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https://www.savethechildren.org/us/what-we-do/emergency-response/refugee-children-crisis/what-is-refugee

Affects people that don't get help from others.

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15.3 million people in Syria, including 7 million children, need of humanitarian aid

97% of the population in Syria live below the poverty line

Syria is the third least peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index (GPI)

What Is a Refugee and Other Child Refugee FAQs

What is a refugee?

A refugee is a person who is seeking a safe haven after being forced to flee violence, persecution or war.

Refugees are defined and protected in international law. And seeking asylum is not a crime. While every refugee is initially an asylum seeker, not every asylum seeker will ultimately be recognized as a refugee.

Many refugees around the world live in vulnerable conditions, including refugee camps, informal settlements and on the streets. As the COVID-19 pandemic spread globally, many refugees were not in a position to social distance themselves or maintain basic hygiene, including simply washing their hands.

According to the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR), the Ukraine war and other conflicts has pushed the number of people forced to flee conflict, violence and persecution to over 100 million for the first time in history - a record that "should never have been set." Among them are refugees, asylum seekers, and people displaced inside their own countries.

Why do people become refugees?

People become refugees for a number of different reasons; including:

Persecution based on race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion

War

Ethnic or political violence

For well over a decade, the number of people forced to flee their homes because of conflict and persecution has steadily increased. In 2012, these numbers spiked, resulting in what is now recognized as a global refugee crisis.

Several major crises around the world have contributed to the rising number of refugees, including:

The on-going conflict in Syria, now in its 11th year.

The conflict in Afghanistan-where most unaccompanied children in Europe are from-remains among the deadliest for children.

South Sudan's displacement crisis, which followed its independence.

The rapidly escalating violence in Myanmar's Rakhine State in 2017, which forced over half a million ethnic Rohingya to flee the country for their lives.

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What are refugee camps and why are they created?

Refugee camps are temporary settlements created to provide refugees with immediate aid and protection.

Forced from home, refugees are often left with little to call their own. Lacking food, clean water, clothing and proper hygiene supplies, refugee children and their families are vulnerable to disease, abuse and worse.

There are refugee camps all over the world. Some of the largest refugee camps in the world include:

What is the difference between a refugee, asylum seeker, migrant and immigrant?

Refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and immigrants are all terms used to describe people on the move, including children.

Refugees are people who are seeking a safe haven after being forced to flee violence, persecution or war.

Similar to a refugee, an asylum seeker is someone who may be in search of protection due to dangers in his or her home country. While every refugee is initially an asylum seeker, not every asylum seeker will ultimately be recognized as a refugee.

Traditionally, a migrant is considered a person who has left their home by choice and in search of a better opportunity. Because conflict or persecution did not force them from home, a migrant is not considered a refugee or asylum seeker.

A person who comes to a country with the intention of taking up permanent residence is called an immigrant.

How many child refugees are there in the world

Half of the global refugee population, nearly 13 million, are children below the age of 18.

Far too many refugee boys and girls are living in conditions not suitable for children, with limited access to education and healthcare, no freedom of movement, and almost entirely dependent on aid.

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, it was estimated that half of all refugee children in the world - 3.7 million - were out of school.

What do refugees do?

Refugees' lives have been thrown into a state of chaos because of what they experienced in their home countries prior to displacement, as well as on their journeys to find safety.

Like anyone, refugees need food, shelter and the opportunity to thrive. But after leaving everything behind and without livelihood opportunities to earn an income, many refugees struggle to survive.

With the generous support of our donors, Save the Children is able to provide refugee children and their families with essential items and relief.

How can I join Save the Children to advocate to refugees?

Together with our political advocacy arm, Save the Children Action Network, we work to ensure refugee children's voices are heard, their rights are realized and their issues are given top priority.

You can help advocate for refugee children and families by sending a message to Congress.

Facts About Refugees Around the World

As the world is now witnessing the highest levels of displacement on record, here are some things to know about refugees.

Half of the world's refugees are children.

The UN has said that the Ukraine refugee crisis caused the fastest and largest displacement of people in Europe since World War II.

In Syria alone, more than 6.8 million people have fled, seeking safety in Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan and beyond.

More than 4 million Venezuelans are displaced abroad.

Brutal conflict in South Sudan has forced more than 2 million South Sudanese refugees to flee in a desperate bid to reach safety.

In Lebanon, where more than 1 million Syrian refugees reside, approximately 70% of Syrian refugees live below the poverty line.

Over the past three years, more than 75,000 children have been born in the refugee camps of Cox's Bazar.

About 30% of refugees arriving through the Balkans are children, while roughly 25% of these children are unaccompanied.

Nearly half of all refugee children are out of school, a figure likely worsened by the COVID pandemic.

Less than 1% of all refugees are ever able to resettle and find a new life in safety and security.

Why Is Helping Refugees Important?

As, the global leader in child-focused humanitarian response, Save the Children helps more children in crisis recover and return to learning than any other global humanitarian organization.

Munguiko*, 14, takes part in activities at a Save the Children space in Rwamwanja refugee settlement in Uganda.

The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated that we are living in an extremely interconnected world and must focus on the fate of everyone around the world, especially our children.

Girls and refugee children stand to suffer the most from the harmful impacts of COVID-19. Rohingya refugee children in Cox's Bazaar and children living in war-torn Syria already had difficulty accessing health services and continuing their studies prior to COVID-19.

Now, this unprecedented disruption to children's education and rising poverty caused by the COVID-19 pandemic could force at least 9.7 million children out of school forever, with girls, refugees, and internally displaced children most affected.

With 26 million men, women, and children now forced to flee their home countries due to conflict and persecution, it's more important than ever to take action to help improve the lives of refugees.

The United States has long been a leader in resettling refugees. We demonstrate our best as a nation, uphold our values, and lead by example when we welcome refugees.

* Name changed for protection.

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Child Refugee Crisis: How to Help and Donate

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The refugees crisis is the worst humanitarian crisis since World War II. More than half are children refugees. Help refugee children with Save the Children.

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Pollution comes in many forms and impacts a wide variety of creatures. The effects of land, air and water pollution on animals and birds can be devastating. Pollution created by human activity factors into the decline of many threatened or endangered species, and also adversely impacts humans, fisheries, tourism and more.

Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders are the poster child for the negative effects of water pollution because they have such incredibly sensitive skin. They have the unique ability to absorb oxygen through their skin, but this also leaves them susceptible to absorbing dangerous chemicals as well.

Pesticides, nitrogen-based fertilizers and heavy metal contaminants all pose a direct danger to these creatures. These pollutants often find their way into water systems via runoff after heavy rain. In addition to directly killing amphibians, these pollutants can also weaken their immune system (as may have been the case in the extinction of the Monteverde golden toad) and cause physical deformities or abnormalities.

Amphibians are far from the only animals affected by pollution in water. Fish and invertebrates also end up with these contaminants in their systems as well. Though small amounts might not kill the fish, those chemicals stay in their system. This poses a danger to the predators in the food web, such as birds of prey.

Peregrine Falcons showed this danger explicitly when their populations plummeted due to the use of the pesticide DDT. The birds fed on fish and small mammals affected by DDT in their environment, and the chemicals within their prey built up inside the falcons through ​ bioaccumulation ​. This caused sickness in Peregrine Falcons and weak eggshells in breeding females; reproductive success plummeted, and the birds became an endangered species.

Outlawing DDT and similar pesticides resulted in a successful population recovery of this species and removal from the endangered species list.

Birds of prey are not the only predators impacted by the bioaccumulation of pollutants. Sea lions and other marine mammals are yet another example of animals affected by pollution. In the case of sea lions, fertilizer runoff results in harmful algal blooms. This algae releases a neurotoxin known as domoic acid. Fish eat this harmful algae and accumulate it in their bodies, and the sea lions eat the fish.

Through bioaccumulation, the sea lions ingest high levels of toxic domoic acid, resulting in domoic acid toxicosis. The condition causes neurological issues, seizures, aborted pregnancy, and if untreated, death. Decreasing pesticide and fertilizer use can reduce harmful algal blooms and protect sea lions and their entire ecosystem.

Sea lions and other marine mammals are far from the only sea creatures impacted by oceanic pollution, and chemical pollution is absolutely not the only dangerous form of ocean pollution. ​ Marine debris ​ also poses a danger to many different animals in the ocean - this term refers to any man-made object that has been discarded and found its way into the ocean.

Many different types of marine debris cause harm to oceanic animals. Marine mammals, birds, turtles and sharks often become entangled in discarded fishing gear such as nets and lines. Plastic objects get mistaken for food items, and many animals ingest them. Plastic bags are a particularly troublesome form of marine debris.

Sea turtles in particular ingest large amounts of plastic debris. Plastic bags pose a problem in particular because they look similar to jellyfish or algae, the primary prey to some sea turtle species. In fact, researchers believe that over half of the world's sea turtles have consumed plastic at one time or another.

Ingesting plastic can result in decreased ability to digest foods and intestinal blockage. The plastic generally cannot pass through their system and typically results in death unless treated. Recycling plastics can help reduce the amount of marine debris in the oceans and protect sea turtles and other wildlife.

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The effects of pollution on animals and birds can be devastating. From chemical pollutants to marine debris, pollution impacts the planet's ecosystems in a variety of harmful ways. Pollution causes damage to many different animals, including tiny frogs, pregnant sea lions and endangered sea turtles.

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animals + people

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Since the early 1900s, many glaciers around the world have been rapidly melting.

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A serial killer is known as someone who has killed lots of people with gaps between them. The Psychology behind a Serial Killer is a very curious question. Before murdering their victims, some serial killers kidnap and/or torture them. While it's not always clear what drives serial killers to commit such heinous acts, abnormal psychological processes.

Particularly severe antisocial tendencies are thought to be to blame. Serial killers in society often elicit fascination as well as fear; their crimes attract notoriety, media attention, and "fans" who research their crimes or, in some cases, form relationships with the murderer.

Understanding Serial Killers

Serial killers, according to historians, have always existed. Many serial killers at the time were going to accuse of (or even admitted to) killing for "supernatural purposes." Such murders were often thought to be the work of monsters, werewolves, or witches in ancient and medieval times, long before the concept of a "serial killer" entered popular parlance.

Though Jack the Ripper-an unidentified serial killer who operated in the late 1800s-is often referred to as the "first modern serial killer," the term "serial killer" was coined in the latter half of the twentieth century, when such murderers began to garner more media attention and drew increased attention from increasingly sophisticated law enforcement agencies. Most of the most well-known documented serial killers lived in the twentieth or twenty-first centuries, coinciding with a rise in public interest in serial killers' stories as well as a better understanding of what drives them, how they develop, and, perhaps, how their violent crimes can be prevented.

Most experts define a serial killer as someone who has murdered at least three people in less than a month, with at least some "cooling-off" time between each murder. Some criminal psychologists go even further, claiming that serial killers must have a deviant psychological motive, such as sexual gratification, that extends beyond the murder itself.

They both commit multiple homicides. Serial killers, on the other hand, usually carry out their crimes over a long period of time, allowing time to pass between each one. Mass murderers, on the other hand, carry out all of their killings in a single, brief event. For example, a school shooter is classified as a mass murderer rather than a serial killer.

The Psychology of Serial Killers

Serial killers' motivations have long piqued the interest of criminal psychologists, law enforcement agencies, and the general public. Because most of the "normal" people could never imagine doing something like this, another topic of discussion is whether serial killers suffer from severe mental illness that causes them to lose touch with reality. While some serial killers appeared to have psychotic breaks that led to their crimes, serial killers have been found to be legally insane only a few times.

Rather, the most common psychological trait among serial killers appears to be extreme antisocial behavior-they lack empathy, appear incapable of remorse, have little regard for laws or social norms, and have a strong desire to exact revenge on individuals or society at large by committing violent, terrifying crimes. To know more, you must consult it with a psychiatrist.

Though popular media portrays serial killers as "evil geniuses", the vast majority of them have average IQs. Serial killers' intelligence is a spectrum, just like the general population's-some have extremely low IQs, while others have shown unusually high intelligence.

It is debatable. Some serial killers have psychotic symptoms , while others have severe bipolar disorder . However, only some percentage of serial killers are considered mentally ill enough to be declared legally insane . Rather, the majority show symptoms of psychopathy or sociopathy; they may also meet the diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder .

Many serial killers exhibit antisocial characteristics such as a lack of empathy, a disregard for laws and other people's rights, and a lack of remorse, and many meet the criteria for psychopathy or sociopathy. Psychosis, schizophrenia, or another personality disorder have all been diagnosed alongside or instead of psychopathy in serial killers.

Motivations of Serial Killers

At a serial homicide symposium in 2005, the FBI and other criminology and forensic psychology experts discussed serial killer motivations in depth. The audience made a number of observations and suggestions about the serial killer's motivations for homicide investigations.

The FBI published Serial Murder: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives for Investigators, which details the specific observations made by attendees at the symposium.

In a serial murder investigation, determining the motive can be difficult. A serial killer may have a variety of motives for committing his or her crimes. The motive(s) of a serial killer can change over time, both within a single murder and across a series of murders. The classification of motives should be limited to behavior and conditions observed at the crime scene.

Even if a motive is discovered, it may not be useful in locating a serial killer.

Using investigative resources to determine the motive rather than identifying the offender can cause an investigation to derail or bog down.

Investigators should not automatically link a serial killer's motivations to the severity of the crime.

Finally, regardless of the motive(s), the majority of serial killers do it because they want to. The few serial killers suffering from a severe mental illness for whom no coherent motive exists are an exception to this rule.
Attendees at a 2005 FBI symposium on serial murder proposed using broad, non-inclusive motivation categories as guidelines for criminal investigation.

They argued that such categories can help law enforcement officials narrow down the suspect pool in a serial homicide investigation. The symposium participants identified seven broad categories of motivation that can be used as research guidelines.

Why We're Fascinated with Serial Killers

Serial killers carry out heinous acts that should - and do - repulse us. But, in addition to the disgust and fear that serial killers elicit, there is often a morbid curiosity: we want to know more about them and figure out why they do what they do. This is right for both society and individuals as a whole; indeed, the societal fascination with serial killers can be seen in the plethora of books, TV shows, podcasts, and movies about them, not all of which portray the killers in a purely negative light.

While a fascination with serial killers can certainly go too far, a fascination with evil is not inherently psychologically unhealthy. According to some experts, our fascination with serial killers stems from our desire to understand the unknown and feel safe in our own lives; similarly, serial killer fascination may provide a safe outlet for dark thoughts and urges that everyone-even those who would never harm another person-experiences.

Serial killers can instill fear in their victims' communities, leading to increased policing, new laws, or a general distrust of strangers. Serial killers, according to some sociological theorists , serve an important social function by defining the line between "good" and "evil" in the public's eyes.

Despite recent advances in our understanding of serial killers, many societal misconceptions about them persist. They are "evil geniuses" (though most are of average intelligence); they are all men (only about 15% of serial killers are women); and they are dysfunctional loners (many have families and are well-regarded in their communities).

Ending Words

It's important to remember that serial killers are compelled to commit murder, regardless of their motivation(s). They do it because they want to and need to. If you think there is someone who behaves like this then you must consult it with a psychiatrist.

Book an appointment now, to answer all your queries. You can book an appointment with the top Psychiatrists in Pakistan through Marham by calling at Marham helpline: 0311-1222398 or by online booking facility through the website or Marham mobile app.

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FAQ's

What makes a serial killer psychologically?

The most common psychological trait among serial killers appears to be extreme antisocial behavior-they lack empathy, appear incapable of remorse, have little regard for laws or social norms, and have a strong desire to exact revenge on individuals or society at large by committing violent acts.

What are the three characteristics of a serial killer?

The triad connects animal cruelty, a desire to start fires, and history of bedwetting past a certain age to violent behavior, particularly homicidal and sexually predatory behavior.

Serial killers have what color eyes?

Brown is the most common eye color among serial killers. Blue and green are the next two colors.

Why do serial killers make their victims wet the bed?

Late bedwetting is usually the result of a medical condition or emotional abuse. However, there could be a link between late bedwetting and psychopathy. Furthermore, as previously stated, a child's upbringing can influence how violent they become later in life.

Is it possible for serial killers to feel the love?

That's a myth, and it's a bad one. Most serial killers have no trouble feeling love, and even more so, most of them are neurotypical, and neurotypicals, serial killers or not, love just fine.

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The Psychology behind a Serial Killer | Marham

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A serial killer is known as someone who has killed lots of people with gaps between them. The Psychology behind a Serial Killer is a very curious question. Before murdering their victims, some serial killers kidnap and/or torture them. While it's not always clear what drives serial killers to commit such heinous acts, abnormal psychological processes.

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https://www.worldvision.ca/stories/child-sponsorship/major-causes-of-poverty

Affects people that financially fall behind for certain reasons.

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Causes of poverty are both constant and changing. They increase, worsen and pervade in many parts of the world, which is why poverty remains a huge problem to this day.

Working together, the world's countries have been making progress in poverty reduction in the last 25 years. But several global concerns such as climate change, conflict, debt and the ongoing pandemic are threatening to reverse the results.

In 2020, global extreme poverty rose for the first time in over 20 years. People who have escaped extreme poverty could be forced back into it. Also, middle-income countries such as India and Nigeria may now be home to about 80 per cent of the world's "new poor".

Understanding the causes of poverty, and knowing how to address them, is critical if we are to make a difference in the fight toward its eradication.

Why are so many people living in poverty? And what can we do to help? These questions are important to answer, whether you're a government, a world body or a caring individual.

In this article, we explore 10 major causes of poverty around the world. We explain how these causes affect the lives of millions of people. And we discuss what can be done to confront them.

What are the main causes of poverty?
Approximately 700 million people - or nearly 10 per cent of the world's population - are still living in extreme poverty. In 2021, the World Bank predicted that the number could increase by as many as 150 million by the end of that year due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change.

There's a lot we can do to reduce poverty globally, even with multiple challenges to confront. But first, we need to understand what poverty is - and what causes it.

1. Lack of access to clean water and nutritious food

Water and food are two of the most essential needs of every person. But:

Up until 2019, some 2.2 billion people still lacked access to clean drinking water at home.

Approximately 4.2 billion people did not have safe sanitation services because toilets were either unsafe or limited.

More than 820 million people globally did not have enough food to eat.

Severe acute malnutrition is the direct cause of death for 2 million children every year.

While poverty is often named as a cause of hunger, hunger is also a cause of poverty. It's a vicious cycle that prevents many people from improving their lives. It's difficult for anyone to work long hours and travel long distances to work if they don't have enough to eat or are constantly ill from waterborne illness.
2. Lack of access to basic healthcare

Half the world's population does not have access to basic health services. Every year, more and more families are driven to poverty because of health expenses.

Around 800 million people spend at least 10 per cent of their household budgets on health expenses. Allocating that money is impossible for the 100 million people living in extreme poverty, on just $1.90 per day or less.

Poor health is another major contributor to poverty. Frequent illness can prevent a person from succeeding in school or holding down a job. Lack of healthcare clinics, trained professionals and medical supplies in a region worsen the problem.

Even the most basic healthcare can help a child survive and thrive. But in 2020, an estimated 5 million children under the age of five died, mostly from preventable and treatable causes. Approximately half of those deaths are newborns. In 2021, Afghanistan, Somalia and the Central African Republic topped the list of countries with the highest infant mortality rate, respectively. Photo: Jon Warren

'Inequality' happens when one group has fewer resources and opportunities than others. It can be caused by factors like gender, race, economic situation, social status, age and physical ability.

Gender discrimination remains a pervasive form of inequality in many parts of the world. Examples include the underrepresentation of women in running their countries (only 24 per cent hold office in national parliaments). In addition, it's much harder for women to own property such as agricultural land (globally, only 13 per cent is women-owned).

There are also limiting cultural factors that discriminate against girls and women. In many of the world's poorest countries, girls and women eat the least, last, and of the poorest-quality food. In 18 countries, husbands can prevent their wives from working. As many as 49 countries still lack laws protecting women against domestic violence.

Inequality perpetuates poverty when people's rights are ignored or violated. It robs them of the power to make their own decisions and improve their living conditions.

4. Conflict and instability

Conflict and instability are among the most common causes of poverty in the world today. Conflict can refer to an armed struggle or protracted violence. It affects a nation's people like in the regions of Syria, Myanmar, Ethiopia, South Sudan and Iraq, to name a few.

Whether conflict happens across borders or within a country, people's lives can be devastated, especially when forced to flee to safer places. For children, this displacement can mean months or years of missed education. Adults often lose jobs, careers and livelihoods.

Displacement due to armed conflict and violence can cause poverty or make it much worse. In Syria, for example, more than a decade of conflict has forced half the population to flee their homes.

There are more than 5.5 million refugees in the region, while hundreds of thousands more are displaced across 130 countries. At least 70 per cent of these refugees are living in total poverty, having no access to food, water, and basic services.

In South Sudan, children who've lost critical schooling due to conflict are working to catch up in this remedial class. Photo: Scovia Faida Charles

Lack of education does not automatically make one poor, but depending on one's circumstances, it can contribute to perpetuating the cycle of poverty.

Many of those living in extreme poverty have limited education because they have to prioritize other basic needs. For others, schools are very far off, or there aren't enough teachers, classrooms and learning materials. There are also instances where culture prevents girls from going to school.

Education has the potential to help people all over the world break free from poverty. According to a UNESCO report, 171 million people could lift themselves out of poverty if only they had basic reading skills. People who can read, write and do math are more likely to have success starting their own business, for example. They in turn can hire others, improving opportunities for multiple families.

6. Lack of access to jobs and livelihoods

One aspect of the so-called 'poverty trap' is the lack of access to jobs and other forms of livelihoods. But the solution is not as simple as addressing unemployment or underemployment.

Globally, factors such as climate change and conflict can play a devastating role in destroying jobs and lives. Economies can't thrive amidst extreme drought, for example, or ongoing civil unrest. People forced to migrate may struggle to find work, particularly in situations like refugee camps.

In many of the world's regions, lack of jobs is not the only concern. Once employed, many people face challenges such as dangerous working conditions, exploitation, discrimination and unfair pay. Addressing these issues requires resources and commitment, both within the country and all along global supply chains.

A homeless elderly woman in Afghanistan takes on several jobs daily such as baking bread, breaking pistachios and doing other people's laundry to support her family. Photo: World Vision Afghanistan Staff

Lack of infrastructure can keep people in poverty, affecting the economic strength of communities and entire countries. A few examples of basic infrastructure are roads, electricity and water networks, railways, mass transit and telecommunications.

Without these, communities can remain isolated from the rest of the world, especially in rural areas. A region with insufficient roads can't form trading networks that would benefit multiple communities. Lack of access to basic services, education and employment opportunities all serve to perpetuate poverty.

Climate change is a major contributor to poverty and deaths in the world. The World Health Organization projects approximately 250,000 additional deaths between 2030 and 2050 due to heat stress, malnutrition, malaria and diarrhea.

Extreme drought can destroy harvests, forcing people to migrate to survive. Climate change is causing an increase in the number of forest fires and wildfires, worsening air pollution and making food less nutritious.
With all these factors combined, the World Bank estimates 132 million people will be pushed into poverty over the next 10 years. The most vulnerable are from developing countries.

Homes were destroyed in a far-flung coastal community in the Philippines after a typhoon hit in 2021. Many families already living in poverty struggled to survive the aftermath. Photo: Mong Jimenez

Around the world, many governments lack the ability or willingness to provide support to struggling citizens. In wealthy countries like Canada, government support may include food assistance, free healthcare, low-income housing, low-income tax credits, training programs and financial assistance.

Economic welfare programs can cut poverty by up to nearly one-half. But, without sufficient government support when people are struggling to access the necessities of life - or improve their education or job prospects - escaping poverty can be more difficult.

10. Lack of financial safety nets

Financial safety nets are resources set aside for use during emergencies or one-off expenses. Some examples are savings accounts, small loans, and insurance policies. Their main purpose is to ensure that a person or family can overcome financial difficulties that may be caused by mounting debt, sudden loss of livelihood, illnesses, natural disasters or other unforeseen circumstances.

Without financial safety nets, one huge expense can cause an individual to become poor and create long-lasting problems spanning generations. But for those already living in extreme poverty, these safety nets are a privilege they cannot afford.

This is where other financing vehicles like microfinancing comes in. It promotes economic empowerment for the poor and gives them a chance to lift themselves out of poverty in the long run.

Causes of poverty in Canada

A 2021 report by Statistics Canada indicated that 3.7 million Canadians, or 10 per cent of the population, are living below Canada's poverty line. Using the Government of Canada's Market Basket Measure, families living below the poverty line "do not have enough income to purchase a specific basket of goods and services in [their] community."

Many different factors contribute to poverty in Canada. For many Indigenous people, the remote location of communities, combined with lack of opportunity and infrastructure, keeps thousands in poverty.

Around the country, factors such as lack of employment and affordable housing - combined with the expense of higher education and training programs - can affect many families. Some families in Canada are refugees, struggling to overcome language barriers to employment.

Additional facts about poverty in Canada:
What is World Vision Canada doing to help address the causes of poverty?

A World Vision staff member helps distribute food supplies to survivors of the earthquake in Haiti in 2021. World Vision provides essentials such as food, water, shelter supplies and medical care in emergencies, as well as livelihood and infrastructure support to help families rebuild. Photo: Guy F. Vital-Herne

The organization has a variety of programs in over 50 countries, aiming to address the main causes of poverty. Our biggest priorities include but are not limited to:

Providing access to clean and safe water and nutritious food.

Improving access to education and healthcare.

Providing livelihood training and microfinance support.

Providing essentials to people living in the world's most dangerous places.

Promoting child protection and increasing knowledge of child rights, as well as preventing child marriage.

How can we help address the causes of poverty?
Eradicating poverty is a tall order, but this doesn't mean it's impossible. As the world's countries work together to combat poverty, you can also contribute to the cause. Here are several ways to help:

Send most-needed gifts to children and families

Make an impact in the lives of vulnerable people by sending the most-needed gifts through the World Vision Gift Catalogue. Some examples are emergency kits, agricultural packs or medical supplies for children and families who need them most. You can also choose to sponsor a child through World Vision's child sponsorship program, providing access to essentials such as food, water, health care and education. It's a powerful way to help them break the cycle of poverty and empower children to build brighter futures. If you'd like to make a bigger impact or you have family and friends who also want to contribute, you can pool your funds together and partner with a community. Help them break the cycle of poverty by improving access to education, health care, food security and nutrition, as well as livelihood opportunities.
Village2Village is a multi-year partnership that works in villages from eight communities across six countries: Kenya, Bangladesh, Guatemala, Nepal, Laos and Tanzania.

Remember that you are capable of doing important work to help the world's people break free from poverty. There are so many ways to help. Get started today!

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10 major causes of poverty and how we can help solve them

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Poverty remains a serious threat to the lives and well-being of people globally. This article discusses the main causes of poverty plaguing the world today.

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Lots of animals are in zoos which isn't always bad, but for example, Sea World is a problem. They keep these huge animals in small enclosures which isn't sustainable. They can't live happily and healthily if they have no space to thrive. Other zoos and aquariums also are not feeding animals properly, and some even illegally own animals they are NOT allowed to have

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SeaWorld is a business built on the suffering of intelligent, social animals who are denied everything that's natural and important to them. But what horrible things has the abusement park done, specifically? From tearing animals away from their families to breeding and inbreeding them and imprisoning them in tiny, barren tanks, we're breaking it all down:

1. An orca named Shamu performed in the first-ever orca show at SeaWorld in 1965. She'd been kidnapped from her mother-and during her capture, her mother was shot with a harpoon and killed right in front of her. Shamu died six years later, although SeaWorld continued to use the name for various other orcas who were forced to perform in its shows.

