment and ridiculing his handling of foreign affairs. Jefferson viewed the democracy as a positive force for the republic while Federalist statesmen feared it. Jefferson was optimistic that the common American Farmer could be trusted to make good decisions. Jefferson had cheered the French Revolution but he rejected the cause of France by 1799 because of Napoleon’s seizure of power and dictatorship.

Partisan Acrimony

The earliest years of the nineteenth century were hardly free of problems between the two political parties. Early in Jefferson’s term, controversy swirled over President Adams’s judicial appointments of many Federalists during his final days in office. When Jefferson took the oath of office, he refused to have the commissions for these Federalist justices delivered to the appointed officials. William Marbury  petitioned the Supreme Court when his commision didn’t arrive. The case, Marbury v. Madison, in 1803, Chief Justice John Marshall agreed that Marbury had the right to a legal remedy, establishing that individuals had rights even the president of the United States could not abridge. The animosity between the political parties exploded into open violence in 1804. Aaron Burr blamed Alexander Hamilton for losing his bid for the office of governor of New York. The two then exchanged bullets leading to Hamilton being wounded

The Louisiana purchase

Jefferson, who wanted to expand the United States to bring about his “empire of liberty,” realized his greatest triumph in 1803 when the United States bought the Louisiana territory from France. The purchase of Louisiana came about largely because of circumstances beyond Jefferson’s control, though he certainly recognized the implications of the transaction. The Louisiana Purchase helped Jefferson win reelection in 1804 by a landslide. Of 176 electoral votes cast, all but 14 were in his favor.

8.4 (Bảo Linh)
The origins of the War of 1812, often called the Second War of American Independence, are found in the unresolved issues between the United States and Great Britain.

THE EMBARGO OF 1807
France and England, engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, which raged between 1803 and 1815, both declared open season on American ships, which they seized on the high seas. The issue came to a head in 1807 when the HMS Leopard, a British warship, fired on a U.S. naval ship, the Chesapeake, off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia. Jefferson responded to the crisis through economic measures such as a sweeping trade ban, the Embargo Act of 1807. This law prohibited American ships from leaving their ports until Britain and France stopped seizing them on the high seas. As a result of the embargo, American commerce came to a near-total halt. The logic behind the embargo was that cutting off all commerce would hurt Britain and France so badly that sea raids would stop. However, while the embargo has had some effect on the UK economy, it is US trade that really feels the brunt of the impact. Enforcement of the embargo proved difficult, especially in the states bordering British Canada. Jefferson attributed the problems with the embargo to lax enforcement. At the end of his second term, Jefferson signed the Non-Corrective Act of 1808, lifting trade embargoes that were not common except with Britain and France. In the election of 1808, American voters elected another Democrat-Republican, James Madison. Madison inherited Jefferson's foreign policy issues involving Britain and France.

TECUMSEH AND THE WESTERN CONFEDERACY
Another underlying cause of the War of 1812 was British support for native resistance to the westward expansion of the United States. Under Jefferson, two policies existed: forcing Native Americans to adopt the American agrarian way of life, or provoking them into debt to force them to sell their land. In 1809, Tecumseh, a Shawnee war leader, rejuvenated the Western Union. In 1811, William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, attempted to eliminate the presence of natives. In the ensuing Battle of Tippecanoe, American forces led by Harrison destroyed the settlement. They also found ample evidence that the British supplied weapons to the Western Union, despite the provisions of the earlier treaties.

