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This image provides the best example of what comes to mind when I think of plants. All living things need plants to survive. They are essential to society as it provides us with the essential element of oxygen. Plants also help the environment with the consumption of carbon dioxide. We receive energy from plants either indirectly or directly from the consumption of plants or meat. The following image has a tree in the shape of lungs. I chose this image as it reminds me that every breath that is able to be taken is because of plants.

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The video below is in my opinion, one of the best videos that summarizes the process of photosynthesis. The speaker in the video elaborates on this biochemical process in an engaging way. The video goes into depth for each part of the process while providing  images and diagrams for better understanding. While the video may be longer than most, the speaker explains the process in an upbeat voice which keeps you engaged. The video description also provides the viewer a table of contents with time stamps for easier usage.

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This website provides is like a database in which people are able to details about land plants native to the state of Georgia. This website provides images as well as a description of the plant. While the website may be for gardeners, it is able to provide examples of the various types of land plants.
Four Main Groups of Plants (davidlnelson.md)

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Georgia Native Plants
A plant is considered native if it has occurred naturally in a particular region or ecosystem without human introduction. There are many benefits in growing native plants. First, these plants are better adapted to soils, moisture and weather than exotic plants that evolved in other parts of the world. They need less fertilizers, pesticides or use less water. Second, they are unlikely to escape and become invasive, destroying natural habitat. Third, they support wildlife, providing shelter and food for native birds and insects, while exotic plants do not.

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Georgia Native Plants: A plant is considered native if it has occurred naturally in a particular region or ecosystem without human introduction. There are many benefits in growing native plants. First, these plants are better adapted to soils, moisture and weather than exotic plants that evolved in other parts of the world.

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Tundra is the biome that I believe is facing the most danger at the moment. The reasoning for this belief is the thawing of the permafrost that is located in this biome. This thawing has caused feedback loops to form which in turn, has released large quantities of the methane gas. This has caused radical changes in the landscapes located in this biome. This major change in landscape has led me to believe this biome is most in danger as it affects us and all living things in this biome.

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This diagram below represents the impact on social status that was brought upon by the Agricultural Revolution. This was a negative impact as people grow apart socially as the wealthier people became more well fed. While there may have been a more reliable food source, lower class was still being worked and exploited. This impacted the human population as there was a greater differentiation between social class.

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The image represents the innovation of the use of GMOs which means genetically modified organisms. This innovation catapulted the world of nations into a global society. I chose this as the use of GMOs enabled scientists to altercate the genes of a plant which causes a change in the plant whether be size or another factor. The use of GMOs is still used in today's society as it has helped farmers yield more and better crops.

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In my opinion, Cynarine is one of the most influential chemicals that is used in the world. This chemicals has been chosen as people are now allowed to return back to normally. This chemical is used for prevention and treatment of all sorts of upper respiratory infections.

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Echinacea

Echinacea ( Echinacea angustifolia or Echinacea purpurea), a native North American plant, is one of the most popular and widely used herbs in the United States. Its medicinal activity is believed to rely on nonspecific activation of the immune system, but knowledge about its pharmacology is incomplete. Echinacea has a number of activities: it activates natural killer cells and macrophages and increases circulating levels of alpha interferon. The caffeic esters of echinacea are antibacterial and antiviral, and the polyacetylenes probably also contribute to bacteriostatic activity of the herb. Echinacea is used for prevention and treatment of all sorts of upper respiratory infections, but it has been studied most in the treatment and prevention of the common cold. For otitis media, it is best selected at the onset of acute symptoms, but it may be used throughout the course of treatment and is an excellent choice when lymphatic congestion is present because it activates the nonspecific immune system to clear debris.

Significant constituents are the following:

Dosage

Tinctures (1:5), either in alcohol or glycerites, are available. For small children and babies, glycerinates are usually preferred. Dosage varies: 1 to 5 mL of tincture three to five times daily is often used for children. Infants use 1 or 2 drops per pound of body weight, three times daily. Tablets, capsules, and whole herb taken as tea or infusion are also used orally.