2. In 1978, SeaWorld captured two sharks from the ocean and put them in an enclosure. Within three days, they'd run into a wall, sunk to the bottom of the enclosure, and died. SeaWorld has continued to imprison and kill different species of sharks ever since.

WTF. #SeaWorld now allows guests to pay to swim with sharks in a tiny tank. Here's why it's bad: https://t.co/NAt3Neqot2 #BoycottSeaWorldDay pic.twitter.com/4Rf9YiwMTT

- PETA (@peta) July 25, 2017

3. In 1983, 12 dolphins were captured from their home waters in Chile to be put on display at SeaWorld. Half of them died within six months.

4. SeaWorld separated two bonded polar bears-Szenja and Snowflake-after they'd spent 20 years together, leaving Szenja without any other members of her species to interact with. She died two months later-likely with a broken heart.

BREAKING: Szenja, a polar bear at #SeaWorld, has died. PETA believes she died of a broken heart after companion of 20 yrs was shipped away pic.twitter.com/dwr0Vm0vrR

- PETA (@peta) April 19, 2017

5. A dolphin named Ringer was impregnated by her own father, and there's a good chance that her last calf was inbred as well. (She's had several babies-and all of them have died.)

#SeaWorld allowed Ringer to become pregnant again, despite her history of inbreeding & failed pregnancies. Her calf's death is no surprise.

- PETA (@peta) May 22, 2017

6. In 2011, the company took 10 baby penguins away from their parents in Antarctica and shipped them to SeaWorld in California for "research purposes."

7. In 2015, SeaWorld shipped 20 penguins via FedEx on a 13-hour journey from California to Michigan, transporting them inside small plastic crates with air holes and forcing them to stand on blocks of ice.

Penguins are not packages! #SeaWorld has shipped penguins in plastic crates via #FedEx. #WorldPenguinDay pic.twitter.com/7JBX66cDQo

- PETA (@peta) April 25, 2016

8. Nanuq, a beluga whale, was abducted from his home waters and family at 6 years old, and he was used for an artificial insemination experiment at SeaWorld. He was removed from the water about 42 times so that workers could collect his sperm. Six of his babies died at birth or shortly after. Nanuq died, too, after his jaw was shattered.

ICYMI: A beluga whale has DIED at #SeaWorld.

See what PETA is doing about it: http://t.co/jvLGN4OwGk #CaptivityKills pic.twitter.com/vYo8pdD5na

- PETA (@peta) February 21, 2015

9. SeaWorld continued buying orcas who were taken from their families. Its orca hunter even hired divers to cut open the stomachs of five orcas, fill them with rocks, and put anchors around their tails in order to sink them to the bottom of the ocean so that their deaths wouldn't be discovered.

10. Abducted at 1 year old, an orca named Kasatka was imprisoned by SeaWorld in a tank for nearly 40 years-until she died. Workers made her perform up to eight shows a day, transferred her to different locations 14 times within eight years, used her for breeding, and took her babies away.

ICYMI: A third orca has died this year at #SeaWorld. Kasatka suffered from a bacterial infection for 10 years #RIP https://t.co/QvlhYCkCjo pic.twitter.com/42RLRlWUYL

- PETA (@peta) August 20, 2017

11. Kasatka's mate, Kotar, was killed after a pool gate closed on his head, fracturing his skull.

12. An orca named Corky was abducted from her family and home as a baby, then impregnated over and over again-six times with sperm from her own cousin. Today, she's locked inside one of SeaWorld's tiny tanks, swimming in endless circles, despite the hundreds of thousands of people who have called on the company to release her and her long-suffering orca brethren.

13. Corky's last baby was found dead at the bottom of a tank. Her family is still out there in the wild, but SeaWorld won't return her to them.

14. Takara, a 25-year-old orca at SeaWorld, has been artificially inseminated many times, separated from her mother and two of her children, and shuffled from theme park to theme park. She was just starting to build a relationship with her daughter Kyara when the infant died at only 3 months old.

15. SeaWorld masturbated Tilikum over and over and forcibly impregnated female orcas with his sperm. He's the biological father of more than half the orcas who've been born at SeaWorld. More than half of his children have died.

16. Tilikum died, too, after 33 miserable years in captivity.

17. In order to keep orcas' worn and broken teeth from becoming infected, employees drill out the inside of the teeth-often without any anesthetics or painkillers -and then flush them out daily.

*****

In addition to all these atrocities committed by SeaWorld, the company continues to subject 21 orcas, more than 100 other dolphins and whales, and many other animals to constant confinement and deprivation.

Speak Up for Animals Imprisoned at SeaWorld

It may be too late for Shamu, Kasatka, Kyara, Tilikum, Szenja, Nanuq, and others, but it's not too late for SeaWorld to start building sea sanctuaries for the animals still trapped in its tiny tanks. The decades of torment must end now.

You can help all the living, feeling beings imprisoned by SeaWorld today. Click the button below to ask the company to end all animal acts at its parks and release the animals into sea sanctuaries.

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17 Horrible Things SeaWorld Has Done | PETA

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SeaWorld is a business built on the suffering of intelligent, social animals who are denied everything that's natural and important to them. But what horrible things has it done, specifically? We're breaking it all down and explaining how you can help us save these marine mammals.

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Painter, architecture doctor, ecological activist and philosopher

The work of Friedensreich Hundertwasser (born Friedrich Stowasser in Vienna) is one of the most important contributions in the art history of post-war modernism. As an important member of the international avant-garde in Paris in the 1950s, he developed his unique visual language. One of the central motifs of his colorful picture world is the spiral.

If today Hundertwasser is considered one of the most popular European artists of our time, his graphic work has made a great contribution. His goal in the art of graphics was to create variations within one edition, with the result that each sheet of an edition is unique, different in color and design from all others.

Hundertwasser's commitment to a more human architecture in harmony with nature and his visionary ecological commitment developed from his belief in the power of nature and individual creativity. Since the 1980s, he has been realizing architectural projects in which there is the window right and tree tenants, the uneven floor, forests on the roof and spontaneous vegetation. His buildings testify to his commitment to diversity instead of monotony, for romanticism, for the organic and for unregulated irregularities, for spontaneous vegetation and for living in harmony with nature.

At the center of his ecological activities were tree planting and greening campaigns, the restoration of natural cycles, the protection of water and the fight for a waste-free society.

He disseminated his socio-critical and ecological positions with manifestos, letters, speeches and public demonstrations in which he criticized the pure functionality of all areas of life, the uninhibited growth doctrine and the adaptation to social conformism.

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Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928-2000) Hundertwasser, a visionary and responsible creator, mobilizes the power of his art in order to spread his message for a life in harmony with nature and the individual creativity. He is a symbolic figure for a non-conformist way of life, a forerunner of environmental protection and an ambassador for a self-determined alternative existence.

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Key facts

In 2022, 1 in 8 people in the world were living with obesity.

Worldwide adult obesity has more than doubled since 1990, and adolescent obesity has quadrupled.

In 2022, 2.5 billion adults (18 years and older) were overweight. Of these, 890 million were living with obesity.

In 2022, 43% of adults aged 18 years and over were overweight and 16% were living with obesity.

In 2022, 37 million children under the age of 5 were overweight.

Over 390 million children and adolescents aged 5-19 years were overweight in 2022, including 160 million who were living with obesity.

Overview

Overweight is a condition of excessive fat deposits.

Obesity is a chronic complex disease defined by excessive fat deposits that can impair health. Obesity can lead to increased risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease, it can affect bone health and reproduction, it increases the risk of certain cancers. Obesity influences the quality of living, such as sleeping or moving.

The diagnosis of overweight and obesity is made by measuring people's weight and height and by calculating the body mass index (BMI): weight (kg)/height² (m²). The body mass index is a surrogate marker of fatness and additional measurements, such as the waist circumference, can help the diagnosis of obesity.

The BMI categories for defining obesity vary by age and gender in infants, children and adolescents.

Adults

For adults, WHO defines overweight and obesity as follows:

overweight is a BMI greater than or equal to 25; and

obesity is a BMI greater than or equal to 30.

For children, age needs to be considered when defining overweight and obesity.

Children under 5 years of age

For children under 5 years of age:

overweight is weight-for-height greater than 2 standard deviations above WHO Child Growth Standards median; and

obesity is weight-for-height greater than 3 standard deviations above the WHO Child Growth Standards median.

Charts and tables: WHO child growth standards for children aged under 5 years

Children aged between 5-19 years

Overweight and obesity are defined as follows for children aged between 5-19 years:

overweight is BMI-for-age greater than 1 standard deviation above the WHO Growth Reference median; and

obesity is greater than 2 standard deviations above the WHO Growth Reference median.

Charts and tables: WHO growth reference for children aged between 5-19 years

Facts about overweight and obesity

In 2022, 2.5 billion adults aged 18 years and older were overweight, including over 890 million adults who were living with obesity. This corresponds to 43% of adults aged 18 years and over (43% of men and 44% of women) who were overweight; an increase from 1990, when 25% of adults aged 18 years and over were overweight. Prevalence of overweight varied by region, from 31% in the WHO South-East Asia Region and the African Region to 67% in the Region of the Americas.

About 16% of adults aged 18 years and older worldwide were obese in 2022. The worldwide prevalence of obesity more than doubled between 1990 and 2022.

In 2022, an estimated 37 million children under the age of 5 years were overweight. Once considered a high-income country problem, overweight is on the rise in low- and middle-income countries. In Africa, the number of overweight children under 5 years has increased by nearly 23% since 2000. Almost half of the children under 5 years who were overweight or living with obesity in 2022 lived in Asia.

Over 390 million children and adolescents aged 5-19 years were overweight in 2022. The prevalence of overweight (including obesity) among children and adolescents aged 5-19 has risen dramatically from just 8% in 1990 to 20% in 2022. The rise has occurred similarly among both boys and girls: in 2022 19% of girls and 21% of boys were overweight.

While just 2% of children and adolescents aged 5-19 were obese in 1990 (31 million young people), by 2022, 8% of children and adolescents were living with obesity (160 million young people).

Causes of overweight and obesity

Overweight and obesity result from an imbalance of energy intake (diet) and energy expenditure (physical activity).

In most cases obesity is a multifactorial disease due to obesogenic environments, psycho-social factors and genetic variants. In a subgroup of patients, single major etiological factors can be identified (medications, diseases, immobilization, iatrogenic procedures, monogenic disease/genetic syndrome).

The obesogenic environment exacerbating the likelihood of obesity in individuals, populations and in different settings is related to structural factors limiting the availability of healthy sustainable food at locally affordable prices, lack of safe and easy physical mobility into the daily life of all people, and absence of adequate legal and regulatory environment.

At the same time, the lack of an effective health system response to identify excess weight gain and fat deposition in their early stages is aggravating the progression to obesity.

Common health consequences

The health risks caused by overweight and obesity are increasingly well documented and understood.

In 2019, higher-than-optimal BMI caused an estimated 5 million deaths from noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancers, neurological disorders, chronic respiratory diseases, and digestive disorders (1).

Being overweight in childhood and adolescence affects children's and adolescents' immediate health and is associated with greater risk and earlier onset of various NCDs, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Childhood and adolescent obesity have adverse psychosocial consequences; it affects school performance and quality of life, compounded by stigma, discrimination and bullying. Children with obesity are very likely to be adults with obesity and are also at a higher risk of developing NCDs in adulthood.

The economic impacts of the obesity epidemic are also important. If nothing is done, the global costs of overweight and obesity are predicted to reach US$ 3 trillion per year by 2030 and more than US$ 18 trillion by 2060 (2).

Finally, the rise in obesity rates in low-and middle-income countries, including among lower socio-economic groups, is fast globalizing a problem that was once associated only with high-income countries.

Facing a double burden of malnutrition

Many low- and middle-income countries face a so-called double burden of malnutrition.

While these countries continue to deal with the problems of infectious diseases and undernutrition, they are also experiencing a rapid upsurge in noncommunicable disease risk factors such as obesity and overweight.

It is common to find undernutrition and obesity co-existing within the same country, the same community and the same household.

Children in low- and middle-income countries are more vulnerable to inadequate pre-natal, infant, and young child nutrition. At the same time, these children are exposed to high-fat, high-sugar, high-salt, energy-dense, and micronutrient-poor foods, which tend to be lower in cost but also lower in nutrient quality. These dietary patterns, in conjunction with lower levels of physical activity, result in sharp increases in childhood obesity while undernutrition issues remain unsolved.

Prevention and management

Overweight and obesity, as well as their related noncommunicable diseases, are largely preventable and manageable.

At the individual level, people may be able to reduce their risk by adopting preventive interventions at each step of the life cycle, starting from pre-conception and continuing during the early years. These include:

ensure appropriate weight gain during pregnancy;

practice exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months after birth and continued breastfeeding until 24 months or beyond;

support behaviours of children around healthy eating, physical activity, sedentary behaviours and sleep, regardless of current weight status;

limit screen time;

limit consumption of sugar sweetened beverages and energy-dense foods and promote other healthy eating behaviours;

enjoy a healthy life (healthy diet, physical activity, sleep duration and quality, avoid tobacco and alcohol, emotional self-regulation);

limit energy intake from total fats and sugars and increase consumption of fruit and vegetables, as well as legumes, whole grains and nuts; and

engage in regular physical activity.

Health practitioners need to

assess the weight and height of people accessing the health facilities;

provide counselling on healthy diet and lifestyles;

when a diagnosis of obesity is established, provide integrated obesity prevention and management health services including on healthy diet, physical activity and medical and surgical measures; and

monitor other NCD risk factors (blood glucose, lipids and blood pressure) and assess the presence of comorbidities and disability, including mental health disorders.

The dietary and physical activity patterns for individual people are largely the result of environmental and societal conditions that greatly constrain personal choice. Obesity is a societal rather than an individual responsibility, with the solutions to be found through the creation of supportive environments and communities that embed healthy diets and regular physical activity as the most accessible, available and affordable behaviours of daily life.

Stopping the rise in obesity demands multisectoral actions such as food manufacturing, marketing and pricing and others that seek to address the wider determinants of health (such as poverty reduction and urban planning).

Such policies and actions include:

structural, fiscal and regulatory actions aimed at creating healthy food environments that make healthier food options available, accessible and desirable; and

health sector responses designed and equipped to identify risk, prevent, treat and manage the disease. These actions need to build upon and be integrated into broader efforts to address NCDs and strengthen health systems through a primary health care approach.

The food industry can play a significant role in promoting healthy diets by:

reducing the fat, sugar and salt content of processed foods;

ensuring that healthy and nutritious choices are available and affordable to all consumers;

restricting marketing of foods high in sugars, salt and fats, especially those foods aimed at children and teenagers; and

ensuring the availability of healthy food choices and supporting regular physical activity practice in the workplace.

WHO response

WHO has recognized the need to tackle the global obesity crisis in an urgent manner for many years.

The World Health Assembly Global Nutrition Targets aiming to ensure no increase in childhood overweight, and the NCD target to halt the rise of diabetes and obesity by 2025, were endorsed by WHO Member States. They recognized that accelerated global action is needed to address pervasive and corrosive problem of the double burden of malnutrition.

At the 75 th World Health Assembly in 2022, Member States demanded and adopted new recommendations for the prevention and management of obesity and endorsed the WHO Acceleration plan to stop obesity. Since its endorsement, the Acceleration plan has shaped the political environment to generate impetus needed for sustainable change, created a platform to shape, streamline and prioritize policy, support implementation in countries and drive impact and strengthen accountability at national and global level.
References
1. GBD 2019 Risk Factor Collaborators. "Global Burden of 87 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019". Lancet. 2020;396:1223-1249.

2. Okunogbe et al., "Economic Impacts of Overweight and Obesity." 2nd Edition with Estimates for 161 Countries. World Obesity Federation, 2022.

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Obesity and overweight fact sheet from WHO providing key facts and information on causes, health consequences, double burden of disease, prevention, WHO response.

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This affects people, animals and your environment.

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Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants.

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A series of men found dead in downtown Austin who were roughly the same age and found in the same body of water are likely not the victims of a serial killer, according to the Texas capital's chief of police.

Austin Police Chief Joseph Chacon said detectives suspected accidents or suicides in the recent string of deaths - but he left open the door should additional information become known to investigators.

His statement comes as speculation that deaths in the city's Lady Bird Lake - four since February and double that over the past year - could have a connection.

Of those, three were discovered near the edge of Rainey Street, a popular downtown strip, and a fourth was located about two miles downriver near a dam.
BODIES STACK UP IN TEXAS CITY AMID FEARS OF SERIAL KILLER, RUMORS OF 'ROOFIE' ATTACKS
"I realize that there is a rampant rumor about a potential serial killer here in Austin," Chacon told FOX 7 Austin. "We've found no evidence of that."

"Nothing has come to light that would indicate that there is a serial killer in Austin," the chief said.

Police had a visible presence on Rainey Street over the weekend, out in force along the strip. City officials have also begun discussing ways to make the waterfront safer, including adding lights to the trails there and increasing Park Ranger patrols. They have also installed high temporary fencing.
TEXAS SERIAL KILLER FEARS RISE AS LAKE DEATHS CLIMB TO 4
Austin police for weeks have said publicly that they have not uncovered evidence of foul play in any of the deaths, as their investigations continue.

But many Austin residents, as well as independent investigators and web sleuths alike, have argued that the number of bodies found so close to one another is more than a coincidence, especially due to the distance between the strip of bars on Rainey Street and the waterfront itself.

The edge of Lady Bird Lake is about a block and a half from the strip and requires climbing over a fence and down a trail.
BANK ACCOUNTS OF NEW YORK 'ROOFIE MURDER' VICTIMS DRAINED VIA FACIAL RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY
Austin police identified the latest victim last week as John Christopher Hays-Clark, 30. He was pronounced dead at the scene near a dam about two miles down river from where the others were found, closer to Rainey Street.

Police found Jason John, 30, dead in Lady Bird Lake in February, a week after he was last been seen on Rainey Street, which has a popular row of bars near the water.

Clifton Axtell, 40, was identified as the man found dead on March 5. Jonathan Honey, 33, was found on April 1, a day after he was last seen at a food truck on Rainey Street.
TEXAS POLICE ADDRESS FEARS OF SERIAL KILLER AFTER SECOND MISSING MAN FOUND DEAD IN AUSTIN LAKE
Police in New York City last month announced multiple indictments and arrests in connection with a series of robberies that involved drugging victims at bars and using facial recognition technology to unlock their phones and drain their accounts.

Several victims died as a result of overdosing on the drugs used to incapacitate them, according to police.

Separately, the Austin deaths share eerie similarities to claims of a potential group of "Smiley Face Killers" who some investigators believe may have been responsible for dozens of drownings of young men in the Midwest beginning in the late 1990s.

Residents were also monitoring the case of another missing man, Joel Derusha. Police told Fox News Digital Monday his remains were located on the 500 block of Thompson Lane Thursday morning.

He was located around nine miles away from Rainey Street not in or near the water, and police said they found no evidence of foul play based on evidence uncovered so far.

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Austin police chief knocks down 'rampant rumor' of serial killer in Texas capital

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A series of men found dead in downtown Austin who were roughly the same age and found in the same body of water are likely not the victims of a serial killer, according to the Texas capital's chief of police.

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Tom Wesselmann - The Great American Nude

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Tom Wesselmann - The Great American Nude

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Tom Wesselmann Nudes, and the Collection of the ‘Baron of Botox’ (Published 2015)

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Mitchell-Innes & Nash will present the first survey of Wesselmann paintings in New York since his death in 2004; contemporary works collected by the celebrity dermatologist Fredric Brandt go up for auction.

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https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/immigration-1870-1900/

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Immigration to the U.S. in the Late 1800s

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Map of immigration to the U.S. from the east and west

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everyone

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How stress affects your body and behavior

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Sign up for free, and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips and current health topics, like COVID-19, plus expertise on managing health. Click here for an email preview. Email field is required Include a valid email address Learn more about Mayo Clinic's use of data.

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There are several different types of drugs available to treat mental illnesses. Some of the most commonly used are antidepressants, anti- anxiety, antipsychotic, mood stabilizing, and stimulant medications.

When treating depression, several drug options are available. Some of the most commonly used include:

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as citalopram (Celexa), escitalopram oxalate (Lexapro), fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine (Luvox), paroxetine HCI (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft).

Selective serotonin & norepinephrine inhibitors (SNRIs), such as desvenlafaxine (Khedezla), desvenlafaxine succinate (Pristiq), duloxetine (Cymbalta), levomilnacipran (Fetzima), and venlafaxine (Effexor).

Novel serotonergic drugs such as vortioxetine (Trentellix -formerly called Brintellix) or vilazodone (Viibryd)

Older tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline (Elavil), imipramine (Tofranil), nortriptyline (Pamelor), and doxepin (Sinequan).

Drugs that are thought to affect mainly dopamine and norepinephrine such as bupropion (Wellbutrin).

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), such as isocarboxazid (Marplan), phenelzine (Nardil), selegiline (EMSAM), and tranylcypromine (Parnate).

Tetracyclic antidepressants that are noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NaSSAs), such as mirtazapine (Remeron).

L-methylfolate (Deplin) has proven successful in treating depression. Considered a medical food or nutraceutical by the FDA, it is the active form of one of the B vitamins called folate and helps regulate the neurotransmitters that control moods. Although it is not technically a medication, it does require a prescription.

Your health care provider can determine which medication is right for you. Remember that medications usually take 4 to 6 weeks to become fully effective. And if one drug does not work, there are many others to try.

In some cases, a combination of antidepressants sometimes called augmentation, may be necessary. Sometimes an antidepressant combined with a different type of drug, such as a mood stabilizer (like Lithium), a second antidepressant, or atypical antipsychotic drug, is the most effective treatment.

Side effects vary, depending on what type of drug you are taking, and may improve once your body adjusts to the medication.

If you decide to stop taking your antidepressants, it is important that you gradually reduce the dose over a period of several weeks. With many antidepressants, quitting them abruptly can cause discontinuation symptoms or speed the risk for depression relapse. It is important to discuss quitting (or changing) medications with your healthcare provider first.

Antidepressants, particularly the SSRIs, may also be effective in treating many types of anxiety disorders.

Other anti- anxiety medications include the benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam ( Xanax), clonazepam ( Klonopin), diazepam ( Valium), and lorazepam ( Ativan). These drugs carry a risk of addiction, so they are not as desirable for long-term use. Other possible side effects include drowsiness, poor concentration, and irritability.

The drug buspirone ( Buspar) is a unique serotonergic drug that is non-habit-forming and often used to treat generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD).

Some antiseizure medicines, such as gabapentin ( Neurontin) or pregabalin ( Lyrica) are sometimes used "off label" (without an official FDA indication) to treat certain forms of anxiety.

Finally, some conventional as well as atypical antipsychotic drugs have been shown to reduce anxiety symptoms in the context of treating depression or psychosis, and may also sometimes be used "off label" as treatments for anxiety.

Antipsychotics are a class of drugs used commonly to treat psychotic disorders -- conditions in which thinking can be irrational, and people have false beliefs (delusions) or perceptions (hallucinations) -- and sometimes to treat mood disorders such as bipolar disorder or major depression. Different antipsychotics vary in their side effects, and some people have more trouble with certain side effects than with others. The doctor can change medications or dosages to help minimize unpleasant side effects. A drawback to some antipsychotic medications is their potential to cause side effects such as sedation and problems with involuntary movements, weight gain, and changes in blood sugar or cholesterol, which require periodic laboratory monitoring. Different antipsychotics have different side effect profiles, so you'll work with your doctor to choose the right drug for you.

Many side effects of antipsychotic drugs are mild and many go away after the first few weeks of treatment. Common side effects may include:

Drowsiness

Rapid or irregular heartbeat

Dizziness when changing positions

Decrease in sexual interest or ability

Problems with menstrual periods

Skin rashes or skin sensitivity to the sun

Weight gain

Muscle spasms

Restlessness and pacing

Slowing down of movement and speech

Shuffling walk

Menstrual irregularities in women

There are, however, a few serious side effects that are possible, especially with long-term use of antipsychotic medications. These side effects include:

Tardive dyskinesia: This is a movement disorder that results in unusual and uncontrollable movements, usually of the tongue and face (such as sticking out the tongue and smacking the lips), and sometimes jerking and twisting movements of other parts of the body. It can be treated by taking deutetrabenazine (Austedo) or valbenazine (Ingrezza).

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: This is a potentially fatal disorder characterized by severe muscle rigidity (stiffening), fever, sweating, high blood pressure, delirium, and sometimes coma.

Agranulocytosis: This is a condition marked by a sharp decrease in the number of infection-fighting white blood cells. This condition can leave the person prone to infection and at greater risk of death. Agranulocytosis has been particularly linked with Clozaril, where it may occur in 1 in 100 patients. People taking Clozaril must have regular blood tests to closely monitor their white blood cell count. However, all antipsychotics carry a warning label from the FDA noting that as a class they have a risk for lowering someone's white blood cell count.

Changes in Blood Sugar and Cholesterol: Some atypical antipsychotics can cause increases in blood sugar (which could eventually lead to diabetes) and blood lipids such as cholesterol and triglycerides. Periodic blood tests are necessary to monitor these factors.

If antipsychotic drug side effects are particularly troublesome, your doctor may change medications or dosages or sometimes add additional medicines to counteract side effects like weight gain or high blood lipids. The newer atypical antipsychotic medications appear to be much better tolerated, with fewer side effects such as movement disorders or drowsiness. They do, though, require monitoring for weight and metabolic risks, which appear to be higher than with older-generation antipsychotics.

Newer antipsychotic drugs include:

Olanzapine/samidorphan( Lybalvi)

Another group of drugs called stimulants may be used for certain disorders, primarily attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The most commonly used stimulants include amphetamine salt combo ( Adderall, Adderall XR), methylphenidate ( Daytrana) patch, dextroamphetamine ( Dexedrine), lisdexamfetamine ( Vyvanse), and methylphenidate ( Concerta, Quillivant XR, Ritalin) in pill form. Recently, the FDA approved a once a day treatment of mixed salts of a single-entity amphetamine product called dextroamphetamine-amphetamine ( Mydayis).

A class of drugs, called alpha agonists, are nonstimulant medicines that are also sometimes used to treat ADHD. Examples include clonidine ( Catapres) and guanfacine ( Intuniv).

Atomoxetine ( Strattera) also has FDA-approval for the treatment of ADHD. It is a non-stimulant more similar to the SNRI antidepressants. But the agency has also issued warnings that children and teens who take it may have suicidal thoughts.

The antidepressant drug, buproprion ( Wellbutrin) is also used to treat ADHD at times.

The FDA requires all ADHD drugs to include patient medication guides that detail serious outcomes from the use of the drugs, including a slightly higher risk of stroke, heart attack and sudden death, and psychiatric problems like becoming manic or psychotic.

Many drugs used to treat mental disorders in adults are also used to treat the same illnesses in children. However, doctors often adjust the doses given and monitor more closely.