THE WAR OF 1812
The capture of American ships and sailors, along with British support in the Native American resistance, led to harsh calls for war against Great Britain. In a narrow vote, Congress authorized the president to declare war on Britain in June 1812. Initially, the war went badly for the United States. The following year, however, American forces scored several victories. In the Battle of the Thames in Ontario, the United States defeated the British and their native allies, and Tecumseh is considered among those killed. Native American resistance began to wane, opening up the territories of Indiana and Michigan to white settlement. However, these victories could not turn the tide of the war. With the British gaining the upper hand in the Napoleonic Wars and Napoleon's French army on the run, Great Britain could now divert battle-hardened armies from Europe to fight in the United States. That summer, the British bombarded Baltimore, hoping for another victory. However, they failed to dislodge American forces, whose bombardment survivors inspired Francis Scott Key to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.” When the war in Europe ended, Britain also wanted to end the conflict in the Americas. In 1814, British and American diplomats met in Flanders, north of Belgium, to negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, signed in December. The boundary between the United States and Great Britain remained the same. The War of 1812 was very unpopular in New England because it caused additional economic damage to an area dependent on maritime trade. This unpopularity caused the fury of the Federalist Party in New England. The depth of the Federalists' discontent as illustrated by the progress of the Hartford Convention of December 1814. The convention forever discredited the Federalist Party and led to its downfall.

EPILOGUE: THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS
Due to slow communication, the final battle of the War of 1812 occurred after the Treaty of Ghent was signed ending the war. On 8 January 1815 (although the war was officially over), a force of British veterans tested in the Napoleonic Wars attempted to capture the port. Andrew Jackson's forces devastated the British, killing more than two thousand people. New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley were successfully defended, securing a future for American settlement and commerce. The Battle of New Orleans immediately established Jackson as a national war hero, and in the 1820s he emerged as the head of the New Democratic Party.

(8.1) dũng
Elections for the first U.S. Congress were held in 1788 and 1789, and members took their seats in March 1789. In a reflection of the trust placed in him as the personification of republican virtue, George Washington became the first president in April 1789. They did believe in clear distinctions in rank and intelligence. To these supporters of the Constitution, the idea that all were equal appeared ludicrous. Women, Black, and Native peoples, they argued, had to know their place as secondary to White male citizens. Many Americans opposed the 1787 Constitution because it seemed a dangerous concentration of centralized power that threatened the rights and liberties of ordinary U.S. citizens. These opponents, known collectively as Anti-Federalists, did not constitute a political party, but they united in demanding protection for individual rights, and several states made the passing of a bill of rights a condition of their acceptance of the Constitution. He knew the Atlantic trade very well and used that knowledge in setting policy for the United States. In the early 1790s, he created the foundation for the U.S. financial system. He understood that a robust federal government would provide a solid financial foundation for the country. In 1789, when Hamilton took up his post, the federal debt was over $53 million. The states had a combined debt of around $25 million, Hamilton designed his “Report on Public Credit” (later called “First Report on Public Credit”) to ensure the survival of the new and shaky American republic. In July 1790, a site along the Potomac River was selected as the new “federal city,” “Report on a National Bank” in December 1790, proposing a Bank of the United States, an institution modeled on the Bank of England. The bank would issue loans to American merchants and bills of credit (federal bank notes that would circulate as money) while serving as a repository of government revenue from the sale of land. The third report Hamilton delivered to Congress, known as the “Report on Manufactures,” addressed the need to raise revenue to pay the interest on the national debt. Rural areas, in contrast, offered far more opportunities for property ownership and virtue. In 1783 Jefferson wrote, “Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a chosen people.” Jefferson believed that self-sufficient, property-owning republican citizens or yeoman farmers held the key to the success and longevity of the American republic. Democratic-Republicans championed limited government. Their fear of centralized power originated in the experience of the 1760s and 1770s when the distant, overbearing, and seemingly corrupt British Parliament attempted to impose its will on the colonies. The 1790 Naturalization Act defined citizenship in stark racial terms. To be a citizen of the American republic, an immigrant had to be a “free White person” of “good character.” By excluding enslaved, free Black, Native, and Asian people from citizenship, the act laid the foundation for the United States as a republic of White men.

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8.1 (1) - Duy Anh
In June 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the federal Constitution, and the new plan for a strong central government went into effect. George Washington became the first president in April 1789. John Adams served as his vice president.