Precautions/Contraindications

Use of echinacea is avoided in persons with autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781416029540500223

Constituents

A caffeic acid derivative, echinacoside, is present in the roots of both E. augustifolia and E. pallida. Cynarin, a quinic acid derivative, occurs only in the former. Esters involving tartaric acid, such as caftaric acid and cichoric acid, occur in small amounts in both species. Other constituents include high-molecular-weight polysaccharides, alkylamides, acetylenes, volatiles including humulene (see Fig. 21.4) and traces of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (F. Pellati et al., Phytochemistry, 2006, 67, 1359 and references cited therein).

The BP/ EP requires minimum contents of echinacoside for E. augustifolia root (0.5%) and E. pallida root (0.2%) determined by liquid chromatography with spectrometric detection at 330 nm.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702029332000198

4.4 Other Phenolic Compounds

A limited number of phenolic acid (chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid), coumarin (isofraxidin), and lignane-type (sesamin, dihydrodehydrodiconiferylalcohol 9-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, 2,6-diaryl-3,7-dioxabicyclo[3.3.0]octane skeleton, epieudesmin, kobusin, pinoresinol, fargesin, and sesartemin) compounds were isolated from Achillea species.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128138229000254

Chemical and Nutritional Composition

Artichoke has interesting nutritional characteristics related to its high content of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, inulin, fiber, and mineral salts. The phenolic compounds are mainly derivatives of caffeic acid. Extracts containing cynarin (1,5-dicatteoyl quinic acid) have some effects on hepatobiliary disease, hyperlipidemia, and cholesterol metabolism. The pharmaceutical industry mainly uses the leaves.

Baby corn is a good source of pro-vitamin A. Celery is an important source of minerals and vitamins. Celery leaves also contain higher levels of vitamin C, carotene, and essential oils. The shape, color, crispness, pithiness, stringiness, ribbiness, petiole cracking, and flavor contribute to the quality of stalk and petioles. Celery is quite popular in the Western world due to its low fat content (0.6 g per 100 g of edible parts.) The composition varies at different stages of maturity; reducing and total sugars show a marked decline in the leaf blades but an increased concentration in the petiole from harvest until the end of storage. Nitrogen increases in leaf blades and petioles towards the end of storage.

Little information is available regarding the nutritional/chemical composition of Florence fennel and American wintergreen vegetables. However, it is reported that dandelion leaves are an excellent source of provitamin A (14 000 IU), vitamin C (35 mg) and calcium (187 mg) per 100 g of edible parts.

The nutritional qualities of oca tubers, with 85% carbohydrate (on a dry-weight basis) are comparable to potato, also presenting starch of good quality. ( See ASCORBIC ACID | Properties and Determination; CALCIUM: Properties and Determination; CAROTENOIDS | Occurrence, Properties and Determination; RETINOL | Properties and Determination; STARCH | Structure, Properties, and Determination.)

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B012227055X010397

Chemical and Nutritional Composition

The artichoke has interesting nutritional characteristics related to its high content of phenolic compounds, that is, flavonoids, inulin, fiber and mineral salts, which are derivatives of caffeic acid. Extracts containing cynarin (1,5-dicatteoyl quinic acid) affect hepatobiliary disease, hyperlipidaemia, and cholesterol metabolism. The pharmaceutical industry mainly uses the leaves. Baby corn is a good source of proteins and lipids, and is a source of pro-vitamin A (beta-carotene).

Celery is an important source of minerals, vitamins, and amino acids. Celery leaves are also characterized by higher levels of vitamin C, carotene, and essential oils. Many traits, such as stalk and petiole shape and color, crispness, pithiness, stringiness, how ribby it is, petiole cracking, and flavor contribute to quality. Having a low content of fat, celery is popular in the Western world. Of 100 g of celery, around 71 g is edible, made up of moisture (88 g), protein (6.3 g), minerals (2.1 g), carbohydrates (1.6 g) and fiber (1.4 g). It also contains energy (37 kcal), calcium (230 mg), phosphorus (140 mg), sodium (126 mg), iron (6.3 mg), carotene (3990 μg), vitamin A (240 IU), thiamine (0.9 mg), vitamin C (0.62 mg), niacin (1.2 mg), and riboflavin (0.11 mg). The composition varies at different stages of maturity, and total sugars show a marked decline in the leaf blades from harvest time to the end of storage. This decrease is accompanied by increased concentrations in petioles. Soluble nitrogen increases in leaf blades and petioles towards the end of storage.