The FDA has determined that antidepressant drugs can increase the risk of suicidal thinking and behavior in children and adolescents with depression and other psychiatric disorders. If you have questions or concerns, discuss them with your healthcare provider.

Drugs cannot cure mental illnesses. Rather, they work to control many of the most troubling symptoms, often enabling people with mental disorders to return to normal or near-normal functioning. Reducing symptoms with medication can also enhance the effectiveness of other treatments, such as psychotherapy (a type of counseling).

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WebMD provides an overview of drugs used to treat various mental illnesses.

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Has changed over time and affects women's rights and gender inequality

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All leaders have some measure of power, in the sense of influencing or determining priorities for other individuals. But leadership cannot be a synonym for holding power. Power is often defined in the straightforward way suggested by political scientist Robert Dahl: " A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do." A bully or an assailant with a gun wields power in this sense, but it would not be appropriate to call such a person a "leader."

In the United States, the unprecedented numbers of women candidates in the 2018 midterm elections and the 2019 Democratic presidential primaries are striking examples of women tackling the long-standing identification of leadership with masculinity. One hundred and seventeen women won office in 2018, including ninety-six members of the House of Representatives, twelve senators, and nine governors. Each of these was a record number, compared with any year in the past. Among Democrats, female candidates were more likely to win than their male counterparts. Hillary Clinton's candidacy for the presidency was a significant step in splintering, if not yet shattering, one of the hardest "glass ceilings" in the world. And Angela Merkel's deft leadership for Germany and the European Union has provided a model for women in politics worldwide.

Virginia Woolf's powerful essay A Room of One's Own (1929) makes clear how crucial it was for women to be educated in a university setting. College degrees allowed women to enter professions previously barred to them and, as a result, become financially independent of their fathers and husbands and gain a measure of control over their own lives. Woolf's less well-known but equally powerful treatise from 1939, Three Guineas, considers the impact of this development on social institutions and practices, including the relations between women and men.

This scenario, however, ignores some formidable barriers that women ambitious for formal leadership still face. Several familiar images or metaphors have been coined to make this point: "glass ceiling" or "leaky pipeline." In Through the Labyrinth, sociologists Alice Eagly and Linda Carli use the ancient female image of the "labyrinth" to describe the multiple obstacles women face on the path to top leadership. It's surely not a straight path toward eventual convergence.

And finally, in terms of obstacles to women's out-front leadership, I have so far been describing the situation in Western democracies. As we know, women who might want to be involved in political activity or provide leadership in any institution face even more formidable obstacles in many parts of the world today. Think of Afghanistan, where the Taliban have denied women education or any opportunities outside the home. For young women in such settings, achieving professional status and leadershipis a very distant dream.

Addressing the topic of women's leadership in terms of the obstacles we face makes sense, however, only if significant numbers of women are ambitious for top leadership. In an essay entitled "You've Come a Long Way, Baby-and You've Got Miles to Go," leadership scholar Barbara Kellerman asks us to consider the possibility that most women really do not want such jobs. As she put it, "Work at the top of the greasy pole takes time, saps energy, and is usually all-consuming." So "maybe the trade-offs high positions entail are ones that many women do not want to make." Maybe, in other words, there are fewer women senators or CEOs because women "do not want what men have."

In the conclusion of her feminist classic The Second Sex, published in 1949, Simone de Beauvoir reminds us that it is very hard to anticipate clearly things we have not yet seen, and that in trying to do this, we often impoverish the world ahead. As she puts it, "Let us not forget that our lack of imagination always depopulates the future." In her chapter on "The Independent Woman," she writes:

AUTHOR'S NOTE

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Many more women provide visible leadership today than ever before. Opening up higher education for women and winning the battle for suffrage brought new opportunities, along with widespread availability of labor-saving devices and the discovery and legalization of reliable, safe methods of birth control.

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American men today earn about 20% more than their female counterparts and hold 96% of Fortune 500 CEO positions. They constitute more than 80% of the House and the Senate, and have an unrivaled 44-0 streak in winning the presidency. But in 2016 American men are also increasingly likely to say that they're the ones facing discrimination.

In the 2012 American National Election Study, 9% of Republican men said that men faced "a great deal" or "a lot" of discrimination in America. In 2016 that figure is 18%. Perceptions of gender discrimination against men also rose slightly among independent men, but fell among Democratic men. If we add in those men who say that men face "a moderate amount" of discrimination, 41% of Republican men now say that men are being discriminated against. Overall, about one-third of men now say that they're facing substantial gender discrimination, and two-thirds say that they're facing at least a little discrimination.

Why would men believe that they are facing gender discrimination in society when there is no real evidence of it? Part of it may be differences in the meaning of discrimination. When men cite examples of discrimination, they note that men are more likely to get speeding tickets and are expected to pay on dates. Women, on the other hand, tend to cite things like the gender pay gap and fear of sexual assault. Perhaps more important, though, researchers have found that men are prone to seeing discrimination as a zero-sum game. That is, they believe that discrimination against one group necessarily benefits another group and vice versa, so any policy that benefits African-Americans, for instance, harms whites, and any policy that benefits women amounts to discrimination against men. Fifteen years ago, younger men - and women of all ages - overwhelmingly rejected this view, but recent data shows that younger white men are now about as likely as older men to see discrimination as zero-sum.

With race-based policies, it's possible that some might amount to aiding a minority at the expense of the majority - affirmative action policies for college admissions, for instance. But it's often less clear how policies that help women might hurt men. In the ANES data, men who perceive discrimination against men are more likely to oppose mandatory employer coverage of contraception and parental leave laws, for instance. Even if there's no evidence that such policies would hurt men (heterosexual men clearly also benefit from contraception), the logic of the zero-sum approach is unforgiving: Anything that helps women must also be hurting men.

The belief that you're facing systemic discrimination has real psychological consequences for people. So long as they don't see the discrimination as part of a broader pattern in which society as a whole is biased against them, they're generally able to cope well. For example, in a 2003 study researchers showed that women displayed lower self-esteem after an instance of sexist discrimination - but only when they were made to believe that sexism was widespread.

What's important to recognize, though, is that the perception of being rejected by the mainstream is just that: a perception. Even if men are actually privileged in society, the belief that they aren't is enough to push them to respond to perceived discrimination in the same way that actually disadvantaged members of society do. They increase their gender group identification, experience lower self-esteem, get angry, and even lash out at the group they see as doing the oppressing.

If all of this sounds familiar, it may be because these patterns are being replicated on a large scale in the 2016 presidential election. One of the strongest correlates of belief that men are being discriminated against is support for Donald Trump. Controlling for other factors, the more that independent and Republican men support Trump, the more likely they are to say that men are being discriminated against. The presence of a woman at the top of a major party ticket for the first time is also likely raising hackles among men concerned that women are taking over society. Controlling for other factors, the more discrimination men perceive against their gender, the lower they rate Hillary Clinton on a feeling thermometer scale (a measure used in political polls to measure positive or negative feelings toward an individual or group, running from 0-100, with higher scores representing positive feelings).

Put together, this indicates that while the election this year may be making these sorts of views more visible, and may even have activated them in some men, the underlying causes of perceived discrimination go much deeper. The culprit isn't the actions of candidates or government policies, but rather the zero-sum view of discrimination held by many, and actively promulgated by groups in what we now refer to as the "alt-right." Until that view has been confronted, and roundly rejected, we can expect white men to increasingly see themselves as victims as other groups start to catch up.

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Why More American Men Feel Discriminated Against

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American men today earn about 20% more than their female counterparts and hold 96% of Fortune 500 CEO positions. They constitute more than 80% of the House and the Senate, and have an unrivaled 44-0 streak in winning the presidency. But in 2016 American men are also increasingly likely to say that they're the ones facing discrimination.

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teens struggling with anxiety

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All teens experience nervousness sometimes. Feeling tense before a date, worrying about an exam, and experiencing nerves before a big presentation is normal. But sometimes, teens experience so much anxiety that it impairs their daily functioning.

Parents of anxious teenagers-as well as the teens themselves-are often desperate for help. How do you know when the anxiety rises to the level of requiring treatment? Or maybe you have concerns about whether anxiety medication is safe for this age group.

This article covers a few ways to tell when anxiety treatment may be necessary for teens. It also provides information about anxiety medication for teens, its potential side effects, and medication-related safety warnings.

When to Seek Treatment for Teen Anxiety

There are many different types of teen anxiety, including:

Anxiety becomes problematic when it affects a teen's social, occupational, or educational functioning. Here are a few examples of when a teen may benefit from anxiety treatment:

The teen thinks everyone is always staring at them. As a result, they refuse to eat lunch in the cafeteria and avoid talking in class.

The teen survived a near-fatal car accident on a rainy evening. Several months later, they continue to have nightmares and flashbacks. They also refuse to get in a car when it's raining.

The teen has started experiencing panic attacks. They're worried a panic attack will happen at school, so they've started refusing to go.

Approximately 60% of young people with an anxiety disorder don't get treatment. But anxiety is treatable. Along with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) -also known as talk therapy-medication is also an effective teen anxiety treatment.

Using Medication to Treat Anxiety

Prescription medications can be useful in the treatment of anxiety disorders. They are also often used in conjunction with CBT.

Research studies show that a combination of CBT and medication works better for children than either treatment alone. That said, when teens have mild to moderate functional impairments, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry recommends deferring the use of medication.

Types of Anxiety Medications for Teens

It can be challenging to find the right anxiety medication that will work for your teen. Here are a few that a physician may prescribe.

SSRIs and SNRIs

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most commonly prescribed medication for anxiety in children and teens. They improve mood by blocking the reabsorption of serotonin -a neurotransmitter that helps regulate fear, worry, and stress-in the brain.

Common SSRIs used to treat anxiety disorders in teens include:

Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) may be prescribed if SSRIs don't have the desired effect. Like SSRIs, SNRIs impact neurotransmitters in the brain. They block the reabsorption of serotonin and norepinephrine. SNRIs may include medications such as Cymbalta (duloxetine) and Effexor XR (venlafaxine).

It can take up to 8 weeks for these types of medications to work. If the teen tolerates the medication well and hasn't received the results desired, the dosage may be increased after several weeks.

Benzodiazepines

Although SSRIs and SNRIs are most commonly used to treat anxiety in teens, other prescriptions may be used as well. Benzodiazepines are the second most commonly used type of medication and may be prescribed to teens with severe anxiety.

Medications in this category include:

Benzodiazepines are usually short-term treatments and are less commonly prescribed because they carry some additional risks. For example, teens may grow dependent on them, and benzodiazepines may be misused. Stopping them suddenly could also lead to withdrawal symptoms or even seizures.

Other Medications

Occasionally, physicians may prescribe other medications to treat anxiety. This might include prescribing drugs such as antihistamines, non-SSRI antidepressants, hydroxyzine, or atypical antipsychotics. The exact medication prescribed can vary based on the teen's diagnosis, the severity of the anxiety, and other factors.

Side Effects of SSRIs and SNRIs

Many teens don't experience side effects when taking SSRIs or SNRIs. Those that do often find that the effects are mild and usually go away within the first few weeks of treatment.

The most common side effects of SSRI and SNRI anxiety medications for teens include:

Other possible side effects may include:

Changes in sexual function

Constipation

Insomnia

Loss of appetite

Tiredness

Parents and physicians should discuss potential side effects with teens so they know what to expect and can report any side effects they are experiencing. If one medication isn't working or causing serious side effects, your teen may need to change medications.

FDA Warnings

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a warning in 2004 that antidepressant medications often used to treat adolescent anxiety (such as many SSRIs and SNRIs) may increase suicidal thoughts and behavior in a small number of children and adolescents.

No suicides were reported in the studies that led to the warnings. However, in clinical trials, the rate of suicidal thinking or suicidal behavior was 4% among patients receiving an antidepressant compared with 2% receiving a placebo.

Research shows that warnings against antidepressant use for teens may have actually backfired. Prior to the FDA warnings (1990-2002), suicide deaths decreased substantially. Following the warnings (2005-2017), there was an abrupt decline in treatments, yet suicide deaths increased markedly.

To address this concern, a black box warning was added to these medications. Critics of this warning fear that some children and teens may not get the help they need for fear that the medications are unsafe. To combat the added risk for adolescents, parents and teens are educated about the potential risks, and teens are monitored closely with frequent appointments.

A Word From Verywell

If your teen is struggling with anxiety, consult a healthcare provider. Describe your concerns and ask about treatment options. While some primary care physicians and pediatricians feel comfortable prescribing anti-anxiety medications to teens, others may refer children and adolescents to a psychiatrist.

Psychiatrists are specialist physicians who treat mental health disorders. If you have concerns about your teen's diagnosis or treatment plan, seek a second opinion. Talking to another professional can help you decide on the best course of action.

Always educate yourself about any medications your child is taking. Read the handouts, ask questions, and talk to the prescribing doctor and pharmacist. Monitor your teen's compliance with taking the medication, and make sure they're taking it as prescribed. Skipping doses or doubling up on pills could be harmful.

Attend your teen's appointments. Talk to the doctor about any concerns you have and learn about your teen's progress. With the right treatment and monitoring, teens can find relief from anxiety.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are there any natural medications for teens with anxiety?

The answer to this question is not quite clear. Some herbal remedies have been found to help treat anxiety. However, many of these studies have been conducted only on adult subjects. A 2018 study involving 80 teens did find that those taking a saffron extract for eight weeks had greater improvements in their anxiety than a control group. But researchers also noted that these effects were not necessarily corroborated by the teens' parents. Consult a healthcare provider before trying to treat a teen's anxiety with natural medications or products.

How do you know if your teen has anxiety?

Signs of teen anxiety include excessively worrying, continuous nervousness, and restlessness. You may also notice that the teen is withdrawn or uncomfortable in social situations. Teen anxiety can sometimes manifest physically, appearing in the form of muscle cramps, stomach issues, headaches, and fatigue. An anxious teen may even sweat, tremble, or startle easily.

How do I know if my teen needs anxiety medication?

If your teen's anxiety is impacting their everyday life, they may benefit from anxiety medication. It's also beneficial to recognize the difference between normal anxiety and a potential anxiety disorder. Signs of an anxiety disorder in teens that may benefit from anxiety medications include anxiety that begins before puberty, anxiety in situations that wouldn't normally provoke anxious feelings, unexplained physical symptoms, consistent anxiety symptoms, and avoidance of certain situations.

How do I help a teen with anxiety and ADHD?

Roughly three in 10 kids with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also have anxiety. If your teen has this dual diagnosis, both medication and behavioral treatment can help. Talk to a healthcare provider about the options best suited for them based on their anxiety type and severity. Talking to the teen's school may also help, such as getting them support both in and out of the classroom.

By Amy Morin, LCSW, Editor-in-Chief
Amy Morin, LCSW, is the Editor-in-Chief of Verywell Mind. She's also a licensed clinical social worker, psychotherapist, and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

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All teens experience nervousness sometimes. Feeling tense before a date, worrying about an exam, and experiencing nerves before a big presentation is normal. But sometimes, teens experience so much anxiety that it impairs their daily functioning. Parents of anxious teenagers-as well as the teens themselves-are often desperate for help.

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This affects the planet

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Rising sea levels. Raging storms. Searing heat. Ferocious fires. Severe drought. Punishing floods. The effects of climate change are already threatening our health, our communities, our economy, our security, and our children's future.

What can you do? A whole lot, as it turns out. Americans, on average, produce 21 tons of carbon a year, about four times the global average. Personal action is, of course, no substitute for meaningful government policies. We still must limit carbon pollution and aggressively move away from dirty fossil fuels toward cleaner power.

But it's important to remember the equally vital contributions that can be made by private citizens-which is to say, by you. "Change only happens when individuals take action," says clean energy advocate Aliya Haq. "There's no other way, if it doesn't start with people."

Here are a dozen easy, effective ways each one of us can make a difference.

1. Speak up!

What's the single biggest way you can make an impact on global climate change? "Talk to your friends and family, and make sure your representatives are making good decisions," Haq says. By voicing your concerns-via social media or, better yet, directly to your elected officials-you send a message that you care about the warming world. Encourage Congress to enact new laws that limit carbon emissions and require polluters to pay for the emissions they produce. "The main reason elected officials do anything difficult is because their constituents make them," Haq says. You can help protect public lands, stop offshore drilling, and more here.

2. Power your home with renewable energy.

Choose a utility company that generates at least half its power from wind or solar and has been certified by Green-e Energy, an organization that vets renewable energy options. If that isn't possible for you, take a look at your electric bill; many utilities now list other ways to support renewable sources on their monthly statements and websites.

3. Weatherize, weatherize, weatherize.

"Building heating and cooling are among the biggest uses of energy," Haq says. Indeed, heating and air-conditioning account for almost half of home energy use. You can make your space more energy efficient by sealing drafts and ensuring it's adequately insulated. You can also claim federal tax credits for many energy efficiency home improvements. To help you figure out where to start, you could also get a home energy audit, which some utilities offer free of charge. (Alternatively, you can hire a professional to come to your home and perform one; the Inflation Reduction Act offers a partial tax credit for this.) The EPA's Home Energy Yardstick gives you a simple assessment of your home's annual energy use compared with similar homes.

4. Invest in energy-efficient appliances.

Since they were first implemented nationally in 1987, efficiency standards for dozens of appliances and products have kept 2.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide out of the air. That's about the same amount as the annual carbon pollution coughed up by nearly 440 million cars. "Energy efficiency is the lowest-cost way to reduce emissions," Haq says. When shopping for refrigerators, washing machines, heat pump water heaters, and other appliances, look for the Energy Star label. It will tell you which are the most efficient. (There may also be rebates to earn from your purchase of Energy Star-certified products.)

And when you're ready to swap out your old machines, don't just put them on the curb: Recycling an old refrigerator through the EPA's Responsible Appliance Disposal Program can prevent an additional 10,000 pounds of carbon pollution because the global-warming pollutants in the refrigerants and foam would be properly captured rather than vented to the air.

5. Reduce water waste.

Saving water reduces carbon pollution, too. That's because it takes a lot of energy to pump, heat, and treat your water. So take shorter showers, turn off the tap while brushing your teeth, and switch to WaterSense-labeled fixtures and appliances. The EPA estimates that if just one out of every 100 American homes were retrofitted with water-efficient fixtures, about 100 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year would be saved-avoiding 80,000 tons of global warming pollution.

6. Actually eat the food you buy-and compost what you can't.

Approximately 10 percent of U.S. energy use goes into growing, processing, packaging, and shipping food-about 40 percent of which winds up in the landfill. "If you're wasting less food, you're likely cutting down on energy consumption," Haq says. As for the scraps you can't eat or the leftovers you don't get to, collect them in a compost bin instead of sending them to the landfill where they release methane. Recycling food and other organic waste into compost provides a range of environmental benefits, including improving soil health, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, recycling nutrients, and mitigating the impact of droughts.

7. Buy better bulbs.

LED light bulbs use one-sixth the amount of energy to deliver the same amount of light as conventional incandescents and last at least 10 times longer. They're also cheaper in the long run: A 10-watt LED that replaces your traditional 60-watt bulb will save you $125 over the light bulb's life. And because the average American home has around 40 to 50 light bulbs, this is a simple swap that will reap huge rewards. If every household in the United States replaced just one incandescent with an Energy Star-labeled LED, we would prevent seven billion pounds of carbon pollution per year. That's equivalent to the emissions of about 648,000 cars.

8. Pull the plug(s).

Taken together, the outlets in your home are likely powering about 65 devices-an average load for a home in the United States. Audio and video devices, cordless vacuums and power tools, and other electronics use energy even when they're not charging. This "idle load" across all U.S. households adds up to the output of 50 large power plants in the country. So don't leave fully charged devices plugged into your home's outlets, unplug rarely used devices or plug them into power strips and timers, and adjust your computers and monitors to automatically power down to the lowest power mode when not in use.

9. Drive a fuel-efficient vehicle.

Gas-smart cars, such as hybrids and fully electric vehicles, save fuel and money. And once all cars and light trucks meet 2025's clean car standards, which means averaging 54.5 miles per gallon, they'll be a mainstay. For good reason: Relative to a national fleet of vehicles that averaged only 28.3 miles per gallon in 2011, Americans will spend $80 billion less at the pump each year and cut their automotive emissions by half. Before you buy a new set of wheels, compare fuel-economy performance here.

10. Maintain your ride.

If all Americans kept their tires properly inflated, we could save 1.2 billion gallons of gas each year. A simple tune-up can boost miles per gallon anywhere from 4 percent to 40 percent, and a new air filter can get you a 10 percent boost. Also, remove unnecessary accessories from your car roof. Roof racks and clamshell storage containers can reduce fuel efficiency by as much as 5 percent.

11. Rethink planes, trains, and automobiles.

Choosing to live in walkable smart-growth cities and towns with quality public transportation leads to less driving, less money spent on fuel, and less pollution in the air. Less frequent flying can make a big difference, too. "Air transport is a major source of climate pollution," Haq says. "If you can take a train instead, do that." If you must fly, consider purchasing carbon offsets to counterbalance the hefty carbon pollution associated with flying. But not all carbon offset companies are alike. Do your homework to find the best supplier.

12. Reduce, reuse, and recycle.

In the United States, the average person generates 4.5 pounds of trash every day. Fortunately, not all the items we discard end up in landfills; we recycle or compost more than one-third of our trash. In 2014 this saved carbon emissions equivalent to the yearly output of 38 million passenger cars. But we could be doing so much more. "Reduce should always be the number-one priority," says NRDC senior resource specialist Darby Hoover. And to reap the environmental benefits of "recyclable" goods, you must recycle according to the rules of your municipality, since systems vary widely by location. Search your municipality's sanitation department (or equivalent) webpage to learn exactly what you can place in the recycling bin, as counties and cities often differ in what they accept.
This story was originally published on April 20, 2022 and has been updated with new information and links.

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There are many ways to prevent global warming from becoming worse. Many nations have put laws into place to fight climate change -- here's what you can do.

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affects patients

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With all the debate about the high cost of good healthcare, it's not surprising that we're all demanding more transparency in healthcare. Transparency is not just important for the patients but also for the physicians, payers, and providers. By not only demanding but providing transparency in the healthcare industry, good quality healthcare may once again be attainable and affordable for everyone.

What is Transparency in Regards to Healthcare?

When we think of or hear the word transparent or transparency, what comes to mind is the ability to see something clearly. In regards to healthcare, transparency would have the same meaning, which would be the ability to see clearly. Everyone, from the patient and physicians to the providers and payers, is seeking to have better transparency in healthcare. Without transparency, no one is fully aware of what's going on and what type of service they are paying for. There needs to be more transparency in all areas of healthcare.
See our ranking of the 50 Most Affordable Healthcare MBA Degree Programs.
Transparency for the Patient

Imagine going to the hospital with a stomach ache and hearing the barrage of tests they planned to run on you to determine the cause. If you were informed of the cost of the tests prior to having them performed, would you still have them done? Unless you have perfect health insurance, the answer would probably be no. Transparency for the patient is having the knowledge of how much the procedures are going to cost before the patient has them so that he or she can make an informed decision based on that information. The truth is that very few patients know what they're going to have to pay for their healthcare until it's too late.

Transparency for the Physician

Even though it is the physician or surgeon that's providing or recommending the service, they seldom know the true and total cost of the service. They also don't know the quality of service the patient is getting when they refer that patient to a colleague. The physicians are getting paid for the service, but there is no real accountability for the physician who made the referral if the patient doesn't get the best possible service because there is no transparency.

Transparency Within a Healthcare Facility

The best way to improve both the cost and the quality of healthcare is to have more transparency within the healthcare organization. The transparency must start with the workforce and work its way right up to the administration. Although it's only one small example if the CNAs or nurses knew exactly how much each band-aid cost, would they still provide a patient with three when one is sufficient?

The surgical staff can't be expected to try to keep down costs in the surgical room if they have no idea what it's costing them, the hospital and the patients. If the facility is not transparent about costly mistakes that have been made in the hospital, the workers might not be as cautious as they should. Transparency is necessary in all areas of healthcare.

Organizations like U.S. News & World Report often rank hospitals based on various factors, with the quality of patient care at the top of the list. However, with a lack of transparency, many of these rankings are inaccurate due to lack of information.

Healthcare should never be a luxury available and affordable only to the wealthy. From the low-income individual to the wealthy politician fighting for better healthcare, we're all in agreement that changes must be made. The best way to attain these positive changes and provide the best health care for everyone is by having full transparency in healthcare on all levels.

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With all the debate about the high cost of good healthcare, it's not surprising that we're all demanding more transparency in healthcare. Transparency is not just important for the patients but also for the physicians, payers, and providers. By not only demanding but providing transparency in the healthcare industry, good quality healthcare may once again be attainable and affordable for everyone.

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Different people are at risk of certain medical difficulties and tumors based off of their family history and age.

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common surgeries and surgical procedures

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Common Surgeries and Surgical Procedures

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List of surgeries and surgical procedures performed both in hospitals and on an outpatient basis.

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In 2020, the highest paid player was Patrick Mahomes, getting paid 45 Million dollars a year. In 2023, the highest paid player was Lamar Jackson, getting paid 52 million dollars. That is a 7 million dollar difference

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The list of the highest-paid NFL athletes for any particular season is always shifting, but what seems to remain the same is the number of quarterbacks involved, the key football position typically occupying the top ten slots.

We include each of these high-level player's average annual salary and the total amount of money they were guaranteed at the signing of their last contract, two very different indicators of how well a professional athlete is being compensated.

Regardless of exactly what the upcoming NFL season looks like, these ten players will take home the biggest paychecks, and we look closer at each and also give the predictions and odds of their 2020 production.

Top 10 Highest Paid NFL Players in 2020

1. Patrick Mahomes, Quarterback, Kansas City Chiefs

2. Russell Wilson, Quarterback, Seattle Seahawks

3. Ben Roethlisberger, Quarterback, Pittsburgh Steelers

4. Aaron Rodgers, Quarterback, Green Bay Packers

5. Jared Goff, Quarterback, Los Angeles Rams

6. Kirk Cousins, Quarterback, Minnesota Vikings

7. Carson Wentz, Quarterback, Philadelphia Eagles

8. Dak Prescott, Quarterback, Dallas Cowboys

9. Matt Ryan, Quarterback, Atlanta Falcons

10. Ryan Tannehill, Quarterback, Tennessee Titans

Patrick Mahomes, Quarterback, Kansas City Chiefs

Average Annual Salary: $45 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $63.1 million

Patrick Mahomes 2020 Odds

It stands to reason that Mahomes, considered one of the best athletes in the league, is making the most money out of everybody, with he and the Chiefs agreeing to a 10-year extension of his current contract for a deal worth $477 million-plus another $26 million in potential bonuses.

That breaks down to 22.7 percent of the team's salary cap - but chances are everyone involved, including head coach Andy Reid, is fine with that, especially after Mahomes led the team to a Super Bowl Championship in 2019.

Russell Wilson, Quarterback, Seattle Seahawks

Average Annual Salary: $35 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $70.1 million

Russell Wilson 2020 Odds

Wilson, the 7x Pro Bowler, is still playing on a four-year deal, a contract extension worth $140 million, which used to make him the highest paid player in the NFL, that is until Mahomes came around and blew him out of the water for the lead.

Wilson's current financial arrangement lasts through the 2023 season, and hopefully, by that time the former Super Bowl Champion will have another elegant ring to add to his collection and secure an enviable follow-up deal.