FEDERALISTS IN POWER

Though the Revolution had overthrown British rule in the United States, supporters of the 1787 federal constitution, known as Federalists, adhered to a decidedly British notion of social hierarchy. The Federalists did not, at first, compose a political party. Instead, Federalists held certain shared assumptions. Federalists did not believe the Revolution had changed the traditional social roles between women and men, or between White people and other races. They did believe in clear distinctions in rank and intelligence. The architects of the Constitution committed themselves to leading the new republic, and they held a majority among the members of the new national government. Indeed, as expected, many assumed the new executive posts the first Congress created. Congress passed its first major piece of legislation by placing a duty on imports under the 1789 Tariff Act. Intended to raise revenue to address the country’s economic problems, the act was a victory for nationalists. Congress also placed a fifty-cent-per-ton duty on foreign ships.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS

Many Americans opposed the 1787 Constitution because it seemed a dangerous concentration of centralized power that threatened the rights and liberties of ordinary U.S. citizens. Rhode Island and North Carolina rejected the Constitution because it did not already have this specific bill of rights. Federalists followed through on their promise to add such a bill in 1789, when Virginia Representative James Madison introduced and Congress approved the Bill of Rights. The adoption of the Bill of Rights softened the Anti-Federalists’ opposition to the Constitution and gave the new federal government greater legitimacy among those who otherwise distrusted the new centralized power created by men of property during the secret 1787 Philadelphia Constitutional Convention.

ALEXANDER HAMILTON’S PROGRAM

Alexander Hamilton, Washington’s secretary of the treasury, was an ardent nationalist. Born in the West Indies, Hamilton had worked on a St. Croix plantation as a teenager and was in charge of the accounts at a young age. In the early 1790s, he created the foundation for the U.S. financial system. The United States began mired in debt. In 1789, when Hamilton took up his post, the federal debt was over $53 million. Hamilton wrote three reports offering solutions to the economic crisis brought on by these problems. The first addressed public credit, the second addressed banking, and the third addressed raising revenue.

The Report on Public Credit

For the national government to be effective, Hamilton deemed it essential to have the support of those to whom it owed money: the wealthy, domestic creditor class as well as foreign creditors. In January 1790, he delivered his “Report on Public Credit“, addressing the pressing need of the new republic to become creditworthy. Hamilton especially wanted wealthy American creditors who held large amounts of paper money to be invested, literally, in the future and welfare of the new national government. To pay these debts, Hamilton proposed that the federal government sell bonds—federal interest-bearing notes—to the public.

Hamilton designed his “Report on Public Credit” to ensure the survival of the new and shaky American republic. He argued that his plan would satisfy creditors, citing the goal of “doing justice to the creditors of the nation.” At the same time, the plan would work “to promote the increasing respectability of the American name; to answer the calls for justice; to restore landed property to its due value; to furnish new resources both to agriculture and commerce; to cement more closely the union of the states; to add to their security against foreign attack; to establish public order on the basis of upright and liberal policy.”

Hamilton’s program ignited a heated debate in Congress. A great many of both Confederation and state notes had found their way into the hands of speculators, who had bought them from hard-pressed veterans in the 1780s and paid a fraction of their face value in anticipation of redeeming them at full value at a later date. One of those who opposed Hamilton’s 1790 report was James Madison, who questioned the fairness of a plan that seemed to cheat poor soldiers.

To gain acceptance of his plan, Hamilton worked out a compromise with Virginians Madison and Jefferson, whereby in return for their support he would give up New York City as the nation’s capital and agree on a more southern location, which they preferred. Hamilton’s plan to convert notes to bonds worked extremely well to restore European confidence in the U.S. economy. But it immediately generated controversy about the size and scope of the government.

The Report on a National Bank
As secretary of the treasury, Hamilton expected to plateuau the American economy further by starting a national bank. Hamilton especially wanted to discipline those state banks that issued paper money irresponsibly. To that end, he delivered his “Report on a National Bank” in December 1790, proposing a Bank of the United States, an institution modeled on the Bank of England. The bank would issue loans to American merchants and bills of credit while serving as a repository of government revenue from the sale of land.
President Washington backed Hamilton’s position and signed legislation creating the bank in 1791.