Hardly any information is available, with respect to nutritional composition, for Florence fennel and American winter green vegetables. However, it is reported that dandelion leaves are an excellent source of vitamin A (14 000 IU per 100 g), vitamin C (35 mg per 100 g) and calcium (187 mg per 100 g edible part). Oca nutrition qualities are comparable to the potato; on a dry weight basis, about 85% of the tuber is carbohydrates and the starch is of good quality.

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4 Erigeron breviscapus

Erigeron breviscapus (vant.) Hand. Mazz. (EBHM) is a widely used Chinese medicinal plant for heart disease (Gao et al., 2006). Its major active compounds are scutellarin, 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and erigoster B (Li et al., 2013a,b). A number of studies demonstrated that EBHM could stimulate the fibrinolytic and anticoagulant properties of endothelial cells, dilate blood vessels, reduce blood vessel resistance, increase blood flow, improve microcirculation, and inhibit thrombosis (Wang et al., 1993; Zhou et al., 1992). Interestingly, EBHM has been suggested as neuroprotectant in glaucoma. Particularly, some studies have shown that EBHM could improve the activity of cytochrome oxidase in RGCs (Jia et al., 1995) and optic nerve axoplasmic transport in rat models of acute elevated IOP (Zhu et al., 2000). Particularly, Zhu and colleagues reported that the density of RGCs was higher in EBHM group than that in the control group. Moreover, in the experimental optic nerve crush model in rats, EBHM treatment can increase the survival rate of the RGC and can rescue and/or restore the injured RGCs (Jiang and Jiang, 2003). In addition, in NMDA-induced retinal neuronal injury in rats, intraperitoneally administration of EBHM solution is able to partially protect the loss of neurons in the RGC layer (Shi et al., 2004). E. breviscapus extract treatment can also improve the impaired visual function (detected by multifocal electroretinogram) of persistently elevated IOP in rats (Lu et al., 2011). In 2001, the China State Drug Administration approved EBHM extract for clinical use. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of EBHM extract in glaucoma patients, Zhong and colleagues conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial in a group of glaucoma patients with controlled IOP (Zhong et al., 2010). The study of Zhong and colleagues shows that the visual field indices were improved than that in the placebo group after 6 months of EBHM treatment, and this was more considerable in the moderate and late glaucoma patients; however, it did not reach statistical significance, which may be attributed to the small number of patients (Zhong et al., 2010). In this regard, Velpandian suggested that EBHM active constituents and their pharmacokinetics (systemic as well as ocular) need to be explored before recognizing EBHM as a neuroprotectant in glaucoma (Velpandian, 2010). Although it is not known to which components of EBHM are attributed the specific effects, it has been suggested that the combined activity and a certain interdependency of several active constituents of EBHM extract are responsible for its beneficial effects (Chu et al., 2005). It is most likely that the protective and rescuing effects of EBHM extract are attributable to its ability to improve microcirculation. Bastianetto et al. (2000) reported that the flavonoid fraction strongly inhibited both the toxicity and the free radical accumulation induced by sodium nitroprusside and/or 3-morpholinosydnonimine. E. breviscapus extract contains several kinds of flavones and flavonoids; therefore, it may also have the effect of inhibiting the toxicity and the free radical accumulation induced by glaucomatous neuropathy. Several studies showed neuroprotective effect of scutellarin and other ingredients extracted from E. breviscapus against neuronal damage following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (Guo et al., 2011; Hu et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2011, 2012). Interestingly, Wang and colleagues observed that scutellarin inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of proinflammatory mediators and suppressed LPS-stimulated inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and IL-1β mRNA expression in rat primary microglia or BV-2 mouse microglial cell line (Wang et al., 2011). Furthermore, scutellarin inhibited LPS-induced nuclear translocation and DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and repressed the LPS-induced c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 phosphorylation. Moreover, scutellarin also inhibited interferon-γ-induced NO production, iNOS mRNA expression, and transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 1α (STAT1α) activation. The same authors reported that caffeic acid ester fraction from E. breviscapus, mainly composed of dicaffeoylquinic acids, inhibited the production of NO, TNF-α, and IL-1β induced by LPS treatment in primary microglia and improved neurobehavioral performance, and reduced percentage of infarct volume compared with the vehicle group in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model of cerebral ischemia (Wang et al., 2012).