Ben Roethlisberger, Quarterback, Pittsburgh Steelers

Average Annual Salary: $34 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $37.5 million

Ben Roethlisberger 2020 Odds

Big Ben is third on this list, and that's after having sat out most of the 2019 season recovering from an elbow injury on his throwing arm, a hiccup that looks to be healed much to the relief of his teammates and Steelers fans alike.

Last April, Roethlisberger signed a two-year contract extension worth $68 million, one that included a $37.5 million signing bonus and a lot of time off - but another Super Bowl ring in 2020 would certainly do the job of shutting up his scores of doubters and haters.

Aaron Rodgers, Quarterback, Green Bay Packers

Average Annual Salary: $33.5 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $78.7 million

Aaron Rodgers 2020 Odds

Rodgers is 36-years old, a Super Bowl Champ and Super Bowl and League MVP, and that has earned him the fourth highly coveted spot of this list multi-millionaires.

Rodgers, the NFL's all-time regular-season career passer rating leader (102.4), will be on the third year of a four year deal he signed in August of 2018 worth $134 million-plus a $57.5 million signing bonus.

Jared Goff, Quarterback, Los Angeles Rams

Average Annual Salary: $33.5 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $57.043 million

Jared Goff 2020 Odds

Last year, Goff and the Rams signed a four-year contract extension that was worth $134 million, who followed that up with a 9-7 record last season including tying the lead for attempts at 626 with former Bucs QB Jameis Winston.

The Rams' third-place finish in the NFC West was a huge disappointment in 2019, something Goff will look to correct during 2020 with the help of his two highly productive receivers, Cooper Kupp and Robert Woods.

Kirk Cousins, Quarterback, Minnesota Vikings

Average Annual Salary: $33 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $61 million

Kirk Cousins 2020 Odds

In March of 2020, Cousins and the Vikings signed a two-year deal worth $66 million, that original contract signed back in 2018 being (at the time) the highest paying contract in NFL history.

Since then, Cousins struggled to get the Vikings far into the playoffs, last season the team falling to the San Francisco 49ers in the Divisional Playoffs by the lopsided score of 10-27, the low offensive postseason output by Cousins and his Vikes duly noted by all involved.

Carson Wentz, Quarterback, Philadelphia Eagles

Average Annual Salary: $45 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $63.1 million

Carson Wentz 2020 Odds

In April of 2019, the Philadelphia Eagles exercised the fifth-year option on Carson Wentz's contract, then in June agreed to a four-year deal extension worth a total of $128 million, with $107 million of that total guaranteed.

For the first time since his rookie season, Wentz played in all 16 of the Eagles' regular-season games, but he couldn't get his team past the Wild Card round of the playoffs despite ending the season healthy and being a 4,000+ yard passer.

Dak Prescott, Quarterback, Dallas Cowboys

Average Annual Salary: $31.41 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $31.41 million

Dak Prescott 2020 Odds

Depending on the kind of 2020 season Dak Prescott and his Dallas Cowboys have, it could be a huge payday for the fifth-year player, or if the team continues its downward spiral despite new coach Mike McCarthy's efforts, it could also mean walking papers.

Until then, Prescott will play under the franchise tag and make $31.41 million in 2020, not a bad deal unless serious injury or disastrous play ruins his chances of a huge payday with owner Jerry Jones once again.

Matt Ryan, Quarterback, Atlanta Falcons

Average Annual Salary: $30 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $94.5 million

Matt Ryan 2020 Odds

4x Pro Bowler and former NFL MVP Matt Ryan have been in the league since 2008, and in 2018 he and the Atlanta Falcons signed a five-year contract worth $150 million, with $100 million of that money totally guaranteed.

Ryan and the team have posted two 7-9 seasons in a row ever since, and that's despite the veteran quarterback having productive seasons and throwing the ball well, the entire franchise needing desperately to return to the Super Bowl after Tom Brady and his (then) Patriots blew them out 23-7 back in 2017.

Ryan Tannehill, Quarterback, Tennessee Titans

Average Annual Salary: $45 million

Total Money Guaranteed: $63.1 million

Ryan Tannehill 2020 Odds

Last year's comeback player of the year, Pro Bowler Ryan Tannehill, brought his Tennessee Titans to the AFC Championship Game (spoiler: they lost to the eventual Champs, the KC Chiefs) and was the NFL passer rating league leader at 117.5.

Just this last March, Tannehill and the Titans signed a four-year extension to his contract that was worth $118 million, with $62 million of that total money guaranteed, the team hoping for another return to glory in 2020.

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NFL Salaries: Top 10 Highest Paid NFL Players in 2020

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The list of the highest-paid NFL athletes for any particular season is always shifting, but what seems to remain the same is the number of quarterbacks involved, the key football position typically occupying the top ten slots.

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How does the paparazzi affect celebrities?

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How does the paparazzi affect celebrities?

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Celebrities, and people who read and feed into the drama

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There's no doubt that the intrusiveness of the paparazzi has always been a major issue amongst large Hollywood figures. Photographers are notorious for invading celebrities and their family's privacy in order to get the "perfect" photo or video. The paparazzi have now created a hostile environment that makes it impossible for public figures to go out and simply be a normal person (which they are!).

So, how exactly do these people affect the lives of celebrities? Well, first off, let's take a look at pre-modern times.

In the midst of the early 20th century, Hollywood stars were well respected and photographers did not have a bad reputation at this time. If you think of pictures of A-list celebrities back then such as Marilyn Monroe, Frank Sinatra, and Audrey Hepburn, their photos are staged or taken from a large and respectable distance. Photographers would not trespass on to their property, harass them, or follow them down the street which is normalized now as a part of celebrity culture.

It was not until around the 1960's and 70's that photographers started to live up to the negative connotation they have now. With "paparazzi" being a relatively new term then, celebrities were starting to experience the unfortunate downside of being famous: the lack of privacy.

One famous paparazzi scandal during the era of bell-bottoms and disco was the Jackie Kennedy nude scandal. The former first lady and widow to President John F. Kennedy had non consensual nude photos of her taken while on vacation, which were then published in an infamous men's magazine called

As time progressed, photographers have only gone to more extreme lengths to capture photos of the rich and famous.

A notable example of this would be one of the most prominent paparazzi related headlines, leading to the tragic death of beloved Princess Diana of Wales. In the year 1997, Princess Diana was being driven home from a hotel, when they soon realized their limo was being chased by the paparazzi. This caused Diana's driver to speed in order to escape them, ultimately causing a car crash.

While very few incidents have happened where someone is killed or physically injured, we have to think about the mental toll these people have on celebrities.

In 2007, Britney Spears had a very public mental breakdown due to the overbearingness of the paparazzi. As cameras flashed, Spears walked into a salon, asking for them to shave her head.

Spears was ridiculed, and soon after, she went to rehab and a mental hospital to get help.

Although celebrities have their fair share of issues with the paparazzi, they are not the only ones affected by it. This constant stalking also has a negative impact on their children.

According to www.harperbazaar.com , in an interview for Entertainment Tonight! actress Kristen Bell states, "Picture what it would be like walking down the street with your child, whether it's trick or treating or just to school, and have 10 aggressive men taking their picture with a lens in your face, yelling, pushing other children outside of a school."

At a young age, these children are especially traumatized by the people who are constantly asking their parents questions and taking pictures of them from afar.

George Clooney, an actor, also released a statement before, describing how "...photographers from Voici magazine scaled our fence, climbed our tree and illegally took pictures of our infants inside our home. Make no mistake, the photographers, the agency and the magazine will be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. The safety of our children demands it."

It is simply to forget about the emotions of celebrities in our everyday lives. Some may say, "Well, they signed up for that" or, "They have it so easy." However, this is not necessarily true.

The relationship between celebrities and photographers creates a hostile environment for the rich and famous. However, in order to get laws passed to protect celebrities and their children, they must appeal to the average person. This is nearly impossible since the average person is not very concerned and can not relate with the well-being of prominent figures.

While it is important to pass laws that are applicable to all people, we must think of children who were not given the option of having the spotlight and are constantly being watched and tormented.

The modern prodigy of paparazzi creates an unsafe environment for celebrities, their children, and the general public. With nobody except other upper class citizens to protect their interest, there is nothing stopping paparazzi from asking ridiculous questions and taking pictures.

In a time where the media is instantaneous, it is easy to forget about the right to privacy. Nonetheless, this is a basic human right that must be respected - even for celebrities.

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There's no doubt that the intrusiveness of the paparazzi has always been a major issue amongst large Hollywood figures. Photographers are notorious for invading celebrities and their family's privacy in order to get the "perfect" photo or video. The paparazzi have now created a hostile environment that makes it impossible for public figures to go...

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https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-aftermath-of-the-holocaust

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In 1945, when Allied troops entered the concentration camps, they discovered piles of corpses, bones, and human ashes-testimony to Nazi mass murder. Soldiers also found thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish survivors suffering from starvation and disease. For survivors, the prospect of rebuilding their lives was daunting.

After liberation, many Jewish survivors feared to return to their former homes because of the antisemitism (hatred of Jews) that persisted in parts of Europe and the trauma they had suffered. Some who returned home feared for their lives. In postwar Poland, for example, there were a number of pogroms (violent anti-Jewish riots). The largest of these occurred in the town of Kielce in 1946 when Polish rioters killed at least 42 Jews and beat many others.

With few possibilities for emigration, tens of thousands of homeless Holocaust survivors migrated westward to other European territories liberated by the western Allies. There they were housed in hundreds of refugee centers and displaced persons (DP) camps such as Bergen-Belsen in Germany. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) and the occupying armies of the United States, Great Britain, and France administered these camps.

A considerable number and variety of Jewish agencies worked to assist the Jewish displaced persons. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee provided Holocaust survivors with food and clothing, while the Organization for Rehabilitation through Training (ORT) offered vocational training. Refugees also formed their own organizations, and many labored for the establishment of an independent Jewish state in Palestine.

The largest survivor organization, Sh'erit ha-Pletah (Hebrew for "surviving remnant"), pressed for greater emigration opportunities. Yet opportunities for legal immigration to the United States above the existing quota restrictions were still limited. The British restricted immigration to Palestine. Many borders in Europe were also closed to these homeless people.

The Jewish Brigade Group (a Palestinian Jewish unit of the British army) was formed in late 1944. Together with former partisan fighters displaced in central Europe, the Jewish Brigade Group created the (Hebrew for "flight" or "escape"). This organization that aimed to facilitate the exodus of Jewish refugees from Europe to Palestine. Jews already living in Palestine organized "illegal" immigration by ship (also known as ). British authorities intercepted and turned back most of these vessels, however. In 1947 the British forced the ship Exodus 1947, carrying 4,500 Holocaust survivors headed for Palestine, to return to Germany. In most cases, the British detained Jewish refugees denied entry into Palestine in detention camps on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus.

With the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, Jewish displaced persons and refugees began streaming into the new sovereign state. Possibly as many as 170,000 Jewish displaced persons and refugees had immigrated to Israel by 1953.

In December 1945, President Harry Truman issued a directive that loosened quota restrictions on immigration to the US of persons displaced by the Nazi regime. Under this directive, more than 41,000 displaced persons immigrated to the United States. Approximately 28,000 were Jews.

In 1948, the US Congress passed the Displaced Persons Act. The act provided approximately 400,000 US immigration visas for displaced persons between January 1, 1949, and December 31, 1952. Of the 400,000 displaced persons who entered the US under the DP Act, approximately 68,000 were Jews.

Other Jewish refugees in Europe emigrated as displaced persons or refugees to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, western Europe, Mexico, South America, and South Africa.

I was 18, but I was, in fact, only 13 because those years were nothing. Those were erased from my life.
-Madeline Deutsch

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In 1945, when Allied troops entered the concentration camps, they discovered piles of corpses, bones, and human ashes-testimony to Nazi mass murder. Soldiers also found thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish survivors suffering from starvation and disease. For survivors, the prospect of rebuilding their lives was daunting.

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Students and teachers

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The pandemic has undone years of educational gains in Texas schools. Here’s what the road to recovery looks like.

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Gaps in student learning because of pandemic disruptions could impact students in the long term.

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Affects people who own technology

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Read time: 5 minutes

Technology has spawned numerous security risks such as phishing, social engineering and pretexting. Knowing about these risks is already half the battle when trying to avoid them.

Here is a list of the most common technology security risks you need to avoid.

1. Phishing

Phishing is the use of fraudulent emails or phone calls to get sensitive information, such as bank account numbers, credit card information or passwords. Here is how it works:

If you've ever gotten an email that says your account has been locked or that irregular activity was detected in your account, you may have been the target of a phishing attempt. These messages typically include a link to what appears to be a legitimate website where you're asked to give account information or download malware (see more on that below).

A phishing email or phone call may ask you to call a number to discuss a problem with your account. You might then be asked to reveal account details over the phone.

Phishing is a type of social engineering, which is an attack that uses misrepresentation to get sensitive information.

2. Pretexting

Pretexting involves the creation of a fake identity or scenario to fool a person into disclosing information.

For example, a fraudster may email or call your company claiming to be a supplier, survey firm, municipal inspector or insurance company to get sensitive data. A pretext attacker could also pose as a computer technician responding to a call for service to access your network.

Fraudsters may ask for little bits of information that don't raise red flags, but over time, bit by bit, they're trying to build a profile that could let them steal your identity.

3. Malware

Malicious software (or "malware") is any software that has a harmful intent. It may steal or corrupt your business information, cause systems to fail or secretly record your computer activity. Malware typically infects a computer following a phishing attack or an employee accidentally downloading infected files.

Ransomware is software that blocks access to computers or files until a ransom is paid. In May 2017, a massive ransomware attack affected more than 100,000 organizations in at least 150 countries, costing billions of dollars.

A computer virus is another example of malware. This is a program designed to replicate through the Internet, damaging programs, deleting files or tying up system resources.

4. Online pop-ups

Malware can infect computers through a "pop-up" that appears while you're browsing the Internet. A pop-up is a window that opens when you visit a website.

Most pop-ups are legitimate, but in some cases clicking on them can initiate a download of ransomware or a virus.

Pop-ups, for example, may claim your computer is infected with a virus. It will tell you that you need to download software to clean your system. That software will in fact be malware or a virus.

A twist on this ruse: A pop-up claiming to be from your Internet service provider says your computer has a virus and invites you to call a service number to deal with the problem. You may then be asked to provide identifying information or your credit card number.

5. Outsourced IT services

While many cloud service providers have good Internet security, not all of them do. You can be at risk if the provider has poor security, leaving your data vulnerable to an attack.

Depending on your agreement with the provider, their liability may be limited to your monthly fee and may not cover business interruption losses. If the provider suffers an attack, you may also be liable for compromises of customer data.

Businesses face similar risks if they contract outside technicians to service their IT needs. You could be vulnerable if IT personnel have poor training or don't follow best practices.

6. Wifi and remote work

A poorly secured wifi system can leave your business vulnerable to a hacker within range of your network. A hacker could gain sensitive information, damage your systems or install ransomware.

If you access your business network remotely through an unsecure server, others could see your traffic and access your system. In a public area, you can be at risk if you go online through a "spoofed" Internet server-one set up to appear to be a legitimate wifi connection. Accessing the Internet via such a machine gives an attacker access to your system and possibly your business network.

Also be alert when working outside the office. Information can be compromised if you're working on a train or plane or in a café, allowing a stranger to read what's on your screen.

7. Passwords

Badly chosen employee passwords can increase your company's exposure to security risks. Many problems occur when employees choose passwords that are easily guessed by unauthorized people.

8. Old equipment

Disposing of old devices improperly can hand someone else all your business information. If information is very sensitive, deleting data or formatting the hard drive isn't enough. You may want to go as far as physically destroying the computer or hiring an expert to do so.

Take action: Learn what you can do to prepare for IT risks.

1. Phishing

Phishing is the use of fraudulent emails or phone calls to get sensitive information, such as bank account numbers, credit card information or passwords. Here is how it works:

If you've ever gotten an email that says your account has been locked or that irregular activity was detected in your account, you may have been the target of a phishing attempt. These messages typically include a link to what appears to be a legitimate website where you're asked to give account information or download malware (see more on that below).

A phishing email or phone call may ask you to call a number to discuss a problem with your account. You might then be asked to reveal account details over the phone.

Phishing is a type of social engineering, which is an attack that uses misrepresentation to get sensitive information.

2. Pretexting

Pretexting involves the creation of a fake identity or scenario to fool a person into disclosing information.

For example, a fraudster may email or call your company claiming to be a supplier, survey firm, municipal inspector or insurance company to get sensitive data. A pretext attacker could also pose as a computer technician responding to a call for service to access your network.

Fraudsters may ask for little bits of information that don't raise red flags, but over time, bit by bit, they're trying to build a profile that could let them steal your identity.

3. Malware

Malicious software (or "malware") is any software that has a harmful intent. It may steal or corrupt your business information, cause systems to fail or secretly record your computer activity. Malware typically infects a computer following a phishing attack or an employee accidentally downloading infected files.

Ransomware is software that blocks access to computers or files until a ransom is paid. In May 2017, a massive ransomware attack affected more than 100,000 organizations in at least 150 countries, costing billions of dollars.

A computer virus is another example of malware. This is a program designed to replicate through the Internet, damaging programs, deleting files or tying up system resources.

4. Online pop-ups

Malware can infect computers through a "pop-up" that appears while you're browsing the Internet. A pop-up is a window that opens when you visit a website.

Most pop-ups are legitimate, but in some cases clicking on them can initiate a download of ransomware or a virus.

Pop-ups, for example, may claim your computer is infected with a virus. It will tell you that you need to download software to clean your system. That software will in fact be malware or a virus.

A twist on this ruse: A pop-up claiming to be from your Internet service provider says your computer has a virus and invites you to call a service number to deal with the problem. You may then be asked to provide identifying information or your credit card number.

5. Outsourced IT services

While many cloud service providers have good Internet security, not all of them do. You can be at risk if the provider has poor security, leaving your data vulnerable to an attack.

Depending on your agreement with the provider, their liability may be limited to your monthly fee and may not cover business interruption losses. If the provider suffers an attack, you may also be liable for compromises of customer data.

Businesses face similar risks if they contract outside technicians to service their IT needs. You could be vulnerable if IT personnel have poor training or don't follow best practices.

6. Wifi and remote work

A poorly secured wifi system can leave your business vulnerable to a hacker within range of your network. A hacker could gain sensitive information, damage your systems or install ransomware.

If you access your business network remotely through an unsecure server, others could see your traffic and access your system. In a public area, you can be at risk if you go online through a "spoofed" Internet server-one set up to appear to be a legitimate wifi connection. Accessing the Internet via such a machine gives an attacker access to your system and possibly your business network.

Also be alert when working outside the office. Information can be compromised if you're working on a train or plane or in a café, allowing a stranger to read what's on your screen.

7. Passwords

Badly chosen employee passwords can increase your company's exposure to security risks. Many problems occur when employees choose passwords that are easily guessed by unauthorized people.

8. Old equipment

Disposing of old devices improperly can hand someone else all your business information. If information is very sensitive, deleting data or formatting the hard drive isn't enough. You may want to go as far as physically destroying the computer or hiring an expert to do so.

Take action: Learn what you can do to prepare for IT risks.

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8 major technology security risks to avoid

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Read time: 5 minutes Technology has spawned numerous security risks such as phishing, social engineering and pretexting. Knowing about these risks is already half the battle when trying to avoid them. Here is a list of the most common technology security risks you need to avoid.

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affects people that use technology

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Can Machines Think?

In the first half of the 20 th century, science fiction familiarized the world with the concept of artificially intelligent robots. It began with the "heartless" Tin man from the Wizard of Oz and continued with the humanoid robot that impersonated Maria in Metropolis. By the 1950s, we had a generation of scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers with the concept of artificial intelligence (or AI) culturally assimilated in their minds. One such person was Alan Turing, a young British polymath who explored the mathematical possibility of artificial intelligence. Turing suggested that humans use available information as well as reason in order to solve problems and make decisions, so why can't machines do the same thing? This was the logical framework of his 1950 paper, Computing Machinery and Intelligence in which he discussed how to build intelligent machines and how to test their intelligence.

Making the Pursuit Possible

Unfortunately, talk is cheap. What stopped Turing from getting to work right then and there? First, computers needed to fundamentally change. Before 1949 computers lacked a key prerequisite for intelligence: they couldn't store commands, only execute them. In other words, computers could be told what to do but couldn't remember what they did. Second, computing was extremely expensive. In the early 1950s, the cost of leasing a computer ran up to $200,000 a month. Only prestigious universities and big technology companies could afford to dillydally in these uncharted waters. A proof of concept as well as advocacy from high profile people were needed to persuade funding sources that machine intelligence was worth pursuing.

The Conference that Started it All

Five years later, the proof of concept was initialized through Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert Simon's, Logic Theorist. The Logic Theorist was a program designed to mimic the problem solving skills of a human and was funded by Research and Development (RAND) Corporation. It's considered by many to be the first artificial intelligence program and was presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI) hosted by John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky in 1956. In this historic conference, McCarthy, imagining a great collaborative effort, brought together top researchers from various fields for an open ended discussion on artificial intelligence, the term which he coined at the very event. Sadly, the conference fell short of McCarthy's expectations; people came and went as they pleased, and there was failure to agree on standard methods for the field. Despite this, everyone whole-heartedly aligned with the sentiment that AI was achievable. The significance of this event cannot be undermined as it catalyzed the next twenty years of AI research.

Roller Coaster of Success and Setbacks

From 1957 to 1974, AI flourished. Computers could store more information and became faster, cheaper, and more accessible. Machine learning algorithms also improved and people got better at knowing which algorithm to apply to their problem. Early demonstrations such as Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver and Joseph Weizenbaum's showed promise toward the goals of problem solving and the interpretation of spoken language respectively. These successes, as well as the advocacy of leading researchers (namely the attendees of the DSRPAI) convinced government agencies such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to fund AI research at several institutions. The government was particularly interested in a machine that could transcribe and translate spoken language as well as high throughput data processing. Optimism was high and expectations were even higher. In 1970 Marvin Minsky told Life Magazine, "from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being." However, while the basic proof of principle was there, there was still a long way to go before the end goals of natural language processing, abstract thinking, and self-recognition could be achieved.

Breaching the initial fog of AI revealed a mountain of obstacles. The biggest was the lack of computational power to do anything substantial: computers simply couldn't store enough information or process it fast enough. In order to communicate, for example, one needs to know the meanings of many words and understand them in many combinations. Hans Moravec, a doctoral student of McCarthy at the time, stated that "computers were still millions of times too weak to exhibit intelligence." As patience dwindled so did the funding, and research came to a slow roll for ten years.

In the 1980's, AI was reignited by two sources: an expansion of the algorithmic toolkit, and a boost of funds. John Hopfield and David Rumelhart popularized "deep learning" techniques which allowed computers to learn using experience. On the other hand Edward Feigenbaum introduced expert systems which mimicked the decision making process of a human expert. The program would ask an expert in a field how to respond in a given situation, and once this was learned for virtually every situation, non-experts could receive advice from that program. Expert systems were widely used in industries. The Japanese government heavily funded expert systems and other AI related endeavors as part of their Fifth Generation Computer Project (FGCP). From 1982-1990, they invested $400 million dollars with the goals of revolutionizing computer processing, implementing logic programming, and improving artificial intelligence. Unfortunately, most of the ambitious goals were not met. However, it could be argued that the indirect effects of the FGCP inspired a talented young generation of engineers and scientists. Regardless, funding of the FGCP ceased, and AI fell out of the limelight.

Ironically, in the absence of government funding and public hype, AI thrived. During the 1990s and 2000s, many of the landmark goals of artificial intelligence had been achieved. In 1997, reigning world chess champion and grand master Gary Kasparov was defeated by IBM's Deep Blue, a chess playing computer program. This highly publicized match was the first time a reigning world chess champion loss to a computer and served as a huge step towards an artificially intelligent decision making program. In the same year, speech recognition software, developed by Dragon Systems, was implemented on Windows. This was another great step forward but in the direction of the spoken language interpretation endeavor. It seemed that there wasn't a problem machines couldn't handle. Even human emotion was fair game as evidenced by Kismet, a robot developed by Cynthia Breazeal that could recognize and display emotions.

Time Heals all Wounds

We haven't gotten any smarter about how we are coding artificial intelligence, so what changed? It turns out, the fundamental limit of computer storage that was holding us back 30 years ago was no longer a problem. Moore's Law, which estimates that the memory and speed of computers doubles every year, had finally caught up and in many cases, surpassed our needs. This is precisely how Deep Blue was able to defeat Gary Kasparov in 1997, and how Google's was able to defeat Chinese Go champion, Ke Jie, only a few months ago. It offers a bit of an explanation to the roller coaster of AI research; we saturate the capabilities of AI to the level of our current computational power (computer storage and processing speed), and then wait for Moore's Law to catch up again.

Artificial Intelligence is Everywhere

We now live in the age of " big data," an age in which we have the capacity to collect huge sums of information too cumbersome for a person to process. The application of artificial intelligence in this regard has already been quite fruitful in several industries such as technology, banking, marketing, and entertainment. We've seen that even if algorithms don't improve much, big data and massive computing simply allow artificial intelligence to learn through brute force. There may be evidence that Moore's law is slowing down a tad, but the increase in data certainly hasn't lost any momentum. Breakthroughs in computer science, mathematics, or neuroscience all serve as potential outs through the ceiling of Moore's Law.

The Future

So what is in store for the future? In the immediate future, AI language is looking like the next big thing. In fact, it's already underway. I can't remember the last time I called a company and directly spoke with a human. These days, machines are even calling me! One could imagine interacting with an expert system in a fluid conversation, or having a conversation in two different languages being translated in real time. We can also expect to see driverless cars on the road in the next twenty years (and that is conservative). In the long term, the goal is general intelligence, that is a machine that surpasses human cognitive abilities in all tasks. This is along the lines of the sentient robot we are used to seeing in movies. To me, it seems inconceivable that this would be accomplished in the next 50 years. Even if the capability is there, the ethical questions would serve as a strong barrier against fruition. When that time comes (but better even before the time comes), we will need to have a serious conversation about machine policy and ethics (ironically both fundamentally human subjects), but for now, we'll allow AI to steadily improve and run amok in society.
Rockwell Anyoha is a graduate student in the department of molecular biology with a background in physics and genetics. His current project employs the use of machine learning to model animal behavior. In his free time, Rockwell enjoys playing soccer and debating mundane topics.
This article is part of a Special Edition on Artificial Intelligence.

For more information:

Brief Timeline of AI
https://www.livescience.com/47544-history-of-a-i-artificial-intelligence-infographic.html
Complete Historical Overview
http://courses.cs.washington.edu/courses/csep590/06au/projects/history-ai.pdf
Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence
https://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/1904/1802
Future of AI
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602830/the-future-of-artificial-intelligence-and-cybernetics/
Discussion on Future Ethical Challenges Facing AI
http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170307-the-ethical-challenge-facing-artificial-intelligence
Detailed Review of Ethics of AI
https://intelligence.org/files/EthicsofAI.pdf

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The History of Artificial Intelligence - Science in the News

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by Rockwell Anyoha Can Machines Think? In the first half of the 20th century, science fiction familiarized the world with the concept of artificially intelligent robots. It began with the "heartless" Tin man from the Wizard of Oz and continued with the humanoid robot that impersonated Maria in Metropolis.