The Report on Manufactures
The third report solved the need to raise revenue to pay the interest on the national debt. To break from the old colonial system, Hamilton therefore advocated tariffs on all foreign imports to stimulate the production of American-made goods. To promote domestic industry further, he proposed federal subsidies to American industries. In the long run, Hamilton’s financial program helped to rescue the United States from its state of near-bankruptcy in the late 1780s. His initiatives marked the beginning of an American capitalism, making the republic creditworthy, promoting commerce, and other success.

THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY AND THE FIRST PARTY SYSTEM
James Madison and Thomas Jefferson felt the federal government had overstepped its power by adopting the treasury secretary’s plan. Madison found Hamilton’s plan immoral and offensive. Jefferson strived to convince Washington to block the creation of a national bank many times. To him, Hamilton’s program seemed to encourage economic inequalities and work against the ordinary American yeoman. Jefferson turned to his friend Philip Freneau to help organize the effort through the publication of the National Gazette as a counter to the Federalist press, especially the Gazette of the United States. Opposition to the Federalists triggered the formation of Democratic-Republican societies, composed of men who felt the domestic policies of the Washington administration were designed to enrich the few while ignoring everyone else. To opponents, the Federalists promoted aristocracy and a monarchical government — a betrayal of what many believed to be the goal of the American Revolution. While wealthy merchants and planters formed the core of the Federalist leadership, members of the Democratic-Republican societies in cities like Philadelphia and New York came from the ranks of artisans. Their political efforts against the Federalists were a battle to preserve republicanism, to promote the public good against private self-interest.

DEFINING CITIZENSHIP
While questions regarding the proper size and scope of the new national government created a divide among Americans and gave rise to political parties, a consensus existed among men on the issue of who qualified and who did not qualify as a citizen. The 1790 Naturalization Act defined citizenship in stark racial terms. Full citizenship that consisted of the right to vote was limited as well. Many state constitutions directed that only male property owners or taxpayers could vote. For women, the right to vote remained out of reach except in the state of New Jersey. Federalists and Democratic-Republicans competed for the votes of New Jersey women who met the requirements to cast ballots.

8.2 The New American Republic (huong le)

a. the major foreign and domestic uprisings of the early 1790s

- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:

split American thinkers into different ideological camps, deepening the political divide between Federalists and their Democratic-Republican foes. Republican liberty, the creed of the United States, seemed to be ushering in a new era in France. The American Revolution served as an inspiration for French revolutionaries.

The events of 1793 and 1794 challenged the simple interpretation of the French Revolution as a happy chapter in the unfolding triumph of republican government over monarchy. The French king was executed in 1793, and the next two years became known as the Terror.

The Federalists used the violence of the French revolutionaries as a reason to attack Democratic-Republicanism in the United States, arguing that Jefferson and Madison would lead the country down a similarly disastrous path.

- THE CITIZEN GENÊT AFFAIR AND JAY’S TREATY

In 1793,  France empowered Genêt to issue letters of marque. President Washington and Hamilton denounced Genêt, knowing his actions threatened to pull the United States into a war with Great Britain. The Citizen Genêt affair, as it became known, spurred Great Britain to instruct its naval commanders in the West Indies to seize all ships trading with the French. The British captured hundreds of American ships and their cargoes, increasing the possibility of war between the two countries.

Great Britain worked to prevent a wider conflict by ending its seizure of American ships and offered to pay for captured cargoes. Hamilton saw an opportunity and recommended to Washington that the United States negotiate.

The resulting 1794 agreement, known as Jay’s Treaty, fulfilled most of his original goals. Jay’s Treaty confirmed the fears of Democratic-Republicans, who saw it as a betrayal of republican France, cementing the idea that the Federalists favored aristocracy and monarchy.

- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION’S CARIBBEAN LEGACY

the French Revolution inspired slave rebellions in the Caribbean

In 1794, French revolutionaries abolished slavery in the French empire, and both Spain and England attacked Saint-Domingue, hoping to add the colony to their own empires. Because revolutionary France had abolished slavery, Toussaint aligned himself with France, hoping to keep Spain and England at bay.