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Bile Flow Stimulants

Dandelion Entire Plant (Taraxacum officinale)

Dandelion plant stimulates detoxification by improving digestion (taraxacin constituent). The dandelion root increases bile flow and demonstrates anti-inflammatory activity in animals. The dosage of dandelion leaf is 4 to 10 gm (1 cup of tea) 3 times/day; that of dandelion root is 2 to 8 gm (1 cup of tea, boil 5-10 minutes) 3 times/day. This plant should be used with caution in people with obstruction of the bile ducts or the gallbladder.

Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus)

Artichoke contains plant compounds cynarin, chlorogenic acid, caffeoylquinic acid, and scolymoside, which have been demonstrated to increase the flow of bile. The suggested dosage for artichoke leaf extract is 1800 to 1920 mg/day in 2 or 3 divided doses.

Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus)

Yellow dock's applicable parts are the root and rhizome that contain anthraquinone glycosides, tannins, and oxalates. Yellow dock is yet another booster of bile flow and helps constipation. It can be taken as dried root or as tea (2 to 4 gm) 3 times/day or as a liquid extract 2 to 4 mL (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 times/day. Caution is advised for the use of yellow dock in people using diuretics; the combination may enhance diuretic-induced potassium loss. People with a history of kidney disease should avoid this herb because of its oxalate content.

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4.40.12.2 Echinacea

Echinacea has been a popular remedy since the early twentieth century in the USA and Europe for preventing and treating common cold, flu, and upper respiratory tract infections. Aerial parts and roots of Echinacea angustifolia, Echinacea purpurea, and Echinacea pallida in powder or extracts are considered potent immunostimulants [53]. The major active compounds in the Echinacea species are alkylamides and caffeic acid derivatives, together with polysaccharides and glycoproteins. Comprehensive investigations on Echinacea plants and products resulted in the characterization of more than 20 alkylamides, most of them are isobutylamides of C ₁₁-C ₁₆ long-chain unsaturated fatty acids, with a mixture of isomeric dodeca-2,4,8,10-tetraenoic acid isobutylamides as the predominant components. The roots contain higher amounts of alkylamides than other parts, and the highest concentrations are found in Echinacea angustifolia. In addition to alkylamides, Echinacea also contains phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids, and caffeic acid derivatives. The caffeic acid derivatives found in Echinacea are cichoric acid, echinacoside, 1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and chlorogenic acid; caftaric acid with cichoric acid as the major phenolic compound in Echinacea purpurea, and echinacoside as the main phenolic compound in E. angustifolia and E. pallida. Currently, the alkylamides and caffeic acid derivatives are used as marker compounds for quality control of Echinacea products. Several reversed-phase HPLC methods have been described for the analysis of Echinacea products allowing the measurement of caffeic acid derivatives and alkylamides simultaneously. A validated method developed by Molgaard et al. [58] involves extraction of the plant material or capsules by sonication with methanol/water. Extracts and tinctures were diluted directly with the naringenin standard solution and centrifuged or filtered. Luo et al. [59] expanded the simultaneous analysis of caffeic acid derivatives and alkylamides using a reversed-phase HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS method. In this protocol, caffeic acid derivatives and alkylamides were quantified by DAD, while the structural characterization was completed by ESI-MS. This method was considered suitable for quality control and can provide fingerprints of bioactive components in Echinacea products. Because of concerns about contamination of dietary supplements containing ginkgo and echinacea with colchicine, a highly selective and sensitive HPLC/MS-MS assay was developed for the evaluation of commercial Echinacea and Ginkgo dietary supplements [60]. For this purpose, a methanolic extract of the dietary supplement or botanical sample was analyzed by positive-ion electrospray ionization with collision-induced dissociation and multiple-reaction monitoring of three characteristic fragmentation pathways of the protonated molecule of colchicine [60].