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Artificial Intelligence is Slowly Taking over the World and Humans Are Unaware of It

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INDIA: Artificial Intelligence (AI) has made giant progress in recent years and has the potential to change various industries. While the benefits of Artificial Intelligence are evident, it's also worth noting that AI is expected to take over many jobs currently performed by humans. Unfortunately, many people are unaware of this, and there seems to...

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Everyone in the U.S

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This affects adults and tax payers.

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Administration’s Revenue Proposals To accompany the Administration’s Budget, Treasury releases the “Greenbook,” which provides an explanation of the Administration’s revenue proposals. General Explanations of the Administration’s Fiscal Year 2024 Revenue Proposals General Explanations of the…

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How do the perspectives of Holocaust survivors vary?

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How do the perspectives of Holocaust survivors vary?

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https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/57/6/1158/2646618

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Abstract

The ability to integrate traumatic memories into a coherent life narrative is one factor associated with the mental health and well-being of Holocaust survivors. In the present study, reminiscences reported by survivors in Israel were collected to identify themes arising in positive and negative memories and experience.

Participants ( M = 80.4 years; SD = 6.87) were asked to describe memories that typify a reminiscence function in which they frequently or very frequently engage. Open-ended responses were collected from 269 Holocaust survivors and thematic analyses were conducted in English (translated) and Hebrew.

Thematic analyses of these data suggest three overarching themes related to bridging the past and present, rebuilding families and the Jewish state, and the duty to share. These suggest how integral endurance, survival, and resilience were to participants during the war and how these themes defined their choices and understanding of their lives.

The results of this study demonstrate how reminiscence serves many functions. Participants appear to have integrated memories of horror and loss as part of coherent life narratives. Resilience and memory are ongoing and intertwined processes whereby survivors juxtapose their early lives to the present.

The ability to integrate traumatic memories as part of a coherent life narrative is one factor associated with the mental health and well-being of Holocaust survivors ( O'Rourke et al., 2015). Yet, reflecting on early-life trauma has both positive and negative effects on mental health and well-being ( Bohlmeijer, Roemer, Cuipers, & Smit, 2007; Davison et al., 2016; O'Rourke, Bachner, Cappeliez, Chaudhury, & Carmel, 2015). This appears to be especially true for those who experience intrusive or involuntary negative memories ( Golier, Yehuda, Lupien, & Harvey, 2003; King, Cappeliez, Carmel, Bachner, & O'Rourke, 2015). Despite the impact of the Holocaust on survivors' perceptions of self and the world ( Shmotkin, Shrira, Goldberg, & Palgi, 2011), most managed to succeed in life ( Shmotkin & Barilan, 2002), building relationships, families, and careers. Furthermore, Holocaust survivors who immigrated to Israel after World War II (WWII) participated in founding the Jewish state ( Zertal, 1998) and have been actively engaged in passing awareness of the Holocaust onto younger generations.

Resilience in Later Life

Resilience theory contends that Holocaust survivors remember what they remember because these memories allow them to make sense of the past and cope in the present ( American Psychological Association, 2004; Grotberg, 1995). According to Kersting (2003), resilience is not a personality trait but interrelated cognitive processes that help Holocaust survivors understand the choices they have made at each stage of life (e.g., naming children after deceased parents and siblings). Across studies, resilience predicts adaptation after the death of a spouse ( O'Rourke, 2004), greater life satisfaction ( Rossi, Bisconti, & Bergeman, 2007), and fewer depressive symptoms among spouses of persons with dementia ( O'Rourke et al., 2010).

As defined by Kobasa, Maddi, and Kahn (1982), hardiness or psychological resilience entails a pervasive belief that one can rebound effectively from trauma and other negative life events. Three interrelated constructs comprised this tendency. First, resilient persons have commitment to living; they engage fully in daily activities. In addition, resilient persons embrace challenge and believe that change, rather than stability, defines life and living. From this perspective, life's travails provide opportunities to build psychological strength and self-knowledge ( Zarit, Pearlin, & Schaie, 1993). Lastly, psychological resilience entails perceived control, which fosters the belief that one is able to directly affect the course of their lives ( Kobasa et al., 1982).

Research on Holocaust Survivors

In their meta-analysis, Barel, Van Ijzendoorn, Sagi-Schwartz, and Bakermans-Kranenburg (2010) noted that early research on Holocaust survivors tended to focus on psychopathology, under the rubric of survivors' syndrome and concentration camp syndrome (Eitinger, 1964 in Barel et al., 2010). Studies examining phenomena such as survivor's guilt typified the difficulties of living in the first decades after WWII when so many millions did not ( Garwood, 1996). With the introduction of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980, symptoms commonly reported by Holocaust survivors, such as emotional detachment, nightmares, and hypervigilance, were recognized as endemic among those with PTSD ( Joffe, Brodaty, Luscombe, & Ehrlich, 2003). Up to 55% of Holocaust survivors have been estimated to meet PTSD diagnostic criteria ( Friedman, 2015).

However, more recent research tends to emphasize the adaptive strengths of Holocaust survivors rather than psychological distress ( Barel et al., 2010). This salutogenic or wellness approach to research may be attributed, in part, to the observation that Holocaust survivors who are alive today are likely the most resilient of the resilient having led long and full lives ( O'Rourke et al., 2015). Or, potentially, their life trajectories are different from Holocaust survivors who participated in early studies because they were children or adolescents during the war ( Carmel, King, O'Rourke, & Bachner, 2016). Yet as noted by Shmotkin and colleagues (2011), end-of-life losses may trigger certain vulnerabilities for Holocaust survivors. The death of a spouse, for instance, may lead to recall of early life losses (e.g., death of parents, siblings).

For the present study, we examined reminiscences reported by Holocaust survivors in Israel. Building upon recently published research ( Carmel, King, et al., 2016), we set out to identify themes of endurance and survival in addition to negative memories and experience. Moreover, we assumed that different types of memories serve distinct functions, both positive and negative, and that memory and resilience are interconnected. Even the most bitter memories can foster endurance, self-efficacy, and contentment in the present juxtaposed to the past ( King et al., 2015). In other words, reminiscence is generally purposeful.

Design and Methods

Study Design

We used a mixed methods sequential explanatory design for this study whereby quantitative data first provided an understanding of phenomena (e.g., O'Rourke, Bachner, Cappeliez, Chaudhury, & Carmel, 2015) and now qualitative data are examined to inform a deeper understanding of initial quantitative findings ( Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). The rationale for combining qualitative and quantitative paradigms lays in the recognition that each provides a unique, but complementary understanding leading to synergies in knowledge development. According to Kelle (2006), mixed methods research holds the potential to achieve a richer understanding of individual differences.

Participants

We recruited a convenience sample of Holocaust survivors living in cities, smaller communities, and kibbutzim (i.e., collective communities) in the south and central regions of Israel. Participants were fluent in Hebrew or Russian, had lived under the Nazi rule/occupation in Europe or North Africa, and immigrated as refugees after WWII or after the fall of the former Soviet Union in 1989. Participants provided written consent to participate and received no financial remuneration. Pseudonyms are used to anonymize the participants.

Over 12 months, 269 Holocaust survivors participated in the qualitative component of this study. Five participants discontinued interviews due to their discomfort discussing the past. Close to 75% of participants were born in Poland, Romania, Hungary, or the former Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and Slovakia). The average age of participants was 80.4 years ( SD = 6.87), and participants had completed an average of 10.6 years of formal education ( SD = 4.08; range 1-25 years). This low average was expected, as most participants were 3-15 years of age at the beginning of WWII with no access to schools or any other form of formal education.

Data Collection

Ten research assistants (RAs) were trained by the Israeli authors to interview participants at a location of their choice. Bilingual Russian- and Hebrew-speaking RAs interviewed participants from the former Soviet Union. These face-to-face interviews lasted 30-40min. We first administered the 28-item Reminiscence Functions Scale (RFS; Robitaille, Cappeliez, Coulombe, & Webster, 2010) to measure each of eight reminiscence functions. This (English translation) preamble was first read to participants:

At different points in their lives, most adults think about the past. Recalling earlier times can happen spontaneously or deliberately, privately or with other people, and may involve remembering both happy and sad episodes. This process of recalling memories from our past is called reminiscence.

The following questions pertain to the why, or the functions, of reminiscence. That is, what purpose does reminiscence fulfill or what goal/s does retrieving certain memories help you to accomplish. Please listen to each statement; and using this scale (handed to them), tell me how frequently you reminisce with that particular purpose. Note, we are not asking how frequently you reminisce in general, but rather: when you do reminisce, how frequent is it for a particular purpose.

Participants indicated how often they reminisce in response to 28 RFS items on a scale ranging from never (1) to very frequently (6). Items are grouped within eight categories: boredom reduction (e.g., "When I reminisce, it is for lack of any better mental stimulation"); death preparation (e.g., "...it gives me a sense of personal completion or wholeness as I approach the end of life"); identity (e.g., "...to see how my past fits in with my journey through life"); problem solving (e.g., "...to remind me that I have the skills to cope with present problems"); conversation (e.g., "...it promotes fellowship and a sense of belonging"); intimacy maintenance (e.g., "...to remember people I was close to but who are no longer a part of my life"); bitterness revival (e.g., "...to rehash lost opportunities"); and teach/inform others (e.g., "...to leave a legacy of family history").

After completing the RFS, participants were asked an open-ended question based on one RFS scale item to which they indicated that they often or very frequently engage. For example, if a participant indicated that she reminisced very frequently to "rekindle bitter memories," the interviewer asked, "Earlier you indicated that you reminisce often or very frequently to rekindle bitter memories, please describe a memory you recall in your past (e.g., a specific event you may have had in mind when you responded to this question)." This allowed us to capture memories from participants' lives that were significant to them as recalled in the present across each of eight domains of reminiscence functions.

Each participant provided an open-ended response to only one RFS scale item. In other words, we collected single memories from 269 Holocaust survivors. If there was more than one RFS item for the interviewer to select, the item for which we had the fewest qualitative responses from previous participants was chosen. We did this because self-positive functions tend to be endorsed more frequently than self-negative functions ( Balmoral, Gong, & O'Rourke, 2013), whereas prosocial functions are context dependent (e.g., need contact with grandchildren to teach them traditions). We obtained a minimum of five open-ended responses per RFS item, up to a maximum of 14. We did not ask participants to recall events specific to the Holocaust, though the majority did so.

Data Analyses

Open-ended responses were recorded verbatim, de-identified to ensure confidentiality, transcribed, and entered into the NVivo ( QSR International, 2012) qualitative software program. Thematic analyses of the open-ended responses began with an initial read-through of each response for general and potential meanings. An initial coding framework was created, based on initial low-level coding that resulted from reading responses and coding units of text as themes by labeling these units with a word or phrase closely related to the participant's account ( Boyatzis, 1998). Data were discussed in-depth, a dialogue that facilitated the productive exploration of the data, until consensus was reached on participants' meanings and ideas. Throughout the iterative process of reading and rereading the text, codes were subject to constant comparative analysis to further refine the interpretation and definition of themes, the coding framework, and the patterns and relationships across codes ( Boeije, 2002; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The result was a detailed coding framework that was agreed upon by the researchers.

Results

Thematic analyses of these data suggest three overarching themes: bridging the past and present; rebuilding families and the Jewish state; and the duty to share. These suggest how integral endurance and resilience were to survival during the war and how these themes defined their choices and understanding of their lives after WWII. The theme " bridging the past and present" reveals how participants have integrated their past traumas into the present, and is informed by subthemes of " the silent presence of the Holocaust in daily life," " the right to live," and " living a long life." A second theme, " rebuilding families and the Jewish state" exemplifies the endurance and resilience of surviving and thriving despite past atrocities. And third, the theme " the duty to share" is informed by the subthemes of " learning from the past" and the " duty to bear witness."

Bridging the Past and Present

Holocaust survivors commonly described their present lives juxtaposed against their past ( Bar-On et al., 1998; Shmotkin et al., 2011), understanding daily life as bridging the then and now and the there and here. In essence, participants have lived in two contrasting worlds: the world at war and the world today. Participants contrast these two worlds:

Asher: There were times when life was difficult, but today everything is available, anything can be purchased. During hard times we waited in long lines for very little. It's impossible not to see the enormous difference between the life today and what was then.

Moshe: I remember what I went through when I was young; life wasn't easy. Today everything is better; it's completely different, thank god. Today I am happy with my family and children.

Ruth: My memories enable me to recount the suffering during the war. In brief, my parents were killed in the bombings in 1944 and I immigrated to Israel in 1948. Here, the good life began. I was happily married for 55 years, with 3 daughters, grandchildren and great-grandchildren. I wanted for nothing. But two and a half years ago I became a widow; I lost my wonderful husband. I live only with these memories now, and this is what gives me strength.

The Silent Presence of the Holocaust in Daily Life

The containment of unspeakable and tormenting memories has been an ongoing struggle for many survivors. Intense memories of traumatic experiences bring survivors back to the world at war; nightmares and flashbacks are common PTSD symptoms reported by Holocaust survivors ( Friedman, 2015).

Rina: I was beaten on the head and have since needed a hearing aid. It's almost indescribable and very hard for me to recount. Where I worked, we had a daily quota [to produce] 72 weapons boxes, but given almost nothing to eat. We had soup once a day that was little more than warm water. To this day, I'm still tormented. I relive these memories when asleep and I awake restless and unrested. I was 1 of 7 children but only I survived, with no mother or father. I don't know why just I survived; maybe I struggled the hardest.

The Right to Live

Feeling that one has the "right to live" is a significant feature delineating the world at war from the world today. Participants stated that the semblance of a normal life returned when their most basic human rights were restored and once they again felt deserving of life, safety, and security.

Sarah: I accept everything more easily now and with love. I always remember when times were very bad. Then I had no right to live, but today I do.

Yehudit: I was 15 in September 1939 living in the ghetto when the war began. Now I live like a human being in this place and I feel very good. People help me, and I am satisfied.

Amnon: My father was killed during the war but I survived despite being at the edge of death. So I know that I have had a full life. I lived and raised a family like other normal human beings are entitled...I tried to fulfill the promises I made myself and close the circle that begins with my memories of the war. It is a great privilege to have succeeded.

For these participants, life today is juxtaposed to the past when life was precarious, with few resources, when they were deprived of their personhood. Compared to the challenges of their early years, the present day is regarded with contentment. Participants feel that today they are seen as humans as compared to the world at war when they were stripped of their humanity.

Living a Long Life

In the world today, living to late life is considered typical ( Sagi-Schwartz, Bakermans-Kranenburg, Linn, & van Ijzendoorn, 2013). But for those who survived the Holocaust, living a long life has been a privilege that many or most of their friends, family, and neighbors were not afforded.

Mordechai: I knew that life expectancy in the camps was about 3-4 months so I was supposed to die in 1943. But I've now lived 87 years and all these years were 'pure profit'. I have nothing to fear.

Ariel: My husband and I celebrated our 62nd anniversary two days ago; it is very meaningful and our love story continues to this day. I met my husband in 1944 at a labor camp run by Oskar Schindler. And though these were very difficult times and we didn't know what tomorrow would bring, we fell in love and promised to meet in [Israel]. And five years later, a miracle happened: I came to Israel, we married, and raised a family.

As participants reminisce on their past, they are reminded of having built full lives from the ashes of war. Though a sense of a foreshortened future is common for those who have suffered childhood trauma ( Carrion, Weems, Ray, & Reiss, 2002), these Holocaust survivors will die in late life of natural causes against expectation. Having lived a long life is resilience manifest.

Rebuilding Families and the Jewish State

The Nazi's Final Solution ( Dawidowicz, 2010) was intended to eliminate future generations of Jews. Refugees who came to Israel after WWII had lost all or most of their families in the war. And yet, survivors ensured failure of the Holocaust by reproducing and raising children.

Ben: I think about the past when my entire family perished in Auschwitz. I think where I came from, and what a wonderful clan I established here with children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren.

Eva: I remember the Holocaust all the time. I was 13 when my parents and my 10-year-old brother were shot in a concentration camp. No one was left alive. I ran all the time and that's how I survived. Today I have children, grandchildren, and five great-grandchildren.

Participants described the active role they played in establishing and building the Jewish state. They take pride in having rebuilt their lives, founding the nation, and how their efforts have helped to provide safety and security for current and future generations; survivors are living examples of history.

Avraham: One of the ways in which I coped with my memories was not to return to my home before the war. Instead, I came to Israel in 1949 soon after the state was born. From that day forward, I rebuilt my life. This has accompanied me in all I have done.

Karl: At the age of 12, I was forced from my home and sent to a labor camp. I remember the beautiful house where I lived until that moment; my family was very happy. My parents had stores in the town where we lived in Poland. Having survived the war, these memories have given me the strength to go on. I feel that I succeeded in rebuilding my life.

Ira: In the past the grandchildren didn't ask questions and didn't engage my wife or me with what we'd been through. Recently, after growing up and becoming adults themselves, there are questions...especially from our grandson who is a commander. He invited us to meet with the soldiers and we held face-to-face, open conversations... They see us as people who contributed to the establishment the Israeli state, to the settlement and development of the country.

Survival provided these participants the opportunity to build the Jewish state, ensuring the continuation of their lineage and future generations ( Kay, 1998). Several participants described raising a family and the birth of grandchildren as defining life achievements. Despite having lost their homes and families at young ages, they rebuilt their lives and contributed to the survival of future generations.

The Duty to Share

Being an effective storyteller requires the strength and ability to distill traumatic experiences into a coherent narrative ( Coleman, 1999). Holocaust survivors must adjust their stories to different audiences with varying sensibilities (grandchildren vs. army recruits). This requires the ability to omit gratuitous details and compartmentalize bitter memories, to avoid becoming overwhelmed by sadness or traumatizing the listener.

Learning From the Past

The refrain never again has been widely adopted to ensure the mistakes of the past are not repeated in future. For survivors, the Holocaust taught vigilance and remembrance of their personal histories in order to protect the future.

Daniel: ...that people will understand what we went through, so that future generations won't repeat our mistakes.

Ava: I want schools to teach students what we went through so that if necessary, future generations will know how to protect themselves and the state.

By sharing their narratives, participants hoped that future generations would learn from their experiences, ensure they are not complacent, and learn how to protect themselves.

Duty to Bear Witness

Holocaust survivors described their experiences as a legacy. It is their obligation to ensure that stories are not forgotten.

Itzhak: The memories of what I went through do not belong only to me; they also belong to young people in this country and all Jewish people... It is my duty, and the duty of all those who went through the Holocaust, to make sure what happened to us will be remembered for generations.

Yoel: I survived by chance alone; so I decided that in exchange for my life, I would share my story with youth and young adults. Millions died and those who survived became refugees, many came here to Israel. But not everyone can or wants to tell their stories so for as long as I can, I will share my memories because in a few years, people my age will be gone and unable to testify. I was there.

For participants, this legacy transcends their individual struggles. For Itzhak and Yoel, their memories and experiences belong to all Jewish people as well as the world, and, for the greater good, it is their responsibility to ensure that the lessons of the Holocaust are not forgotten. Indeed, there have been national and international initiatives to preserve memories of the past, including Yad Vashem in Jerusalem and the United States and the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC.

For some, the darker side of connecting to the past has been the guilt of living ( Niederland, 1964). The duty to testify one's survival of the Holocaust may entail a need to justify having survived, and to alleviate this guilt by speaking for those who died. This is a burden that survivors endure as their numbers decline each year; their narratives become more salient and help to counter Holocaust denial ( Cohen-Almagor, 2013).

Of note, no participants reported sharing this legacy with their own children, but only with grandchildren, seniors groups, army recruits, or future generations more generally. This was the norm in Israel and abroad in the first decades after the war as survivors wanted to avoid traumatizing their children with the horrors experienced in the Holocaust ( Braga, Mello, & Fiks, 2012).

Nisan: I share my memories of the war when I speak before soldiers on Holocaust Memorial Day. I describe how my attitudes toward life and daily difficulties are shaped by my past, and how this helps me to keep current life difficulties in perspective.

Ora: I pass on my experiences to students, soldiers, and those traveling to Poland for the Holocaust memorial [March of the Living]. I feel it's my mission though I prefer to be more humble. Sometimes when I share my stories, I begin to feel sorry for this child, forgetting for a moment that I was that child. I want describe these memories authentically but I sometimes become overwhelmed.

Discussion

We examined the memories of Holocaust survivors to further understand the interplay between reminiscence and resilience in late life ( King et al., 2015; O'Rourke, Bachner, Cappeliez, Chaudhury, & Carmel, 2015). Our findings suggest three overarching themes: bridging the past and present; rebuilding families and the Jewish state, and the duty to share. Although survivors continue to grapple with the inexplicable, these participants appear to have integrated memories of horror and loss as part of coherent life narratives ( Shmotkin et al., 2011). Resilience and memory are ongoing and intertwined processes whereby participants' early lives are juxtaposed to the present. Holocaust survivors are not mired in the past; instead, they have come to define their choices and achievements in life against a backdrop of death and survival.

By bridging the past and present, Holocaust survivors have come to understand and appreciate their current life circumstances relative to the past. Survivors can become entrenched in traumatic early-life memories, re-experiencing loss and suffering, often in silence. Yet these memories also provide context whereby the world at war stands in contrast to the world today allowing survivors to transform painful memories into a source of strength. Consistent with theory, Holocaust survivors exhibit resilience by engaging fully in a life they feel privileged to have had when so many others were less fortunate ( Bonanno, 2004). This commitment to living has helped Holocaust survivors contend with the guilt of having survived. In essence, survivors have led full and complete lives for those who were not so fortunate.

The most overt ways in which participants demonstrated resilience has been by building families, careers, communities, and the Jewish state. Despite the many challenges of parenting ( Bar-On et al., 1998; Kidron, 2009), raising children and creating a legacy have epitomized the conditions of a normal life. Holocaust survivors have previously reported "pleasurable feelings of revenge and satisfaction at living and surviving" ( Carmel, Granek, & Zamir, 2016, p. 6) by becoming parents, grandparents, and citizens of the Israel state. Following WWII, Israel became a "renewed homeland for Jewish people" (p. 3) and involvement in the development and existence of the state of Israel is a source of pride for Israeli Holocaust survivors, which contributes to positive well-being ( Carmel, Granek, et al., 2016).

Resilience entails the strength to convey personal experiences in order to describe the surreal suffering of the Holocaust. Yet, learning from the past has distinct and contrasting components. In one sense, the Holocaust speaks to the resilience of Jews (consistent with history) and the need to reconstitute the Jewish state. However, the Holocaust provides too few examples when Jews fought back (e.g., Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; Dawidowicz, 2010). As several participants relayed, they feel obligated to share their stories with grandchildren and army recruits. Holocaust survivors' stories of resilience and survival belong to the Jewish state and posterity. Such stories of the Holocaust are preserved through multiple artistic formats in Israel, including books, songs, poetry, films, and documentaries. As well, school educational trips to concentration camps educate thousands of students about the Holocaust.

It is noteworthy that the experiences and life choices made by Holocaust survivors living in Israel might have been very different than those of the diaspora as a result of personal and familial involvement in their continuous struggle for building the Israeli nation. Many Holocaust survivors emigrated to the United States, Canada, and Australia after WWII and lived very different lives from their counterparts in Israel. For instance, Israel has been at war eight times since 1948, has been invaded by each of its neighbors, and continues to live under the specter of terror. As Carmel, Granek, and colleagues (2016) reported, terror and national threats negatively affect Holocaust survivors more than other Israelis. Very different themes may have emerged had we interviewed Holocaust survivors who established the lives elsewhere where the struggle for a nation does not exist ( Barel et al., 2010; Silverstein, 2013). Future research should compare the memory of Holocaust survivors living in Israel to those living abroad.

Conclusions

The results of this study inform our quantitative findings by further demonstrating that reminiscence serves many functions, including recall of traumatic memories from the distant past ( King et al., 2015). Negating or compartmentalizing bitter memories does not lead to freedom from the past ( Cohen & Shmotkin, 2007); instead, integrating these memories as part of a coherent life narrative appears to define a life history of continuity and resilience ( Coleman, 1999; Davison et al., 2016; O'Rourke, Bachner, Cappeliez, Chaudhury, & Carmel, 2015). This observation is consistent with Erikson's (1959, 1998) theory of development whereby older adults attain psychological integrity in their final years by seeing meaning and purpose over their life course. This includes traumatic memories that serve as a counterpoint to achievements in life that are more positive when juxtaposed vis-à-vis their early life history. Raising children and living to see the birth of grandchildren and great-grandchildren become even more satisfying when compared to times when the most basic right to life was taken from their friends and families.

As recently reported by Carmel, King, and colleagues (2016), overall levels of life satisfaction do not differ between these Holocaust survivors, other Israelis, and older Canadians. This result is echoed by our qualitative findings that indicate Holocaust survivors do not define their lives based on trauma and loss, but on their ability to rise from the ashes and bear witness to the past to help secure the future. Holocaust survivors remember what they remember because these memories have functional value of personal, interpersonal, and national importance. They are not victims of the past, but symbols of endurance and survival. As our findings reflect, Holocaust survivors' stories epitomize resilience; their memories have become part of a national narrative.

Funding

This work was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC # 861-2009-1123) awarded to Drs. O'Rourke, Bachner, and Carmel.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the many older men and women who shared their remarkable life stories of endurance, survival, resilience, and loss. Where quotes are reported, we use pseudonyms to conceal participants' identities. The authors declared no conflict of interest.

References

Author notes

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Why Do Holocaust Survivors Remember What They Remember?

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The ability to integrate traumatic memories into a coherent life narrative is one factor associated with the mental health and well-being of Holocaust survivors. In the present study, reminiscences reported by survivors in Israel were collected to identify themes arising in positive and negative memories and experience.

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Over 10 million animals die each year from domestic abuse. People are purchasing/adopting animals, but don't actually know how to care for them and treat them accordingly. Most animals get abandoned because the owners have gave up and stopped caring for the animals which causes them to die from starvation and other things along those lines which is incredibly sad and wrong.

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Thousands of animal abuse cases are reported every day. However, animal abuse statistics reveal that most animal and pet abuse cases are never brought to light.

Take a look at some of the most shocking statistics and facts about animal abuse. They'll help you fight animal cruelty and raise awareness.

Top 10 Alarming Animal Abuse Statistics and Facts

Animal abuse articles, such as this one, will help you discover more about animal abuse, why people abuse animals, and how to end this awful torture.

General Animal Abuse Facts and Statistics

There are various types of animal cruelty: organized cruelty (like dogfighting and cockfighting), neglect, and intentional cruelty, and many more.

Let's see some actual numbers on animal abuse.

1. Statistics of animal abuse reveal that every 60 seconds, one animal suffers abuse.

(Sentient Media)

Even though today's society is modern and advanced, people turn a blind eye to animal and pet abuse. In some cases, they condone it.

The abuse comes in many forms. Sadly, the effect it leaves on animals is always the same: fear, pain, and desperation.

2. Close to 65% of all abused animals are dogs based on stats about animal abuse.

Animal cruelty facts report that dogs are the most common victims of this cruelty. Moreover, this doesn't refer to dogs in general but specific breeds.

3. There are two types of animal abuse: passive and active cruelty.

(Animal Abuse)

Facts about animal cruelty reveal that passive cruelty mainly includes animal neglect cases.

These cases include improper shelter, dehydration, starvation, and so on.

On the other hand, active cruelty involves intentionally harming the animal.