Events in Haiti further complicated the partisan wrangling in the United States. The idea that the French Revolution could inspire a successful slave uprising just off the American coastline filled southern whites and slaveholders with horror.

b. the effect of these uprisings on the political system of the United States

- THE WHISKEY REBELLION

While the wars in France and the Caribbean divided American citizens, a major domestic test of the new national government came in 1794 over the issue of a tax on whiskey, an important part of Hamilton’s financial program.

Farmers in the western counties of Pennsylvania produced whiskey from their grain for economic reasons. Since these farmers depended on the sale of whiskey, some citizens in western Pennsylvania (and elsewhere) viewed the new tax as further proof that the new national government favored the commercial classes on the eastern seaboard at the expense of farmers in the West.

However, in the spring and summer months of 1794, angry citizens rebelled against the federal officials in charge of enforcing the federal excise law. The rebels even contacted their backcountry neighbors in Kentucky and South Carolina, circulating the idea of secession.

With their emphasis on personal freedoms, the whiskey rebels aligned themselves with the Democratic-Republican Party. They saw the tax as part of a larger Federalist plot to destroy their republican liberty and, in its most extreme interpretation, turn the United States into a monarchy. In anticipation of the new republic’s collapse, that the national government would do everything in its power to ensure the survival of the United States.

- WASHINGTON’S INDIAN POLICY

Relationships with Indians were a significant problem for Washington’s administration

From 1785 to 1795, a state of war existed on the frontier between these settlers and the Indians who lived in the Ohio territory. IIn both 1790 and 1791, the Shawnee and Miami had defended their lands against the whites who arrived in greater and greater numbers from the East.

With the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, the Western Confederacy gave up their claims to Ohio

8.4 /Trang Linh/

THE EMBARGO OF 1807

France and England, engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, both declared open season on American ships, which they seized on the high seas. England was the major offender. It was in 1807 when The British boarded a war ship and fired on a U.S. naval ship that created a crisis. Jefferson responded to it through the economic means of a sweeping ban on trade, the Embargo Act of 1807. This law was meant to cut off all trade would so severely hurt Britain and France .
Though the embargo did have some effect on the British economy, it was American commerce that actually felt the brunt of the impact. It hurt American farmers, who could no longer sell their goods overseas, and seaport cities experienced a huge increase in unemployment and an uptick in bankruptcies. American business activity declined by
75 percent from 1808 to 1809.
Enforcement of the embargo proved very difficult, especially in the states bordering British Canada.
Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act of 1808, lifting the unpopular embargoes on trade except with Britain and France. In the election of 1808, American voters elected another Democratic-Republican, James Madison who inherited Jefferson’s foreign policy issues involving Britain and France. Most people in the United States, especially those in the West, saw Great Britain as the major problem.

TECUMSEH AND THE WESTERN CONFEDERACY

Another underlying cause of the War of 1812 was British support for native resistance to U.S. western expansion. In 1811, William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Territory, attempted to eliminate the native presence by attacking Prophetstown, a Shawnee settlement. In the ensuing Battle of Tippecanoe, U.S. forces led by Harrison destroyed the settlement. They also found ample evidence that the British had supplied the Western Confederacy with weapons, despite the stipulations of earlier treaties.

THE WAR OF 1812

The seizure of American ships and sailors, combined with the British support of Indian resistance, led to strident calls for war against Great Britain. Opposition to the war came from Federalists, especially those in the Northeast, who knew war would disrupt the maritime trade on which they depended. In a narrow vote, Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812.

The war went very badly for the United States at first. The following year, however, U.S. forces scored several victories. Nonetheless, these victories could not turn the tide of the war. That summer, the British shelled Baltimore, hoping for another victory. However, they failed to dislodge the U.S. forces.