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Chemical Composition of Flavoring Substances

Chemical composition analyses of EOs obtained from plants usually have been performed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. A typical EO scan includes more than 60 individual components; while the major components can account up to 85%, the minor components are present only in trace amounts. The major component content of many economically interesting EOs are shown in Table 1 in which the main constituents of EOs that possess significant antibacterial activities also are indicated (Table 1). Despite the presence of many major constituents that display antibacterial activity, the antibacterial properties of some EOs mainly are attributed to their content of phenol monoterpenes. Furthermore, experimental evidence indicates that minor constituents also play a critical role in their antibacterial activities, possibly via a synergistic effect with other components. This has been delineated for the EOs of sage and oregano.

In general, a great number of compounds have been shown to possess antimicrobial activity, including the following: apigenin-7-glucose, benzoic acid, berbamine, berberine, caffeine, caffeic acid, 3-o-caffeoylquinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid, carvacrol, caryophelene, catechin, cinnamic acid, citral, chlorogenic acid, chicorin, coumarine, p-coumaric acid, cynarine, dihydrocaffeic acid, dimethyloleuropein, esculin, eugenol, ferulic acid, gallic acid, geraniol, gingerols, humulone, hydroxytyrosol, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, isovanillic, isoborneol, linalool, lupulone, luteoline-5-glucoside, ligustroside, myricetin, oleuropein, paradols, protocatechuic acid, rutin, quercetin, resocrylic, salicylaldehyde, sesamol, shogoals, syringic acid, sinapic acid, tannins, thymol, tyrosol, verbascoside, vanillin, and vanillic acid ( Burt, 2004).

Among these compounds, thymol from thyme and oregano, cinnamic aldehyde from cinnamon, and eugenol from cloves have been reported to have a wide spectrum of antimicrobial effectiveness. Phenolic compounds are the major antimicrobial components of the EOs of spices. For this reason, it needs to be clarified that the present review is dealing with a general assessment of antimicrobial action of EOs extracts (either with steam distillation or with volatile solvent) or of specific compounds, for example, phenolics such as eugenol and thymol (Fisher, 1992).

Furthermore, the chemical composition of the EOs depends greatly on their harvesting period and cultivation site. This can be rationalized considering the biosynthetic pathway of their major components. For example, in the case of Origanum, Satureja, and Thymus species, p-cymene and γ-terpinene constitute the precursors of their phenol monoterpenes carvacrol and thymol. Thus, research findings on EOs of Greek Origanum, Satureja, and Thymus plants have indicated that the sum of these monoterpenes represents the bulk of their EOs, regardless of their cultivation site or harvesting time. Similar findings were obtained for EOs of Thymus vulgaris from Italy and Greek Satureja thymbra and Satureja parnassica. In particular, it was shown that during their premature vegetative stage, γ-terpinene and p-cymene constitute the major components of the EO. As the flowering period approaches, a simultaneous gradual diminishment of monoterpene precursors and the prevalence of their phenolic metabolites is observed. Thus, during the full flowering period, carvacrol prevails as the major component, while the end of the flowering stage delineates a sharp decrease of carvacrol levels and the predominance of thymol as a major component of the EOs, followed by the restoration of monoterpene precursors, when the premature vegetative stage is approached. The aforementioned data indicate that the four compounds are biologically and functionally associated, supporting the theory that thymol and carvacrol are biosynthesized from p-cymene and γ-terpinene. In this regard, it is evident that EOs obtained during (or immediately after) the flowering season of a plant, exhibit the most significant antimicrobial activities. Finally, the EOs composition obtained from different parts of the same plant may vary significantly. For example, EO obtained from coriander seeds ( Coriandrum sativum L.) has quite a different chemical composition compared with the EO of cilantro, which is produced from the immature leaves of the same plant.

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Echinacea ( Echinacea angustifolia or Echinacea purpurea), a native North American plant, is one of the most popular and widely used herbs in the United States. Its medicinal activity is believed to rely on nonspecific activation of the immune system, but knowledge about its pharmacology is incomplete.

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I believe this image is a representation of what our world would look like considering the present day practices. I chose this picture as it reflects the amount of smog in the air due to large outputs of pollution into the air. This image is just an example of how our air could possibly look like if we do not reduce the amount of carbon emissions in the air. This image is just a temporary smog that occurred, but in the future it may not be so temporary.