This includes beating, whipping, and branding of animals, often resulting in their death.

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Animal cruelty facts and stats show a clear correlation between domestic violence and animal abuse.

Victims of domestic violence have reported that their abuser has also maltreated their pet in the great majority of cases.

5. Around 88% of the families under investigation for child abuse are also reported for animal cruelty.

(National Sheriff's Association)

The percentage of animal abuse is much higher in families with child abuse.

Unfortunately, abuse leads to more abuse, so statistics show that 26% of the people who abuse animals were abused in their childhood.

Children who witness domestic violence are three times more likely to abuse animals.

6. Children who are sexually abused are 5 times more likely to abuse animals as per statistics for animal abuse.

(National Sheriff's Association)

In addition to this, children 10 years and older who abuse animals intentionally are two to three times more likely to have been abused.

Animal abuse is also characteristic of the development of violent adult offenders. Up to two in three adults who are violent offenders have an animal abuse history.

Animal Cruelty Facts and Statistics in the US

The US is particularly cruel to animals. Each year, millions of poor, innocent souls die from abuse, experiments, and cruelty.

7. It's estimated that the lifetime prevalence of animal abuse in US adults is 1.8% according to domestic animal abuse statistics.

Research has shown that men are the most likely to abuse animals.

African Americans, Native Americans, Asians, people with low income and education levels, and adults who live in the west US regions are more likely to be reported for abusing animals.

8. Statistics on animal cruelty reveal that very year, more than 10 million animals die from abuse in the US alone.

(Letters to the Next President)

However, as the animal abuse statistics for 2021 reveal, only 1,920 animal abuse cases are presented by the media every year.

Unfortunately, animal abuse still isn't recognized as a severe issue in the United States, remaining an unpopular topic.

9. Every year, more than 6.5 million animals enter animal shelters according to animal abuse statistics in the United States.

Half of them are cats, and the other half are dogs. However, most of those that don't get adopted, around 1.5 million, are euthanized.

They also have an array of great products, and each purchase goes to feeding animals in shelters.

10. The latest animal abuse stats reveal that each year, the US kills over 3 million mink for fur.

Stats on animal abuse show that one hundred million animals suffer each year because of the fur trade. They're bred and raised on inhumane fur farms.

Their only purpose: to become a fashion accessory.

11. Over the last decade, there've been 483 drug-positive Greyhounds in Florida alone.

Greyhound racing is illegal in over 40 states. But that's not stopping people from organizing illegal races.

To ensure a race win, breeders drug the dogs with cocaine, lidocaine, novocaine, industrial solvent DMSO, opiates oxycodone, and oxymorphone.

Racing Greyhounds are also confined in dog track cages that measure 36 inches by 36 inches by 42 inches.

They endure horrific injuries, pain, and wounds. Unfortunately, thousands of them die each year.

Sadly, it's safe to assume that the number of Greyhound deaths is underreported.

12. Animal abuse statistics in America reveal that more than 100,000 horses are killed and processed for human consumption.

Fortunately, many slaughterhouses have been shut down over the years. Still, murdering horses for consumption continues happening.

The USDA even documented that 92.3% of the killed horses are in good health and could live a productive life if they weren't killed.

13. On average, 250,000 animals every year are victims of animal hoarding.

(Animal Legal Defense Fund)

The most outrageous form of animal abuse is animal hoarding. Hoarders usually have hundreds of cats and dogs.

These creatures are malnourished, have serious medical issues, dental and eye illnesses, and psychological distress.

14. Statistics on animal abuse reveal that there are over 10,000 puppy mills in the United States.

Every year, these mills breed more than 2 million dogs for profit.

The problem with puppy mills is that they often exist in horrible conditions.

The puppies are not kept safe from cold, heat, or bad weather, and they spend their lives in wire cages stacked on top of each other.

15. A little over 100 thousand dogs are tested upon in US laboratories a year.

Animal abuse statistics show that some universities go so far as to take dogs from shelters to use them in their experiments.

They are most often used in toxicology studies. These studies typically involve harmful pesticides, chemicals, and pharmaceutical medications.

16. Every year, US labs abuse more than 19,000 cats.

In addition to this, thousands of cats are sold to schools for dissections and various projects.

Animal Cruelty Statistics Worldwide

The rest of the world isn't less cruel to animals. Here are even more horrific figures and facts.

17. Between 5,000 and 6,000 tigers in China currently live in captivity because of the traditional medicine industry.

(World Animal Protection)

The majority of Asian medicine doesn't require wild animal products. Still, some subindustries create a horrible demand for big cat farming.

Lions and tigers are farmed and poached for their body parts and bones, which are used for making traditional remedies.

These animals are kept in tiny enclosures. And, animal abuse statistics from 2019 show that this hurts not only their bodies but their psyches, as well.

18. The UK's RSPCA gets a call about animal abuse every 30 seconds.

(Lad Bible, NCBI)

The RSPCA 's cruelty hotline operates 24/7. According to animal cruelty facts from the UK, it gets more than a million animal abuse reports in one year.

Unfortunately, they're able to solve just a little over 100,000 animal abuse cases in a year.

Moreover, animal cruelty statistics for Australia show a little brighter statistics. Aussies report 55,000-60,000 animal abuse cases a year.

19. One-third of parrot species are in danger of being extinct because of the exotic bird trade.

Millions of birds are illegally smuggled, traded, or sold on the black market to collectors or for illegal fighting.

The global trade of birds has had a significant negative impact, especially on parrots.

Due to the loss of their habitat, many parrot species are on the verge of extinction, according to animal abuse statistics from 2020.

20. Every year, more than 115 million animals in the world are used for laboratory experiments.

Most countries don't collect or publish data about animal testing and research. So, it's estimated that this number is much higher.

The US alone harms 15.6 million animals during experiments.

Moreover, lab animals like mice, rats, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates aren't even included in official statements.

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The European Union abuses more than 23.5 million animals. The UK, France, and Germany are the top countries using these creatures.

21. Denmark slaughtered 15-17 million animals for mink fur that tested positive for Covid-19.

Before this, China was the biggest mink fur producer. However, authorities in Denmark justified their actions saying they were afraid new strains of the virus would get to humans.

They were concerned vaccines wouldn't be effective against the new strain.

So, they simply slaughtered the animals and used their fur.

Animal Cruelty Cases on Animal Farms

Many people don't even think about what farm animals go through so we can enjoy their eggs, milk, cheese, and meat.

The sad reality is that farm animals are tortured to produce as much food as possible.

22. About 97% of all tortured and killed animals are farm animals.

These animals aren't seen as living beings-they're mass-produced for the product they become: eggs, milk, meat, and leather.

These animals are drugged and confined only to produce more milk and eggs, breed more offspring, and die.

Factory farming is a business, and farmers need to cut all costs to maximize their profit.

23. One statistic on animal abuse reports that over 9 billion chickens are killed every year.

US slaughterhouses breed and kill 10 times more birds than any other animal.

Additionally, 300 million chickens are used for their eggs.

Moreover, no birds-chickens, hens, ducks, turkeys, geese, etc.-are protected by federal animal protection laws.

24. An estimated 95% of pigs get raised in factory farms that don't allow them to live naturally.

(World Animal Protection)

These cages are the size of an average refrigerator and are so small they can't even turn.

Factory farming is the most significant source of animal cruelty in the world.

25. Around 50% of all consumed fish are raised in artificial environments.

More often than not, fish are bred artificially instead of being caught in the wilderness.

People believe that fish can't feel pain, but it's been proven that along with pain, they also feel fear and suffering.

Further animal abuse statistics show that fish farming, or aquaculture, is one of the fastest-growing food production industries.

26. Dairy cows must give 10 times more milk than they would in nature.

Milking machines often cut the cows or cause them other injuries. Some even give them electric shocks, resulting in their death.

Usually, cows in nature live 20-25 years, but they're killed after 3-5 years and used for meat on farms.

Wild Animal Abuse Statistics

People are more familiar with wild animal abuse. However, the statistics paint an even sadder picture than most people imagine.

27. The majority of the sloths used for entertainment and tourism die within 6 months of their capture.

(World Animal Protection)

Unfortunately, sloths are the most commonly abused wild animals due to people seeking out "cute" photo opportunities.

When captured, they're constantly surrounded by people and are therefore placed under high stress levels.

28. As many as 35,000 elephants are poached every year, according to animal cruelty statistics.

(National Geographic)

The elephant poaching crisis is currently at its peak. What's even scarier, some elephant populations may very soon become extinct as a direct result.

At this moment, more elephants are being killed for ivory than are being born.

29. Animal abuse statistics worldwide reveal that over 100 million sharks are killed every year illegally, primarily to make shark's fin soup.

(Animal Matters)

Furthermore, over 85% of the world's fisheries have reached their maximum or surpassed it.

Additionally, animal abuse facts and information show that more than 650,000 marine mammals are seriously injured or killed every year because they get accidentally caught in fishing gear.

30. Approximately 75% of pet lizards, snakes, turtles, and tortoises die within the first year of becoming someone's pet.

(World Animal Protection)

Wild animals that are kept as pets suffer because nothing can replace their natural habitat.

Whether they're obtained legally or not, keeping wild animals as pets supports cruelty toward animals.

Statistics About Animal Abuse in the Entertainment Industries

Zoos, aquariums, and circuses may seem like a fun family activity. Sadly, what happens when the show is over will horrify you.

31. Lions and tigers have 18,000 times less space in zoos than they would in nature.

(Freedom for Animals)

It's a fact that animals in zoos suffer immensely only because a zoo can't provide as much space as they'd have in their natural habitat.

In fact, lions spend 48% of their time pacing in their enclosure, which signifies a behavioral problem.

32. Around 75% of zoos and aquariums break the basic mistreatment rules.

In the case of animal abuse in zoos, statistics reveal that most of the world's zoos and aquariums offer visitors some interaction with animals.

33. Circus animals spend 96% of their lives in cages.

(Sentient Media)

Animal rights statistics reveal that most of these animals spend almost their whole lives in cages, transported from one city to another.

These animals are forced into submission, whipped, chained, and denied socialization with their own species.

Animal abuse in circuses is a significant problem as these animals are exploited continuously and left in terrible conditions.

34. Over the last 20 years, 35 documented dangerous incidents involved circus elephants.

(DoSomething)

These animals spend 11 months traveling in small cages, often eating, sleeping, and urinating in the same place.

Trainers usually use electric prods, bullhooks, and other painful methods to force the animals to perform.

This results in elephants bolting from circuses.

Some of the circus animal abuse statistics show that elephants have run through streets and attacked people. They've also crashed into buildings and injured or killed handlers in these accidents.

35. Since 1990, 126 big cats have died in US circuses because of their confinement.

Additionally, more than 255 people have been injured, and 26 have died in accidents with big cats from circuses.

Circus training sessions aren't monitored by the government. Still, undercover footage has shown that big cats are often hit with sticks and dragged by chains around their necks.

FAQ

What is animal abuse?

Scientific animal cruelty articles reveal that animal abuse and cruelty don't just include physical harm, but psychological, as well.

Torturing and beating animals, confining or transporting them in the wrong way is considered animal abuse.

Moreover, killing them in inhumane ways and not giving them proper food and hydration or medication are also considered forms of animal abuse.

Why do people abuse animals?

There can be numerous reasons for animal cruelty. Most of the people who abuse animals feel like they're under other people's control. They feel they have no power or that they're unnoticed.

Many want to shock or threaten other creatures as a way to demonstrate their power. Others just project what has been done to them.

What are the best ways to stop animal abuse?

There are some methods that everyone should practice.

The best way how to stop animal abuse is by being a responsible pet owner, first and foremost. Only you can fulfill your pets' needs and show kindness to other pets and give shelter to animals in need.

If you witness animal cruelty, you should immediately report it.

Furthermore, you should educate people around you about animal cruelty. Animal Cruelty Prevention Month (April) is a great time to start spreading your knowledge.

Children should also be taught from an early age how to respect and care for animals.

How many animals are abused each year?

It's challenging to make a precise estimation. We know that every year 10 million animals die from abuse. We also know that 100 million animals are used for lab experiments.

However, not all abuse cases are reported, so we can safely say that more than 100 million animals suffer abuse every year.

Where does animal abuse happen the most?

Animals in Asia are by far the most abused ones. Asia doesn't have many laws that protect animals from cruelty and exploitation.

This makes it easy for people to capture and cage bears for their bile, or slaughter cats and dogs for their meat.

Animal cruelty is also common in zoos, safari parks, and circuses in China and Vietnam.

Wild animals are usually kept in small cages and chains. This causes great psychological damage. Some wild captive animals even self-harm because of frustration.

What are examples of animal cruelty?

As we already mentioned, there is passive (neglect) and active (abuse) cruelty.

Neglect includes failing to provide animals with basic things, such as food, water, shelter, and vet care.

Neglect is a passive type of cruelty because it's typically caused by pet owners' ignorance.

On the other hand, abuse or active (intentional) cruelty is much more horrible. It includes the intentional causing of physical pain or injury. Maiming, torturing, and killing animals are just a few examples.

Is killing animals a crime?

You should know that anti-cruelty laws exist in all 50 states.

However, they may differ from state to state, so you should check your state's law for precise details.

Generally, killing animals is a crime. And we're not talking about euthanasia.

Anyone who intentionally and maliciously kills an animal could face jail time in their state or county jail. Or, they may be required to pay a fine of up to $20,000.

There's also the possibility of a combination - imprisonment and a fine.

What state has the toughest animal cruelty laws?

The best states included: Illinois, Oregon, Colorado, Maine, and Rhode Island.

The worst states were: Wyoming, Kentucky, New Mexico, Iowa, and Mississippi.

Illinois' laws state that animal fighting is a RICO offense while animal fighting provisions are a felony.

Moreover, the maximum penalty for aggravated cruelty is five years imprisonment and a $25,000 fine.

Which state has the highest animal cruelty rate?

With more than 113 reported animal cruelty cases per 100,000 people, Delaware takes this unfortunate win. The state recently passed a law that should protect dogs from life-threatening weather.

The law is supposed to prevent dogs from being tied outside for more than nine hours in extremely cold or hot weather.

Can you go to jail for killing a dog?

Yes, you can. As we mentioned, the laws differ from state to state, so the imprisonment duration can vary. However, killing animals unjustifiably will get you in jail. And (again, depending on the state) you'll probably have to pay a hefty fine.

The Bottom Line

Unfortunately, as these animal abuse statistics have shown, animal cruelty is a genuine issue that takes millions of victims every year.

People should be aware of some animals' daily struggles and give their best to help them. We hope that these statistics and facts will raise awareness of animal cruelty and help stop it.

Sources

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35 Disturbing Animal Abuse Statistics (2023 UPDATE) | Petpedia

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Sadly, as animal abuse statistics for 2023 show, animal cruelty is a real issue that takes millions of victims every year. Read on to discover more.

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Teen Sports and Mental Health: 10 Mental Benefits of Sports

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Teen sports can have a major impact on quality of life. Physical activity has significant benefits for teen mental health.

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The US teen birth rate (births per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 years) has been declining since 1991. Teen birth rates continued to decline from 17.4 per 1,000 females in 2018 to 16.7 per 1,000 females in 2019. This is another record low for US teens and a decrease of 4% from 2018. 1,2 Birth rates fell 7% for females aged 15 to 17 years and 4% for females aged 18 to 19 years. ²

Although reasons for the declines are not totally clear, evidence suggests these declines are due to more teens abstaining from sexual activity, and more teens who are sexually active using birth control than in previous years. 3, 4

Still, the US teen birth rate is substantially higher than in other western industrialized nations, 5 and racial/ethnic and geographic disparities in teen birth rates persist. 1,2

Disparities in Teen Birth Rates

Teen birth rates declined from 2018 to 2019 for several racial groups and for Hispanics. 1,2 Among 15- to 19-year-olds, teen birth rates decreased:

5.2% for Hispanic females.

5.8% for non-Hispanic White females.

1.9% for non-Hispanic Black females.

Rates for non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Natives (AI/AN), non-Hispanic Asians, and non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific Islander teenagers were unchanged.

In 2019, the birth rates for Hispanic teens (25.3) and non-Hispanic Black teens (25.8) were more than two times higher than the rate for non-Hispanic White teens (11.4). The birth rate of American Indian/Alaska Native teens (29.2) was highest among all race/ethnicities. 1

Birth Rates for Females Aged 15 to 19 Years, by Race and Hispanic Origin of Mother: United States, 2018 and 2019

Data source: Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2019. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2021;70(2):1-50.

Geographic differences in teen birth rates persist, both within and across states. Although among states with low overall teen birth rates, some counties have high teen birth rates. ⁶

Social determinants of health, such as low education and low income levels of a teen's family, may contribute to high teen birth rates. ⁷ Teens in certain settings are at higher risk of teen pregnancy and birth than other groups. For example, young women living in foster care are more than twice as likely to become pregnant than young women not in foster care. ⁸

To improve the life opportunities of adolescents facing significant health disparities and to have the greatest effect on overall US teen birth rates, CDC uses data to inform and direct interventions and resources to areas with the greatest need.

The Importance of Prevention

Teen pregnancy and childbearing are associated with increased social and economic costs through immediate and long-term effects on teen parents and their children.

Pregnancy and birth are significant contributors to high school dropout rates among girls. Only about 50% of teen mothers receive a high school diploma by 22 years of age, whereas approximately 90% of women who do not give birth during adolescence graduate from high school.¹⁰

The children of teenage mothers are more likely to have lower school achievement and to drop out of high school, have more health problems, be incarcerated at some time during adolescence, give birth as a teenager, and face unemployment as a young adult.¹¹

On a positive note, between 1991 and 2015, the teen birth rate dropped 64%, which resulted in $4.4 billion in public savings in 2015 alone.¹²

Evidence-based teen pregnancy prevention programs have been identified by the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Teen Pregnancy Prevention Evidence Review, which used a systematic process for reviewing evaluation studies against a rigorous standard. The Evidence Review covers a variety of diverse programs, including sexuality education programs, youth development programs, abstinence education programs, clinic-based programs, and programs specifically designed for diverse populations and settings. In addition to evidence-based prevention programs, teens need access to youth-friendly reproductive health services and support from parents and other trusted adults, who can play an important role in helping teens make healthy choices about relationships, sex, and birth control. Efforts at the community level that address social and economic factors associated with teen pregnancy also play a critical role in addressing racial/ethnic and geographical disparities observed in teen births in the United States.

References

1. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2019. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2021;70(2):1-50.

2. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJK, Driscoll AK. Births: final data for 2018. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2019;68(13):1-47.

3. Santelli J, Lindberg L, Finer L, Singh S. Explaining recent declines in adolescent pregnancy in the United States: the contribution of abstinence and improved contraceptive use. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(1):150-6.

4. Lindberg LD, Santelli JS, Desai S. Understanding the decline in adolescent fertility in the United States, 2007-2012. J Adolesc Health. 2016:1-7.

5. Sedgh G, Finer LB, Bankole A, Eilers MA, Singh S. Adolescent pregnancy, birth, and abortion rates across countries: levels and recent trends. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56(2):223-30.

6. Romero L, Pazol K, Warner L, et al. Reduced disparities in birth rates among teens aged 15 to 19 Years-United States, 2006-2007 and 2013-2014. MMWR Morbid and Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(16):409-414.

7. Penman-Aguilar A, Carter M, Snead M, Kourtis A. Socioeconomic disadvantage as a social determinant of teen childbearing in the US Public Health Rep. 2013;128(suppl 1):5-22.

8. Boonstra HD. Teen pregnancy among women in foster care: a primer. Guttmacher Policy Review. 2011; 14(2).

9. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, Counting It Up: The Public Costs of Teen Childbearing 2013. Accessed March 31, 2016.

10. Perper K, Peterson K, Manlove J. Diploma Attainment Among Teen Mothers. Child Trends, Fact Sheet Publication #2010-01: Washington, DC: Child Trends; 2010.

11. Hoffman SD. Kids Having Kids: Economic Costs and Social Consequences of Teen Pregnancy. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press; 2008.

12. Power to Decide. Progress Pays Off. Accessed January 10, 2019.

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Teen pregnancy and childbearing bring substantial social and economic costs through immediate and long-term impacts on teen parents and their children.

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https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9164-alzheimers-disease

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Alzheimer’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Stages

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Alzheimer’s disease is a brain condition that causes a worsening decline in memory, thinking, learning and organizing skills. It’s the most common cause of dementia.

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The world’s plastic pollution crisis, explained

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Much of the planet is swimming in discarded plastic, which is harming animal and possibly human health. Can plastic pollution be cleaned up?

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Women in the workforce

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Why do people abandon pets and how does that lead to animal abuse?

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Why do people abandon pets and how does that lead to animal abuse?

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Animals who have been abused, animals that are being abused, and animal abusers.

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FOUR PAWS International - Animal Welfare Organisation

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The abandoning of pets has far-reaching consequences for the animals involved as well as for the community. Abandonment exposes dogs and cats to an uncertain fate, once on the streets they must fend for themselves and may suffer from hunger, thirst, injuries and diseases. As well as feeling distressed and confused because they have been left on their own in an unfamiliar place by their owner.

Furthermore, dumping animals has consequences for the community that many people are often unaware of: The animals may pose a road safety risk if they run out in front of cars searching for their owner. They may cause a 'nuisance' to the community searching for food, barking at other dogs, or even biting someone due to feeling unsafe.

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The Harmful Consequences Caused by Pet Abandonment

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The abandoning of pets has harmful consequences for the animals, their owners and shelters. Learn why pet dumping should be avoided!

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Montana has become the first state to approve a bill that would ban TikTok over the possibility that the Chinese government could request Americans' data from the wildly popular video-streaming app.

The GOP-controlled Montana House of Representatives sent the bill on Friday to Republican Gov. Greg Gianforte, who can now sign the measure into law.

The bill makes it illegal to download TikTok in the state, with penalties of up to $10,000 a day for any entity, such asApple and Google's app stores or TikTok itself, that makes the popular video-streaming app available.

If enacted, the ban in the state would not start until January 2024.

A federal court challenge from TikTok is expected well before then, likely teeing up a legal brawl that supporters of the law in Montana say could eventually wind up in front of the U.S. Supreme Court.

Brooke Oberwetter, a TikTok spokesperson, said the bill's backers have admitted that there is "no feasible plan" for putting the TikTok ban in place, since blocking downloads of apps in any one individual state would be almost impossible to enforce. Oberwetter said the bill represents the censorship of Montanans' voices.

"We will continue to fight for TikTok users and creators in Montana whose livelihoods and First Amendment rights are threatened by this egregious government overreach," Oberwetter said.

Other critics of the bill include the ACLU, which has also called the move a violation of free speech rights that "would set an alarming precedent for excessive government control over how Montanans use the internet."

Yet supporters highlight a 2017 Chinese intelligence law that requires private companies to hand over data about customers to the government if Beijing ever requests such information. This comes despite TikTok's pushback that it would never comply with such a request.

However, the bill states that if TikTok is sold off to a company not in an adversarial nation, the ban would stop taking effect. A law in Congress that leads to TikTok being banned nationwide would also void the measure.

The aggressive crack down on TikTok in Montana arrives as the Biden administration continues to negotiate with the company about its future in the U.S. Last month, White House officials told TikTok to divest from its Beijing-based corporate parent company, ByteDance, or risk facing a nationwide shut down.

Congress, too, has TikTok in its crosshairs. A bill that has gathered bipartisan momentum would give the Department of Commerce the ability to ban apps controlled by "foreign adversaries," a label that could apply to TikTok.

Both in states including Montana and in Washington, D.C., lawmakers view TikTok as a potential national security threat.

Since TikTok is owned by ByteDance, the fear is that the Chinese Communist Party could request access to the 150 million TikTok accounts in America and potentially spy on U.S. citizens, or use the personal data to mount disinformation campaigns on the app.

Though the worries have become louder in recent months, there is no publicly available evidence suggesting that Chinese officials have ever attempted to pry into TikTok's data.

Last month, TikTok Chief Executive Shou Zi Chew faced withering questions from lawmakers in Washington, as he attempted to mollify bipartisan fears about the social media app.

Most lawmakers said Chew's testimony, which was at times evasive on questions about China, was unconvincing and only served to further harden their positions against TikTok.

The Trump administration attempted to put TikTok out of business in the U.S. over the same national security concerns. But federal courts halted the move, citing executive overreach and a lack of evidence to support the case that TikTok poses a security risk.

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Montana becomes 1st state to approve a full ban of TikTok

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Montana has become the first state to approve a bill that would ban TikTok over the possibility that the Chinese government could request Americans' data from the wildly popular video-streaming app. The GOP-controlled Montana House of Representatives sent the bill on Friday to Republican Gov. Greg Gianforte, who can now sign the measure into law.

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Affects everyone

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Stop Bullying on the Spot

When adults respond quickly and consistently to bullying behavior they send the message that it is not acceptable. Research shows this can stop bullying behavior over time.

Parents, school staff, and other adults in the community can help kids prevent bullying by talking about it, building a safe school environment, and creating a community-wide bullying prevention strategy.

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StopBullying.gov provides information from various government agencies on bullying, cyberbullying, prevention and response.

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Peoples lives after being falsely accused of murder.

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Peoples lives after being falsely accused of murder.

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When an unjust conviction for a crime is overturned, you may wonder if the person who is released from incarceration can get paid for the years they spent unjustly in prison.

The answer is yes, and the process is called restitution.

Restitution laws vary by state, and not every state has them. But in 37 states-including Texas-and the District of Columbia, exonerees can receive some level of financial compensation for the time in which they were unjustly imprisoned.

The Innocence Project, a non-profit legal-help group seeking justice for the innocent, notes that there's also a federal standard to compensate persons who were wrongfully convicted of federal crimes. That amount is a minimum of $50,000 for each year of incarceration, with an additional amount paid for each year spent on death row.

Clearly, no amount of financial recovery can truly compensate a person for the precious years of their life they spent in prison, despite being innocent of a crime. But at least restitution laws provide the chance for some monetary help-and perhaps an added sense of justice.

Hawaii man, freed after 25 years, seeks restitution

Even so, restitution isn't automatic. That's why you need an experienced and knowledgeable restitution attorney or criminal defense lawyer to fight to see that you're paid for the years that you were wrongfully imprisoned.

Such legal actions are currently happening in 1 of the 37 states in America that provide restitution: Hawaii.

There, Ian Schweitzer recently was exonerated thanks to new evidence-including DNA testing not available when he was convicted-after he spent 25 years in prison for allegedly raping and killing a female tourist in 1991.

According to ABC News, lawyers of the Innocence Project are assessing Hawaii's restitution laws in hopes that the innocent man can receive $50,000 for every year he was unjustly imprisoned. In his case, that would mean a total of around $1,250,000 paid to him by the state.

Innocence Project attorneys are also seeking to exonerate 2 others who were wrongfully convicted of the crime:

Schweitzer's younger brother, Shawn, who's in prison on a 130-year sentence, and

Frank Pauline Jr., who died in prison.

Attorneys say the original convictions were based on false informant testimony and misapplied forensic evidence.

Additionally, the case's new DNA testing has identified a sole and unknown male perpetrator.

Texas leads the nation in exonerations

Hawaii is a small state in population, and in a recent 30-year period, it only had 3 exonerations, as determined by the Neal Davis Law Firm's full report on exonerations by state. But with more than 30 million residents, Texas is the nation's 2nd most populous state, and Texas is 1st in the nation in exonerations.