With the end of the war in Europe, Britain was eager to end the conflict in the Americas as well. In 1814, British and U.S. diplomats met in Flanders, in northern Belgium, to negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, signed in December.

The War of 1812 was very unpopular in New England because it inflicted further economic harm on a region dependent on maritime commerce. This unpopularity caused a resurgence of the Federalist Party in New England where many of them deeply resented the power of the slaveholding Virginians.

The arguments in Hartford Convention at the end of 1814 for disunion during wartime, combined with the convention’s condemnation of the government, which later led to the Federalist’s downfall.

EPILOGUE: THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS

Due to slow communication, the last battle in the War of 1812 happened after the Treaty of Ghent had
been signed ending the war.

On January 8, 1815, despite the official end of the war, a force of battle-tested British veterans of the
Napoleonic Wars attempted to take the port. Andrew Jackson’s forces devastated the British then got catapulted to national prominence as a war hero. New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley had been successfully defended, ensuring the future of American settlement and commerce. Jackson was emerged as the head of the new Democratic Party in the 1820s.

8.3 Pham Tuan Linh
THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN ADAMS

The war between France and England shaped a new policy for foreigners.

·        The US was an extremely weak nation, had no control over European events, and had no real leverage to obtain its goals of trading freely in the Atlantic.

·        Relations with France posed the biggest problem. After the Terror, the French Directory ruled France from 1795 to 1799. During this time, Napoleon rose to power.

· France was at war with Britain and they issued that any ships that carried England goods would be seized, including the American ships. This had created an issue since the US had conducted a brisk trade with Britain.

·        France and the United States waged an undeclared war—or what historians refer to as the Quasi-War—from 1796 to 1800. Between 1797 and 1799, the French seized 834 American ships, and Adams urged the buildup of the U.S. Navy.

·        In 1797, Adams sought a diplomatic solution to the conflict with France and dispatched envoys to negotiate terms. The French foreign minister, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, sent emissaries who told the American envoys that the United States must repay all outstanding debts owed to France.

·        The effort to solve the bribe of president John Adams had made the public fierce decidedly against France.

·        In Haiti, the rebellion leader Toussaint, looked to end the U.S. embargo on France and its colonies, put in place in 1798, so that his forces would receive help to deal with the civil unrest.

·        In early 1799, in order to capitalize upon trade in the lucrative West Indies and undermine France’s hold on the island, Congress ended the ban on trade with Haiti—a move that acknowledged Toussaint’s leadership, to the horror of American slaveholders.

·         Toussaint was able to secure an independent Black republic in Haiti by 1804.

THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS

·        The Alien Act and the Alien Enemies Act took particular aim at French immigrants fleeing the West Indies by giving the president the power to deport new arrivals who appeared to be a threat to national security. The act expired in 1800 with no immigrants having been deported.

·        The Sedition Act imposed harsh penalties—up to five years imprisonment and a massive fine of $5,000 in 1790 dollars—on those convicted of speaking or writing “in a scandalous or malicious” manner against the government of the United States.

·        The Alien and Sedition Acts raised constitutional questions about the freedom of the press provided under the First Amendment.

·        Democratic-Republicans argued that the acts were evidence of the Federalists’ intent to squash individual liberties and, by enlarging the powers of the national government, crush states’ rights.

·        Acts in the form of statements known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which argued that the acts were illegal and unconstitutional.

·        The resolutions introduced the idea of nullification, the right of states to nullify acts of Congress, and advanced the argument of states’ rights.

THE REVOLUTION OF 1800 AND THE PRESIDENCY OF THOMAS JEFFERSON

The Revolution of 1800 refers to the first transfer of power from one party to another in American history when the presidency passed to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson in the 1800 election. The passing of political power from one political party to another without bloodshed also set an important precedent.

·        Because the Federalists were badly divided, the Democratic-Republicans gained political ground. Alexander Hamilton wrote a lengthy letter, meant for people within his party, attacking his fellow Federalists’ character and judgment and ridiculing his handling of foreign affairs.

·        Democratic-Republicans got hold of and happily reprinted the letter.

·        Jefferson viewed participatory democracy as a positive force for the republic, a direct departure from Federalist views. He believed in majority rule, that is, that the majority of yeomen should have the power to make decisions binding upon the whole.

·        By 1799, he had rejected the cause of France because of his opposition to Napoleon’s seizure of power and creation of a dictatorship.

·        Over the course of his two terms as president—he was reelected in 1804—Jefferson reversed the policies of the Federalist Party.

·        He wanted the United States to be the breadbasket of the world, exporting its agricultural commodities without suffering the ills of urbanization and industrialization.

·        Since American yeomen would own their own land, they could stand up against those who might try to buy their votes with promises of property.
The most significant trimming of the federal budget came at the expense of the military; Jefferson did not believe in maintaining a costly military, and he slashed the size of the navy Adams had worked to build up.

·        The slow decline of the Federalists, which began under Jefferson, led to a period of one-party rule in national politics. Historians call the years between 1815 and 1828 the “Era of Good Feelings” and highlight the “Virginia dynasty” of the time.

PARTISAN ACRIMONY

The earliest years of the nineteenth century were hardly free of problems between the two political parties.

One of Adams’s appointees, William Marbury, had been selected to be a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia, and when his commission did not arrive, he petitioned the Supreme Court for an explanation from Jefferson’s secretary of state, James Madison.

·        In deciding the case, Marbury v. Madison, in 1803, Chief Justice John Marshall agreed that Marbury had the right to a legal remedy, establishing that individuals had rights even the president of the United States could not abridge.

·        However, Marshall also found that Congress’s Judicial Act of 1789, which would have given the Supreme Court the power to grant Marbury remedy, was unconstitutional because the Constitution did not allow for cases like Marbury’s to come directly before the Supreme Court.

·        Thus, Marshall established the principle of judicial review, which strengthened the court by asserting its power to review the actions of Congress and the president.

·         Jefferson was not pleased, but neither did Marbury get his commission.

·        The animosity between the political parties exploded into open violence in 1804. On July 11, the two antagonists met in Weehawken, New Jersey, to exchange bullets in a duel in which Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton.

THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

·        Jefferson, who wanted to expand the United States to bring about his “empire of liberty,” realized his greatest triumph in 1803 when the United States bought the Louisiana territory from France.

·        Perhaps the greatest real estate deal in American history, the Louisiana Purchase greatly enhanced the Jeffersonian vision of the United States as an agrarian republic in which yeomen farmers worked the land.

·        In his mind, farmers would send their produce down the Mississippi River to New Orleans, where it would be sold to European traders.

·        Until 1801, Spain had controlled New Orleans and had given the United States the right to traffic goods in the port without paying customs duties.

·        However, the Spanish had ceded Louisiana to France.

·        In 1802, the United States lost its right to deposit goods free in the port, causing outrage among many, some of whom called for war with France.

·        Jefferson instructed Robert Livingston, the American envoy to France, to secure access to New Orleans, sending James Monroe to France to add additional pressure. The timing proved advantageous.

·        Because enslaved Black people in the French colony of Haiti had successfully overthrown the brutal plantation regime, Napoleon's vision of the most profitable sugar island in the world, had failed. The emperor, therefore, agreed to the sale in early 1803.

·        Jefferson selected two fellow Virginians, Meriwether Lewis, and William Clark, to lead an expedition to the new western lands. Their purpose was to discover the commercial possibilities of the new land and, most importantly, potential trade routes.

·         From 1804 to 1806, Lewis and Clark traversed the West.

·        The Louisiana Purchase helped Jefferson win reelection in 1804 by a landslide. Of 176 electoral votes cast, all but 14 were in his favor.

·        The great expansion of the United States did have its critics, however, especially northerners who feared the addition of more slave states and a corresponding lack of representation of their interests in the North

·        And under a strict interpretation of the Constitution, it remained unclear whether the president had the power to add territory in this fashion.

·        But the vast majority of citizens cheered the increase in the size of the republic.