Harris County, home of Houston, also leads America's counties in the number of exonerations.

Texas criminal punishments can be severe, but Texas restitution laws are relatively generous. Its laws mean that a person who was imprisoned, exonerated and freed can get as much as $80,000 per year that they were wrongly imprisoned.

Exonerated persons in Texas also may be able to receive the following:

An annuity

Some reintegration assistance

Money for legal assistance

Money for any missed child-support payments

In one recent year, 16 persons were exonerated (proven innocent) and released from prisons in Texas. The state then paid them a total of about $7 million in restitution.

That's an average of a little less than half a million dollars per person, which is Texas's average amount of restitution per year.

Restitution payments aren't automatic

But even in states such as Texas that have restitution laws, a lawsuit may be necessary to force the issue and gain such payments. They are not automatic.

Part of the fight for restitution involves the fact that an exonerated person in Texas must still be declared "actually innocent" by the court or by the prosecutor's office in order to be compensated. In short, a wrongful conviction for a crime must be overturned, not only for freedom-but also for restitution.

Need an exoneration attorney or defense lawyer?

With that in mind, first things first. An innocent person who's been wrongfully convicted and imprisoned for a crime they did not commit must first seek skilled legal help to fight for their exoneration and freedom. They need an experienced exoneration attorney or criminal defense lawyer to achieve that goal.

If someone in your family is in such a position, contact us today at the Neal Davis Law Firm to arrange a confidential consultation for your loved one's case.

Innocent persons can be freed, and innocent persons can receive restitution when that happens. But for those things to occur, the innocent need the best legal help they can find.

Persons living in Houston, Sugar Land, The Woodlands or elsewhere in Harris County, Fort Bend County and Montgomery County can reach out to us for their exoneration case. Let the Neal Davis Law Firm fight for your loved one's freedom.

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How Much Money Do You Get if You're Wrongfully Imprisoned?

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When an unjust conviction for a crime is overturned, you may wonder if the person who is released from incarceration can get paid for the years they spent unjustly in prison. The answer is yes, and the process is called restitution. Restitution laws vary by state, and not every state has them.

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Many people who are not vaccinated may suffer harsher effects or long-term effects of diseases or sicknesses than someone who got vaccinated.

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What are vaccines?

Vaccines are injections (shots), liquids, pills, or nasal sprays that you take to teach your body's immune system to recognize and defend against harmful germs. For example, there are vaccines to protect against diseases caused by:

What are the types of vaccines?

There are several types of vaccines:

Live-attenuated vaccines use a weakened form of the germ.

Inactivated vaccines use a killed version of the germ.

Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines use only specific pieces of the germ, such as its protein, sugar, or casing.

Toxoid vaccines that use a toxin (harmful product) made by the germ.

mRNA vaccines use messenger RNA, which gives your cells instructions for how to make a protein (or piece of a protein) of the germ.

Viral vector vaccines use genetic material, which gives your cells instructions for making a protein of the germ. These vaccines also contain a different, harmless virus that helps get the genetic material into your cells.

Vaccines work in different ways, but they all spark an immune response. The immune response is the way your body defends itself against substances it sees as foreign or harmful. These substances include germs that can cause disease.

What happens in an immune response?

There are different steps in the immune response:

When a germ invades, your body sees it as foreign.

Your immune system helps your body fight off the germ.

Your immune system also remembers the germ. It will attack the germ if it ever invades again. This "memory" protects you against the disease that the germ causes. This type of protection is called immunity.

What are immunization and vaccination?

Immunization is the process of becoming protected against a disease. But it can also mean the same thing as vaccination, which is getting a vaccine to become protected against a disease.

Why are vaccines important?

Vaccines are important because they protect you against many diseases. These diseases can be very serious. So getting immunity from a vaccine is safer than getting immunity by being sick with the disease. And for a few vaccines, getting vaccinated can actually give you a better immune response than getting the disease would.

But vaccines don't just protect you. They also protect the people around you through community immunity.

What is community immunity?

Community immunity, or herd immunity, is the idea that vaccines can help keep communities healthy.

Normally, germs can travel quickly through a community and make a lot of people sick. If enough people get sick, it can lead to an outbreak. But when enough people are vaccinated against a certain disease, it's harder for that disease to spread to others. This type of protection means that the entire community is less likely to get the disease.

Community immunity is especially important for people who can't get certain vaccines. For example, they may not be able to get a vaccine because they have weakened immune systems. Others may be allergic to certain vaccine ingredients. And newborn babies are too young to get some vaccines. Community immunity can help to protect them all.

Are vaccines safe?

Vaccines are safe. They must go through extensive safety testing and evaluation before they are approved in the United States.

What is a vaccine schedule?

A vaccine, or immunization, schedule lists which vaccines are recommended for different groups of people. It includes who should get the vaccines, how many doses they need, and when they should get them. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes the vaccine schedule.

It's important for both children and adults to get their vaccines according to the schedule. Following the schedule allows them to get protection from the diseases at exactly the right time.

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Vaccines | Immunization | Inoculation | MedlinePlus

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Vaccines are injections (shots), liquids, pills, or nasal sprays that you take to teach your body's immune system to recognize and defend against harmful germs. For example, there are vaccines to protect against diseases caused by: There are several types of vaccines: Live-attenuated vaccines use a weakened form of the germ.

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Timely data inform prevention and response efforts. Data help improve coordination and promote readiness for regional or multiple state fatal overdoses.

Resources equip and inform states, territories, and local jurisdictions and provide support to overdose prevention programs.

Videos, social media graphics, press releases, and online tools inform, supplement, and raise awareness about overdose prevention efforts.

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Timely data inform prevention and response efforts. Data help improve coordination and promote readiness for regional or multiple state fatal overdoses. Resources equip and inform states, territories, and local jurisdictions and provide support to overdose prevention programs. Videos, social media graphics, press releases, and online tools inform, supplement, and raise awareness about overdose prevention efforts.

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Nearly 10% of people in the U.S. suffer from depression and it is most commonly found in teenagers and young adults.

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How do student-athletes manage school and sports?

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How do student-athletes manage school and sports?

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For College Athletes, Concern About Balancing Sports, Academics

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The average student-athlete reported loging roughly 50 hours per week on athletics, which often adversely affects their academic work.

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https://www.unicef.org/end-violence/how-to-stop-cyberbullying

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We brought together UNICEF specialists, international cyberbullying and child protection experts, and teamed up with Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok and Twitter to answer some of the most common questions about online bullying and give advice on ways to deal with it.

What is cyberbullying?

Cyberbullying is bullying with the use of digital technologies. It can take place on social media, messaging platforms, gaming platforms and mobile phones. It is repeated behaviour, aimed at scaring, angering or shaming those who are targeted. Examples include:

spreading lies about or posting embarrassing photos or videos of someone on social media

sending hurtful, abusive or threatening messages, images or videos via messaging platforms

impersonating someone and sending mean messages to others on their behalf or through fake accounts.

Face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying can often happen alongside each other. But cyberbullying leaves a digital footprint - a record that can prove useful and provide evidence to help stop the abuse.
If you are worried about your safety or something that has happened to you online, you can seek help by calling your national helpline. If your country does not have a helpline, please urgently speak to an adult you trust or seek professional support from trained and experienced carers.

1. Am I being bullied online? How do you tell the difference between a joke and bullying?

All friends joke around with each other, but sometimes it's hard to tell if someone is just having fun or trying to hurt you, especially online. Sometimes they'll laugh it off with a "just kidding," or "don't take it so seriously."

But if you feel hurt or think others are laughing at you instead of with you, then the joke has gone too far. If it continues even after you've asked the person to stop and you are still feeling upset about it, then this could be bullying.

And when the bullying takes place online, it can result in unwanted attention from a wide range of people including strangers. Wherever it may happen, if you are not happy about it, you should not have to stand for it.

Call it what you will - if you feel bad and it doesn't stop, then it's worth getting help. Stopping cyberbullying is not just about calling out bullies, it's also about recognizing that everyone deserves respect - online and in real life.

2. What are the effects of cyberbullying?

When bullying happens online it can feel as if you're being attacked everywhere, even inside your own home. It can seem like there's no escape. The effects can last a long time and affect a person in many ways:

Mentally - feeling upset, embarrassed, stupid, even afraid or angry

Emotionally - feeling ashamed or losing interest in the things you love

Physically - tired (loss of sleep), or experiencing symptoms like stomach aches and headaches

The feeling of being laughed at or harassed by others, can prevent people from speaking up or trying to deal with the problem. In extreme cases, cyberbullying can even lead to people taking their own lives.

Cyberbullying can affect us in many ways. But these can be overcome and people can regain their confidence and health.

3. How can cyberbullying affect my mental health?

When you experience cyberbullying you might start to feel ashamed, nervous, anxious and insecure about what people say or think about you. This can lead to withdrawing from friends and family, negative thoughts and self-talk, feeling guilty about things you did or did not do, or feeling that you are being judged negatively. Feeling lonely, overwhelmed, frequent headaches, nausea or stomachaches are also common.

You can lose your motivation to do the things that you usually enjoy doing and feel isolated from the people you love and trust. This can perpetuate negative feelings and thoughts which can adversely affect your mental health and well-being.

Skipping school is another common effect of cyberbullying and can affect the mental health of young people who turn to substances like alcohol and drugs or violent behaviour to deal with their psychological and physical pain. Talking to a friend, family member or school counsellor you trust can be a first step to getting help.

The effects of cyberbullying on mental health can vary depending on the medium through which it happens. For example, bullying via text messaging or through pictures or videos on social media platforms has proven to be very harmful for adolescents.

4. Who should I talk to if someone is bullying me online? Why is reporting important?

If you think you're being bullied, the first step is to seek help from someone you trust such as your parents, a close family member or another trusted adult.

In your school you can reach out to a counsellor, the sports coach or your favourite teacher - either online or in person.

And if you are not comfortable talking to someone you know, search for a helpline in your country to talk to a professional counsellor.

If the bullying is happening on a social platform, consider blocking the bully and formally reporting their behaviour on the platform itself. Social media companies are obligated to keep their users safe.

For bullying to stop, it needs to be identified and reporting it is key.

It can be helpful to collect evidence - text messages and screen shots of social media posts - to show what's been going on.

For bullying to stop, it needs to be identified and reporting it is key. It can also help to show the bully that their behaviour is unacceptable.

If you are in immediate danger, then you should contact the police or emergency services in your country.

5. I'm experiencing cyberbullying, but I'm afraid to talk to my parents about it. How can I approach them?

If you are experiencing cyberbullying, speaking to a trusted adult - someone you feel safe talking to - is one of the most important first steps you can take.

Talking to parents isn't easy for everyone. But there are things you can do to help the conversation. Choose a time to talk when you know you have their full attention. Explain how serious the problem is for you. Remember, they might not be as familiar with technology as you are, so you might need to help them to understand what's happening.

They might not have instant answers for you, but they are likely to want to help and together you can find a solution. Two heads are always better than one! If you are still unsure about what to do, consider reaching out to other trusted people. There are often more people who care about you and are willing to help than you might think!

6. How can I help my friends report a case of cyberbullying especially if they don't want to do it?

Anyone can become a victim of cyberbullying. If you see this happening to someone you know, try to offer support.

It is important to listen to your friend. Why don't they want to report being cyberbullied? How are they feeling? Let them know that they don't have to formally report anything, but it's crucial to talk to someone who might be able to help.

Anyone can become a victim of cyberbullying.

Remember, your friend may be feeling fragile. Be kind to them. Help them think through what they might say and to whom. Offer to go with them if they decide to report. Most importantly, remind them that you're there for them and you want to help.

If your friend still does not want to report the incident, then support them in finding a trusted adult who can help them deal with the situation. Remember that in certain situations the consequences of cyberbullying can be life threatening.

Doing nothing can leave the person feeling that everyone is against them or that nobody cares. Your words can make a difference.

7. How do we stop cyberbullying without giving up access to the Internet?

Being online has so many benefits. However, like many things in life, it comes with risks that you need to protect against.

If you experience cyberbullying, you may want to delete certain apps or stay offline for a while to give yourself time to recover. But getting off the Internet is not a long-term solution. You did nothing wrong, so why should you be disadvantaged? It may even send the bullies the wrong signal - encouraging their unacceptable behaviour.

We need to be thoughtful about what we share or say that may hurt others.

We all want cyberbullying to stop, which is one of the reasons reporting cyberbullying is so important. But creating the Internet we want goes beyond calling out bullying. We need to be thoughtful about what we share or say that may hurt others. We need to be kind to one another online and in real life. It's up to all of us!

8. How do I prevent my personal information from being used to manipulate or humiliate me on social media?

Think twice before posting or sharing anything on digital platforms - it may be online forever and could be used to harm you later. Don't give out personal details such as your address, telephone number or the name of your school.

Learn about the privacy settings of your favourite social media apps. Here are some actions you can take on many of them:

You can decide who can see your profile, send you direct messages or comment on your posts by adjusting your account privacy settings.

You can report hurtful comments, messages, photos and videos and request they be removed.

Besides 'unfriending', you can completely block people to stop them from seeing your profile or contacting you.

You can also choose to have comments by certain people to appear only to them without completely blocking them.

You can delete posts on your profile or hide them from specific people.

On most of your favourite social media, people aren't notified when you block, restrict or report them.

9. Is there a punishment for cyberbullying?

Most schools take bullying seriously and will take action against it. If you are being cyberbullied by other students, report it to your school.

People who are victims of any form of violence, including bullying and cyberbullying, have a right to justice and to have the offender held accountable.

Laws against bullying, particularly on cyberbullying, are relatively new and still do not exist everywhere. This is why many countries rely on other relevant laws, such as ones against harassment, to punish cyberbullies.

In countries that have specific laws on cyberbullying, online behaviour that deliberately causes serious emotional distress is seen as criminal activity. In some of these countries, victims of cyberbullying can seek protection, prohibit communication from a specified person and restrict the use of electronic devices used by that person for cyberbullying, temporarily or permanently.

However, it is important to remember that punishment is not always the most effective way to change the behaviour of bullies. Sometimes, focusing on repairing the harm and mending the relationship can be better.

10. Technology companies don't seem to care about online bullying and harassment. Are they being held responsible?

Technology companies are increasingly paying attention to the issue of online bullying.

Many of them are introducing ways to address it and better protect their users with new tools, guidance and ways to report online abuse.

But it is true that more is needed. Many young people experience cyberbullying every day. Some face extreme forms of online abuse. Some have taken their own lives as a result.

Technology companies have a responsibility to protect their users especially children and young people.

It is up to all of us to hold them accountable when they're not living up to these responsibilities.

11. Are there any online anti-bullying tools for children or young people?

Each social platform offers different tools (see available ones below) that allow you to restrict who can comment on or view your posts or who can connect automatically as a friend, and to report cases of bullying. Many of them involve simple steps to block, mute or report cyberbullying. We encourage you to explore them.

Social media companies also provide educational tools and guidance for children, parents and teachers to learn about risks and ways to stay safe online.

Also, the first line of defense against cyberbullying could be you. Think about where cyberbullying happens in your community and ways you can help - by raising your voice, calling out bullies, reaching out to trusted adults or by creating awareness of the issue. Even a simple act of kindness can go a long way.

The first line of defense against cyberbullying could be you.

If you are worried about your safety or something that has happened to you online, urgently speak to an adult you trust. Many countries have a special helpline you can call for free and talk to someone anonymously. Visit United for Global Mental Health to find help in your country.

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Cyberbullying: What is it and how to stop it

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What teens want to know about cyberbullying

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are gas or electric cars better

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Yes: although electric cars' batteries make them more carbon-intensive to manufacture than gas cars, they more than make up for it by driving much cleaner under nearly any conditions.

Although many fully electric vehicles (EVs) carry "zero emissions" badges, this claim is not quite true. Battery-electric cars may not emit greenhouse gases from their tailpipes, but some emissions are created in the process of building and charging the vehicles. Nevertheless, says Sergey Paltsev, Deputy Director of the MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change, electric vehicles are clearly a lower-emissions option than cars with internal combustion engines. Over the course of their driving lifetimes, EVs will create fewer carbon emissions than gasoline-burning cars under nearly any conditions.

"We shouldn't claim victory that with this switch to electric cars, problem solved, we are going to have zero emissions," he says. "No, that's not the case. But electric cars are actually much, much better in terms of the impact on the climate in comparison to internal combustion vehicles. And in time, that comparative advantage of electric cars is going to grow."

One source of EV emissions is the creation of their large lithium-ion batteries. The use of minerals including lithium, cobalt, and nickel, which are crucial for modern EV batteries, requires using fossil fuels to mine those materials and heat them to high temperatures. As a result, building the 80 kWh lithium-ion battery found in a Tesla Model 3 creates between 2.5 and 16 metric tons of CO ₂ (exactly how much depends greatly on what energy source is used to do the heating). ¹ This intensive battery manufacturing means that building a new EV can produce around 80% more emissions than building a comparable gas-powered car. ²

But just like with gasoline cars, most emissions from today's EVs come after they roll off the production floor. ³ The major source of EV emissions is the energy used to charge their batteries. These emissions, says Paltsev, vary enormously based on where the car is driven and what kind of energy is used there. The best case scenario looks like what's happening today in Norway, Europe's largest EV market: the nation draws most of its energy from hydropower, giving all those EVs a minuscule carbon footprint. In countries that get most of their energy from burning dirty coal, the emissions numbers for EVs don't look nearly as good-but they're still on par with or better than burning gasoline.

To illustrate how EVs create fewer emissions than their counterparts, Paltsev points to MIT's Insights Into Future Mobility study from 2019. ⁴ This study looked at comparable vehicles like the Toyota Camry and Honda Clarity across their gasoline, hybrid, plug-in hybrid, battery electric, and hydrogen fuel cell configurations. The researchers found that, on average, gasoline cars emit more than 350 grams of CO ₂ per mile driven over their lifetimes. The hybrid and plug-in hybrid versions, meanwhile, scored at around 260 grams per mile of carbon dioxide, while the fully battery-electric vehicle created just 200 grams. Stats from the U.S. Department of Energy tell a similar story: Using the nationwide average of different energy sources, DOE found that EVs create 3,932 lbs. of CO ₂ equivalent per year, compared to 5,772 lbs. for plug-in hybrids, 6,258 lbs. for typical hybrids, and 11,435 lbs. for gasoline vehicles. ⁵

MIT's report shows how much these stats can swing based on a few key factors. For example, when the researchers used the average carbon intensity of America's power grid, they found that a fully electric vehicle emits about 25 percent less carbon than a comparable hybrid car. But if they ran the numbers assuming the EV would charge up in hydropower-heavy Washington State, they found it would emit 61 percent less carbon than the hybrid. When they did the math for coal-heavy West Virginia, the EV actually created more carbon emissions than the hybrid, but still less than the gasoline car.

In fact, Paltsev says, it's difficult to find a comparison in which EVs fare worse than internal combustion. If electric vehicles had a shorter lifespan than gas cars, that would hurt their numbers because they would have fewer low-emissions miles on the road to make up for the carbon-intensive manufacture of their batteries. Yet when the MIT study calculated a comparison in which EVs lasted only 90,000 miles on the road rather than 180,000 miles, they remained 15 percent better than a hybrid and far better than a gas car.

And while internal combustion engines are getting more efficient, EVs are poised to become greener by leaps and bounds as more countries add more clean energy to their mix. MIT's report sees gasoline cars dropping from more than 350 grams of CO ₂ per mile to around 225 grams by the year 2050. In that same span, however, battery EVs could drop to around 125 grams, and perhaps even down to 50 grams if the price of renewable energy were to drop significantly.

"Once we decarbonize the electric grid-once we get more and more clean sources to the grid-the comparison is getting better and better," Paltsev says.
Thank you to several readers for sending in related questions, including Ross Burlington of Riverside, California, Lloyd Olson of Webberville, Texas, and Thomas Marshall of Lake Charles, Louisiana. You can submit your own question to Ask MIT Climate here. Read more Ask MIT Climate

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Are electric vehicles definitely better for the climate than gas-powered cars?

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Yes: although electric cars' batteries make them more carbon-intensive to manufacture than gas cars, they more than make up for it by driving much cleaner under nearly any conditions.

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Affects all individuals, but those who are older and who have a family history of cancer are more prone than others.

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Summary

Inflammation predisposes to the development of cancer and promotes all stages of tumorigenesis. Cancer cells as well as surrounding stromal and inflammatory cells engage in well-orchestrated reciprocal interactions to form an inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME). Cells within the TME are highly plastic, continuously changing their phenotypic and functional characteristics. Here we review the origins of inflammation in tumors, and the mechanisms whereby inflammation drives tumor initiation, growth, progression and metastasis. We discuss how tumor promoting inflammation closely resembles inflammatory processes typically found during development, immunity, maintenance of tissue homeostasis or tissue repair, and illuminate the distinctions between tissue-protective and pro-tumorigenic inflammation, including spatio-temporal considerations. Defining the cornerstone rules of engagement governing molecular and cellular mechanisms of tumor-promoting inflammation will be essential for the further development of anti-cancer therapies.

Keywords: Inflammation, tumor microenvironment, cancer, cytokine, cell plasticity, tumor progression, metastasis, mechanisms

ETOC

Grivennikov and Greten review the mechanisms underlying the initiation of pro-tumorigenic inflammatory responses, how these evolve throughout the different stages of tumor development and the plasticity of the cells within the tumor microenvironment.

Parallels between "normal" inflammatory responses and "inflammation in cancer".

The ability to respond to infections and to perform wound healing and tissue regeneration has a much stronger positive evolutionary pressure than the avoidance of tumor development which often happens at post-reproductive age. Therefore, inflammatory mechanisms which are important for normal tissue regeneration but can also promote tumorigenesis present as an acceptable evolutionary "trade-off" ( Figure 1 ). Low level homeostatic inflammatory response in altered tissues ( Aran et al., 2016), and inflammation in the context of tissue homeostasis functions to sense and react to potential insults (stresses, tissue damage, infection, metabolic alterations and other changes to homeostasis) to restore homeostasis and to prevent loss of tissue function ( Medzhitov, 2008). Tissue associated macrophages, major tissue sentinels, react to tissue alterations to remove dying cells (clearance of apoptotic cells), produce chemotactic molecules for the recruitment of other cell types (if necessary), regulate immune responses and barrier functions and support the stem cell niche. Tissue inflammatory responses may be initiated and maintained by at least three chief interdependent mechanisms. Firstly, local tissue macrophages and DC can increase their number by local proliferation if the degree of an initiating insult itself is not strong. Alike, strong perturbations of tissue homeostasis will lead to the recruitment of immune cells from bone marrow (monocytes, neutrophils and monocyte-derived cells) and secondary lymphoid tissues (lymphoid cells). Finally, recruited or locally amplified inflammatory cells further undergo local activation, differentiation and polarization, instructed by the cues from the microenvironment ( Medzhitov, 2008; Okabe and Medzhitov, 2016).

In the context of cancer, it is conceivable that hyperproliferation of epithelial cells also induces homeostatic responses aimed at increasing numbers of macrophages and fibroblasts, associated with epithelial tissues as basic "tissue blocks". This is achieved by the existence of signaling circuits by various chemokines and growth factors reciprocally produced by one cellular type and consumed by another ( Zhou et al., 2018). This process is likely to be uniform between tissue amplification for organism growth, limited tissue repair after wounding or infection and tumor growth. Therefore, mere epithelial and cancer growth triggers the encoded process of acquiring more macrophages and fibroblasts in the tissue. If the initial level of stress, hypoxia and other tumor specific insults is not high, then most of tumor associated macrophages can emerge from local proliferation and migration of tissue macrophages ( Loyher et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2017).

In contrast to wound healing and infections that resolve after immune cell recruitment and epithelial cell proliferation, growing tumors present with persisting oncogene-derived stress, cell death and microbial signals that altogether feed into a feed-forward loop of inflammation-induced signaling and inflammatory cell recruitment ( Figure 1 ). As monocyte-derived cells, such as subsets of DC, monocytes themselves and neutrophils do not have their local precursors residing in the tissue, their emergence during tumor growth and progressing is invariably executed via recruitment of hematopoietic-derived (spleen, blood, bone marrow) cellular precursors. It remains to be determined whether transcriptional programs for local versus systemic myeloid cell amplification in the tumors are significantly different, but it is possible that the former is primarily driven by an increase in growth factors (i.e. CSF-1) while the latter is preferably based on chemokine induction.

Chronic inflammation, infection and autoimmunity predecing tumor formation

In order to deconstruct the roles and the mechanisms of action of inflammation and cancer, it is important to understand how inflammation in cancer is induced and maintained in the first place, both in terms of time and stimulus ( Figure 2 ). Around 15-20% of all cancer cases are preceded by infection, chronic inflammation or autoimmunity at the same tissue or organ site ( Grivennikov et al., 2010; Mantovani et al., 2008). In such cases, inflammation which promotes cancer is induced and exists long before tumor formation. The most prominent examples include inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), chronic hepatitis, Helicobacter-induced gastritis or schistostoma-induced bladder inflammation increasing the risk of CRC, liver cancer, stomach cancer or bladder cancer, respectively ( Trinchieri, 2012).

There are also various environmental factors which predispose to and promote cancer acting in whole or in part via induction of chronic inflammation, albeit sometimes of low grade and intensity. In this case, inflammation may precede or accompany tumor development. With regard to the host, these factors may be systemic or site and organ specific. For example, inhalation of fine particles, tobacco smoke and asbestos would primarily cause lung and airway inflammation and promote lung cancer and mesothelioma ( Kadariya et al., 2016; Takahashi et al., 2010). On the other hand, low grade inflammation induced by obesity, hyperglycemia and excessive lipid accumulation is generally of systemic nature, and as a result, can promote or increase risk of many different cancers, including liver, pancreatic, colon, breast and other malignancies ( Quail and Dannenberg, 2019; Quail et al., 2017). Type II diabetes, which has previously been considered as an independent risk factor for cancer, may be viewed as a part of obesity-induced inflammation and obesity-related tissue injury leading to cancer sequela. With the rapid emergence of obesity epidemic in the westernized countries, the exact mechanisms of how obesity and obesity-related inflammation promote tumor progression need to be determined in order to mitigate these live threatening consequences of prevalent metabolic diseases. The action of systemic inflammation can take place even during the late stages of tumor developments, as exemplified by tobacco-smoke, obesity and bacterial products induced inflammation which activate neutrophils and their extracellular trap formation function to promote breast cancer metastasis into the lungs ( Albrengues et al., 2018).

Sources and Stimuli for induction of inflammation during tumorigenesis

There are several mechanisms of how "ground zero" inflammatory responses may be induced and what are the relevant causes and stimuli ( Figure 2B ). One of the hallmarks of cancer is the loss of cell intrinsic tumor suppressor functions. One of the most commonly mutated tumor suppressors is Tp53, encoding for p53 protein. P53 protein has multifaceted functions to regulate cellular homeostasis but one of them is its transcriptional antagonism with NF-κB ( Komarova et al., 2005; Schwitalla et al., 2013b), a key positive regulator of inflammation. As NF-κB activating signals are always present within the tumor microenvironment and even in a normal tissue, loss of functional p53 results in increased expression of NF-κB dependent inflammatory genes. In colorectal cancer, this inflammatory signature contributes to tumor progression and metastasis ( Elyada et al., 2011; Pribluda et al., 2013; Schwitalla et al., 2013b). Loss of tumor suppressors also can inhibit proper DNA repair and accelerate DNA damage, which can trigger DNA-damage induced inflammatory pathways ( Andriani et al., 2016). Moreover, activation of oncogenes, necessary for cancer development, is mechanistically linked to the increased production of cytokines and chemokines and recruitment of myeloid cells, which are either directly tumor promoting or immunosuppressive. For example, oncogenic signaling K-Ras regulates the expression of CXCL3, a key chemokine for myeloid cell recruitment ( Liao et al., 2019). Moreover, K-Rras activation enhances production of cytokines and chemokines that belong to "senescence-associated secretory phenotype" ( Davalos et al., 2010), including IL-1α, IL-1β, CCL2 and CXCL1. K-Ras and c-Myc activation cooperate in induction of CCL9, IL-23 and other inflammatory entities in pancreatic cancer ( Kortlever et al., 2017) and overall the mechanisms where oncogene activation leads to excessive production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines may be a unifying mechanism how inflammation is triggered in many cancers.

If tumor development and progression is initially driven by a pathogen such as H. pylori, H. hepaticus, HCV, HBV or HPV, recognition of persistent pathogens will of course promote distinct inflammatory responses. This is one of the most straightforward examples where recognition of cancer-inducing pathogens through "classical" receptors recognizing conserved molecular patterns would trigger innate inflammatory responses. Sensors like TLR2 and TLR4, STING, cGAS as well as multiple sensors associated with inflammasomes sense oncogenic bacteria and viruses ( Woo et al., 2015). However, an alternative emerging paradigm is that many cancers may be promoted by commensal microbiota, either by translocation and adherence of microbes to cancer cells or by the distant release of inflammation-activating microbial metabolites. These microbes and microbial products can even travel with tumors to the site of metastasis and serve as a source of inflammation in metastasis ( Bullman et al., 2017). Pancreatic cancer is often associated with chronic pancreatitis, which may be sometimes associated with infection but even in mouse models is driven by microbial induced Th17 responses ( McAllister et al., 2014). Liver cancer and NASH/fibrosis which underlies HCC development are actively promoted by intestinal bacteria and their products ( Dapito et al., 2012; Shalapour et al., 2017) and recent studies highlight the role of lung microbiota in induction of inflammation and tumorigenesis ( Greathouse et al., 2018; Jin et al., 2019). Perhaps the best example of commensal microbiota influencing tumor growth and progression comes from colon cancer. Events following intestinal transformation lead to the deterioration of intestinal barrier, because hyperproliferating cells fail to properly differentiate and form protective tight and adherence junctions and well-developed mucus layer, isolating immune compartment from bacteria ( Grivennikov et al., 2012). Broad spectrum antibiotic treatment or rendering mice germ free reduces inflammation and tumor growth, even in animal models where potential pathogens are absent. Moreover, diet-induced changes in the microbiome promote tumor progression in the presence of activating K-Ras mutations ( Schulz et al., 2014). In human CRC, quite a few of bacteria have been suggested to be preferentially associated with adenomas and carcinomas, including subspecies of Escherichia coli ( Arthur et al., 2012), Bacteroides fragilis ( Wu et al., 2009) and Fusobacterium nucleatum ( Kostic et al., 2013). A common denominator for these bacteria is their presence in tightly adherent fraction of bacteria capable of direct interaction with the surface of the tumor, either because of special ligand-receptor mode of adhesion ( Rubinstein et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2017), ability to form biofilms and initiate the outgrowth of the consortia of invasive bacteria ( Dejea et al., 2018; Tomkovich et al., 2019) or ability to induce low grade inflammation disrupting the barrier ( Wu et al., 2009). It is reasonable to expect that the tumor promoting action of microbes in any of microbe rich cancer sites will be in part mediated by the inflammation they modulate.

While the ability to evade cell death is clearly a prominent hallmark of cancer ( Hanahan and Weinberg, 2011), it is important to distinguish "who dies, when and how". Notably, cell death is not only important in the context of therapy-induced inflammation but limited cell death of untransformed cells adjacent to tumor seeds may also be essential for tumor growth ( Kuraishy et al., 2011), especially in organs like liver and skin. In part this can be explained through clearance of the space and niche and induction of compensatory proliferation of tumor clones, other mechanisms clearly involve immunological recognition of cell death and induction of pro-tumorigenic immune responses. For example, in liver cancer death of hepatocytes results in release of IL-1α and other "alarmins" to trigger expression of IL-6 and other growth factor to promote survival and growth of neighboring mutated hepatocytes ( Sakurai et al., 2008). HMGB1, another alarmin released from dying cells, is important to initiate inflammatory responses and tumorigenesis ( Khambu et al., 2018). Release of SAP130 cytoplasmic protein from necroptotic pancreatic cancer cells is sensed by Mincle receptor and induces CXCL1 and thus recruitment of myeloid cells which drive tumor growth and inhibit anti-tumor T cells responses ( Seifert et al., 2016). The inducer of cell death, whether it will be hypoxia or metabolic induced stress in growing tumors, therapy, infection or mutagenic insult may not matter much for the consequences of cell death and inflammation. However, the type of cell death may be important, with apoptosis and autophagy being less inflammatory and necrosis and necroptosis resulting in release of DAMPs being more potent inflammatory inducers.

Although the source/inducer of inflammation in cancer may be different, it seems that the induction of inflammation is always tightly linked with the emergence of factors absolutely needed for oncogenic process-alterations in oncogenes and tumor suppressors, infections for microbial-induced cancers or deterioration of barrier function because of transformation-induced loss of tissue organization. As inflammation is wired to be induced during the responses to the loss of tissue homeostasis, the induction of inflammation is 'pre-encoded' in genetic and transcriptional programs required for oncogenic transformation and therefore in many conditions.

Inflammation and tumor initiation

Two main interdependent events are required for successful tumor initiation. 1) One leads to accumulation of mutations and/or epigenetic alterations of genes and signaling pathways involved into tumor suppression (inactivation) and oncogenic pathways (activation). While traditionally these have been linked mostly to environmental factors (UV, carcinogens, variable radiation) and inherent errors in DNA repair and replication, inflammatory responses harbor powerful mechanisms which lead to accumulation of mutation and various epigenetic changes in adjacent epithelial cells. Macrophages and neutrophils are potent producers of reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen (RNI) species which induce mutations. Therefore, induction of inflammation can lead to increased mutagenesis, predisposing to accumulation of mutations in normal tissue. Indeed, chronic intestinal inflammation leads to accumulation of mutations in Tp53 and other cancer related genes in intestinal epithelial cells ( Canli et al., 2017; Chang et al., 2007; Hussain et al., 2003; Robles et al., 2016) and can trigger tumor formation even without additional extrinsic mutagens being present ( Meira et al., 2008). Interestingly, potential of inflammation to induce mutations and DNA damage is accounted for by evolution, as inflammatory cytokines such as IL-22 also can induce expression of DNA damage response (DDR) genes to counteract possible genotoxic insult caused by inflammation ( Gronke et al., 2019). Also, signaling by cytokines (i.e. IL-6, TNFα, IL-1β) produced by inflammatory cells activates epigenetic machinery in epithelial cells including components of DNA and histone modifications (Dnmt1, Dnmt3, DOTL1), miRNA and lncRNA modulating expression levels of oncogenes and tumor suppressors ( Grivennikov, 2013). The net outcome of such epigenetic changes is proposed to be the same as inactivating mutations in tumor suppressors and activating mutations in oncogenes, and potentially can be achieved in "bi-allelic" manner at the same time. As in many cases stem cells are proposed "cells of origin" for cancer, inflammatory processes can trigger de-differentiation of post-mitotic epithelia into tumor-initiating stem like cells ( Schwitalla et al., 2013a) ( Figure 3A ). Chronic inflammation triggering tissue damage can weaken barrier function and expose the stem cell compartment to environmental carcinogens or to bring stem cells to a close proximity of active inflammatory cells producing genotoxic compounds. In microbial rich cancer, such as colon cancer, enhanced inflammation can also shape the qualitative characteristics of epithelial-adhesive microbiota, enriching the content of species harboring genotoxic gene products, such as colibactin in some strains of E.coli ( Arthur et al., 2012; Wilson et al., 2019) capable of inflicting mutations in host cells.

2) Creation of transformed and/or malignant clones, however, should be followed by their outgrowth into a frank tumor, a process to which inflammatory mechanisms can significantly contribute. For instance, cytokine receptor signaling in mutated cells may converge at the induction of pro-survival pathways particularly mediated by NF-κB, STAT3 and other types of signaling ( Dmitrieva-Posocco et al., 2019; Greten and Karin, 2005; Grivennikov et al., 2009), thereby increasing the survival probability of survival of transformed clone or enable proliferation. Specifically, it is conceivable, that such an early contribution of inflammatory signaling into tumor initiation is needed as tumor cells in limited numbers do not yet establish a full-scale TME with auxiliary stromal cells capable of producing enough tumor-supporting growth factors. The issue of inflammation-driven cell survival may be also important in context of cancer immunosurveillance and tumor elimination phase of mutated and stressed cells ( Dunn et al., 2004; Schreiber et al., 2011). Signals activating STAT3 protect epithelial cells from CD8 T cytotoxic cell attack ( Yu et al., 2009; Ziegler et al., 2018) and signaling by IFNκ, albeit a typically anti-tumorigenic cytokine, upregulates expression of T cell exhaustion inducing molecule programmed death (PD)-L1 on transformed epithelium, which is recognized by T cells. To the same end, inflammatory signals may increase fitness and reduce expression of "stress ligands" on cancer cells, required for proper recognition and ( Iannello and Raulet, 2014; Lam et al., 2014; Shifrin et al., 2014), Also, inflammation and injury trigger cell turnover in tissues, thereby creating space for the outgrowth of malignant clones ( Kuraishy et al., 2011). This is especially evident in liver and skin cancer, where death of normal cells is required for compensatory proliferation of neighboring transformed clones, thereby creating a scenario where inflammation-induced tissue injury and cell death are required for tumor outgrowth. Some of the immunological mechanisms of Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), as well as the expression of inflammatory mediators may be similar. However, UC which is associated with significant tissue damage and ulceration, followed by repetitive cycles of regeneration increases the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) up to 5-8 times, while CD presented with transmural inflammation but not widespread epithelial damage, increases the risk for CRC only 1.4 times ( Ullman and Itzkowitz, 2011). Therefore, while mere presence of inflammatory cytokines is needed for tumor initiation, cytokines collaborate with inflammation-induced tissue damage and regeneration.

Clones with equal genetic alterations can possess different propensity for survival and outgrowth depending on tissue microenvironment these clones are placed into, illustrating the adaptive nature of oncogenic process ( DeGregori, 2017; Henry et al., 2015; Rozhok and DeGregori, 2019). Stressed and inflamed tissue maybe conducive of stimulating tumor growth while normal unaffected tissue would block it. Alike, the presence of inflammation can trigger outgrowth of dormant clones, both in the case of primary tumors and in distant metastasis. Some of the mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon may intersect with the ability of cytokines to promote survival and proliferation described above.

Inflammation and tumor promotion

Perhaps the best studied propensity of inflammation to influence tumorigenicity is its contribution to tumor promotion. From a translational stand point, insights into how inflammation drives tumor growth are important at least two-fold: inhibition of inflammation can stall tumor growth and further dedifferentiation, widening the opportunity for early detection of cancers and shedding light on how metastatic seeds outgrow once distantly established. The progress in this field has been fueled by multiple preclinical animal models of inflammation and cancer and was instrumental to reveal most of the significant mechanisms connection inflammation and cancer. Conceptually, several interdependent molecular and cellular mechanisms are at play ( Figure 3B ). Firstly, similar to tumor initiation, inflammatory entities can serve as direct growth factors for growing tumors. In addition, inflammatory factors are essential in shaping cell plasticity within the TME, which further affects tumor growth by at least three distinct mechanisms.

One of the first evidences on the role of inflammation in tumor promotion came from studies of inactivation of NF-κB in myeloid cells, where ablation of the IKKβ kinase led to a reduction in tumor growth in a model of colitis-associated cancer ( Greten et al., 2004). Indeed, NF-κB, especially in immune cells, is a master regulator of cytokine expression whose action on epithelial and cancer cells promotes survival and proliferation and chemokine expression, which is essential for cell recruitment and re-shaping of the TME. Indeed, NF-κB dependent cytokines confer unique and non-redundant roles in tumor growth as their genetic or pharmacological inactivation reduces tumor growth acting through activation of other oncogenic pathways in epithelial and cancer cells, including STAT3, ERK, JUN and receptor Tyr-kinases (RTK) ( Becker et al., 2004; Grivennikov et al., 2009; Huber et al., 2012; Popivanova et al., 2008; Putoczki et al., 2013). Similarly, signaling triggered by inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-17, IL-11 can increase proliferation rates of tumor cells, especially under sub-optimal conditions present in vivo, including hypoxia, lack of nutrients, paucity of environment in production of growth factors and sculpting role of anti-tumor immunity.

Action of inflammatory cells and mediators during tumor growth also includes antagonizing potential anti-tumor immunity and promotion of tumor auxiliary functions such as stimulation of angiogenesis and recruitment of fibroblasts and other stromal cells, which exert tumor-supporting functions. Finally, through modulation of TME inflammatory signals alter mechanical and metabolic properties of stromal and tumor cells by regulating formation and consistency of extracellular matrix and availability of growth factors, regulation of consumption and availability of key metabolites, including those involved in amino acid and redox metabolism. These overall mechanisms were previously reviewed elsewhere ( Grivennikov et al., 2010).

Inflammation, tumor progression and metastasis

Historically, studies on tumor initiation and growth were the first instrumental steps to demonstrate the critical role link between inflammation and cancer. However, understanding inflammatory mechanisms governing metastatic process has the most eminent impact considering that over 90% of cancer-related deaths occur because of metastatic disease. Indeed, longitudinal clinical studies that support the role of inflammation in cancer mortality ( Rothwell et al., 2012) most likely underscore the role of inflammation in regulation of metastasis, rather than earlier stages of tumorigenesis. Prolonged aspirin usage reduces overall mortality, especially of gastrointestinal cancers, and distant metastasis. Experimental stimulation of resolution of inflammation or blocking inflammatory responses results in poor colonization and eradicates micrometastases ( Panigrahy et al., 2019). Metastasis is a highly inefficient process with most of cells released from primary tumor eventually dying and not forming a distant metastasis. Therefore, any potential aid to get through the bottleneck would have a cardinal effect on the 'success" of metastasis and potential patient survival. Given the apparent paucity of true metastatic models, some of the mechanisms of how inflammation may affect this process have only come to light recently.

The process of metastasis starts with the invasion on cancerous cells away from epithelial layer into the neighboring tissues and acquisition of EMT (epithelial to mesenchymal transition) phenotype, at least temporary. While such epithelium-to-'fibroblast" cell transformation may be often incomplete and partial ( Varga and Greten, 2017), it renders cancerous cells mobile and allowing them to break through the basal membrane, invade the tissue and reach the lymphatics or blood vessels for further dissemination. In particular, cancer stem cells as opposed to "bulk" tumor cells are more efficient in their capacity to serve as metastatic seeds ( de Sousa e Melo et al., 2017). Interestingly, cancer stem cells are also transcriptionally and functionally closer to mesenchymal cells, than regular epithelial or bulk tumor cells, probably reflecting their existence in the niche rich in mesenchymal growth and differentiation factors ( Dominguez et al., 2017). Inflammation influences cancer invasion, EMT and cell migration on several levels. Cytokines, including TNF and IL-1β can affect directly expression of EMT inducing transcription factors Twist and Slug ( Francart et al., 2018; Suarez-Carmona et al., 2017). Moreover, IL-11 is involved in the recruitment of TGFβ driven and producing fibroblasts, which supports tumor invasion and immune escape in the subset of colon cancer with the worst clinical prognosis ( Calon et al., 2012; Calon et al., 2015). Similarly, in breast cancer, IL-11 within the tumor microenvironment acts on cancer cells to drive clonal selection of the most invasive and malignant clones ( Marusyk et al., 2014). The recrutment of myeloid cells to the invasive edge of the tumor leads to production of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and other enzymes`, which remodel extracellular matrix and facilitate celll migration ( Akkari et al., 2014; Sevenich et al., 2014). The same myeloid cells, particularly of granulocytic and monocytic lineage, sometimes referred to as myeloid derived suppressor cell (MDSC)) also contribute to the suppression of anti-tumor responses ( Veglia et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2008). Increased accumulation of cytotoxic T and NK cells at the invasive margin of the primary tumor, along with decreased presence of myeloid cells as a part of the "cancer immunoscore" indeed correlates with better prognosis ( Bindea et al., 2013; Mlecnik et al., 2016). Yet, it is not yet clear whether myeloid induced immunosuppression is critical at the invasion stage or at preventing metastatic outgrowth. It is conceivable that macrophages play very diverse roles in immunosuppression, chemoattraction and destruction of extracellular matrix as the invasion proceeds ( Gatenbee et al., 2019). Apart from that, tissue macrophages are critical cell types during the development of several organs and can assist cell migration and establishment of tissue architecture by producing factors directly influencing motility, phenotype and positioning of epithelial and mesenchymal cells. In this regard, increased production of inflammatory entities causing enhanced recruitment of myeloid cell into the invading tumors may support tumor outgrowth via a variety of mechanisms which are evolutionary reserved for the regulation of organogenesis during ontogeny.

Cancer stem cells (CSC) are considered essential for tumor metastasis and resistance to therapy, yet it becomes increasingly clear that the number and proportion of CSC in the tumor are not constant, like for stem cells in the normal tissue. Instead, various stimuli including prominent inflammatory signaling via transcription factors NF-κB and STAT3 in cancer cells can drive their stemness, increase the proportion of CSC among the tumor cell population and thereby elevate the invasive potential ( Kryczek et al., 2014; Schwitalla et al., 2013a). The same effects can originate from mesenchymal-cancer interactions ( Del Pozo Martin et al., 2015; Malanchi et al., 2011) and mesenchymal and stromal cells can be regulated by inflammatory signals.

As metastatic spread typically occurs via lymphatics or blood stream, the processes of intravasation and extravasation are essential. These are mediated by the expression of adequate set of adhesion molecules and integrins, to allow heterotypic cell-cell interaction, adhesion and movement. Inflammatory cytokines are potent inducers of integrins, selectins and adhesion molecules like VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. The expression of exact and tissue specific adhesion molecules may also determine the organ-specific tropism of metastasis and therefore 'flavors" of inflammation may potentially have an impact to which distant organ particular tumor seed or type of cancer will primarily will spread to.

The process of adhesion and extravasation can be further aided by inflammatory cells, such as monocytes and neutrophils ( Kersten et al., 2017), which would precipitate the adherence of metastatic seeds, form complexes with cancer cells and mediate their adhesion and translocation throughout the vessel wall as well as establishing and maintaining the metastatic niche ( Aceto et al., 2014; Szczerba et al., 2019; Wolf et al., 2012). The oligocellular complexes between cancer cells themselves, or monocyte-cancer cells, neutrophil-cancer cell also serve to protect these metastatic seeds from the immunesurveillance at the most vulnerable moment away from established immunosuppressive microenvironment of the primary tumor. It is clear, that inflammatory signals from obesity to microbes, to tumor-specific inflammatory stimuli which enhance these cell-cell interactions increase the rate of metastasis. For example, IL-17 dependent activation of neutrophils drives breast cancer metastasis through cellular interactions in the circulation and possibly via establishment of pre-metastatic niche ( Coffelt et al., 2015), while lipopolysaccharide increases lung colonization and promotes tumor cell survival ( Luo et al., 2004). Stimulation of inflammation by tobacco smoke, obesity or microbial compounds also increases lung metastatic burden via induction of neutrophil activation and increased neutrophil-cancer cell interactions mediated by NET's ( Albrengues et al., 2018), although it is not clear whether this process is regulated at the stage of spread or dormancy. While the process of metastatic growth from a smaller to a larger metastatic nodule is probably not much different from the growth of primary tumor and the role of inflammation there, one of the roadblocks for metastasis which remains is the ability of single cells to take off and grow in the epithelial tissue of origin different from the primary tumor. Because of that, initially after the spread and initial colonization some of the seeds remain at the dormant stage and their eventual outgrowth may be promoted by inflammatory cytokines and growth factors produced by immune cells ( Krall et al., 2018). It remains to be determined across the different tumor types, whether the requirement of inflammatory and growth factors is the same for primary tumor growth and for metastatic outgrowth in different secondary organ sites.

Concluding Remarks

Studies on the mechanisms of pro-tumorigenic inflammatory pathways in cancer have revealed that the pathways evolved to mediate immunity to infection and promote tissue homeostasis, are usurped by tumors towards their benefit. Induction of inflammation in the TME follows distinct timing and can happen prior to or after initiation of tumorigenesis or may become evident only at the later stages of tumorigenesis. Because of that timing, in some models of cancer, types of tumors or individual tumors, the contribution of tumor-promoting inflammation may emerge very early or remain silent until late stages of metastasis or therapy resistance. Importantly, there are several distinct stimuli that induce inflammation in tumors. Some of them, such as carcinogenic microbes, environmental pollutants (particles, smoke) and low-grade inflammation associated with obesity, as well epithelial barrier deterioration associated commensal microorganisms may serve as important targets amenable for cancer prevention via reduction of tumor-initiating inflammation by removing or neutralizing the original stimulus. This can be achieved via vaccinations, dietary interventions, understanding of antibiotics usage and better environmental protection. Other stimuli, for example associated with hypoxia, cell death or genetic and/or epigenetic modulation of tumor suppressors and oncogenes represent events that are extremely valuable to understand the biology of cancer, but probably can be targeted only in the context of cancer therapy and by modulation the signaling events and signal transduction hubs downstream of the initial stimuli. As inflammation can play instrumental roles during all stages of tumor development, future research will undoubtedly uncover molecular and cellular mechanisms and modes of operation for inflammation and immune cells especially in early tumor initiation as well as metastatic spread and metastatic outgrowth - field(s) hampered by the paucity of the faithful in vivo models, a need to work at the single cell level only on a few cells within the normal tissue (primary or metastatic sites) and timeframes for the studies of autochthonous metastasis. In many instances, animal models correctly represent TME observed in human patients ( Binnewies et al., 2018; Zilionis et al., 2019), however additional challenges in the field are required to fully translate findings in animal models to human cancers, which arise and progress in individuals with great genetic variability, history of environmental exposures, dietary habits and commensal and pathogenic microbe and virus composition. The elucidation of transcriptional and other signaling programs governing cellular plasticity within the TME will further aid the studies on the complex cross-talk, interaction and functional diversification of multiple cellular types. Ultimately, this will allow creation of new fate mapping and lineage tracing reporters and identification of targets common for many types of cancer or alternatively, rapidly amenable for precision therapies based on robust molecular and genetic analyses of individual patients and their primary and metastatic tumors. As the array of modern cancer therapies continuously expands, including various therapies based directly on immune cells (checkpoint immunotherapies, vaccines, CAR T cells), it will be imperative to uncover the role of immune and inflammatory pathways in therapy resistance.

As we underlined several basic principles and mechanisms of how inflammation promotes cancer and drew parallels between the "normal" endogenous role of inflammation in immunity and tissues homeostasis, we expect that a vast body of knowledge and complexities being constantly discovered in the field can be gradually distilled into several cornerstone rules of engagement governing molecular and cellular mechanisms of tumor-promoting inflammation.

Acknowledgements

We apologize to colleagues whose important work could not be cited due to the citation limits. Supported by NIH R01CA227629 and CA218133, Pew Scholar in Biomedical Sciences, AACR-Landon Innovator and US-Israel BSF awards to S.G, NIH P30 CA-006927 to Fox Chase Cancer Center. F.R.G. is supported by institutional funds from the Georg-Speyer-Haus, by the LOEWE Center Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI) funded by the Hessen State Ministry for Higher Education, Research and the Arts [III L 5 - 519/03/03.001 - (0015)], and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (FOR2438: Gr1916/11-1; SFB 815, 1177 and 1292). The Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Georg-Speyer-Haus is funded jointly by the German Federal Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and the Arts of the State of Hessen (HMWK).

Footnotes

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no competing financial interests.

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Inflammation and Cancer: Triggers, Mechanisms and Consequences

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Inflammation predisposes to the development of cancer and promotes all stages of tumorigenesis. Cancer cells as well as surrounding stromal and inflammatory cells engage in well-orchestrated reciprocal interactions to form an inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME). Cells within the TME are highly plastic, continuously changing their phenotypic and functional characteristics.

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Students and teachers

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Book banning, the most widespread form of censorship, occurs when private individuals, government officials, or organizations remove books from libraries, school reading lists, or bookstore shelves because they object to their content, ideas, or themes. Those advocating a ban complain typically that the book in question contains graphic violence, expresses disrespect for parents and family, is sexually explicit, exalts evil, lacks literary merit, is unsuitable for a particular age group, or includes offensive language. In this photo, Gail Sheehy, author of "Passages," at podium, right, reads during the "First Banned Books Read Out" in New York, April 1, 1982. The rally protested censorship by school and public libraries of certain books under pressure from right wing religious groups. (AP Photo/Carlos Rene Perez, used with permission from the Associated Press)

Book banning, a form of censorship, occurs when private individuals, government officials, or organizations remove books from libraries, school reading lists, or bookstore shelves because they object to their content, ideas, or themes. Those advocating a ban complain typically that the book in question contains graphic violence, expresses disrespect for parents and family, is sexually explicit, exalts evil, lacks literary merit, is unsuitable for a particular age group, or includes offensive language.

Book banning is the most widespread form of censorship in the United States

Book banning is the most widespread form of censorship in the United States, with children's literature being the primary target. Advocates for banning a book or certain books fear that children will be swayed by its contents, which they regard as potentially dangerous. They commonly fear that these publications will present ideas, raise questions, and incite critical inquiry among children that parents, political groups, or religious organizations are not ready to address or that they find inappropriate.

Most challenges and bans prior to the 1970s focused primarily on obscenity and explicit sexuality. Common targets included D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterly's Lover and James Joyce's . In the late 1970s, attacks were launched on ideologies expressed in books.

To counter charges of censorship, opponents of publications sometimes use the tactic of restricting access rather than calling for the physical removal of books. Opponents of bans argue that by restricting information and discouraging freedom of thought, censors undermine one of the primary functions of education: teaching students how to think for themselves. Such actions, assert free speech proponents, endanger tolerance, free expression, and democracy. In this photo, author Kurt Vonnegut Jr., speaks to reporters on a federal court ruling calling for a trial to determine if a Long Island school board can ban a number of books, including his "Slaughterhouse Five," at New York Civil Liberty offices in 1980. (AP Photo-File, used with permission from the Associated Press)

In September 1990, the Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression declared the First Amendment to be "in perilous condition across the nation" based on the results of a comprehensive survey on free expression. Even literary classics, including Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, were targeted. Often, the complaints arose from individual parents or school board members. At other times, however, the pressure to censor came from such public interest groups as the Moral Majority.

Censorship - the suppression of ideas and information - can occur at any stage or level of publication, distribution, or institutional control. Some pressure groups claim that the public funding of most schools and libraries makes community censorship of their holdings legitimate.

To counter charges of censorship, opponents of publications sometimes use the tactic of restricting access rather than calling for the physical removal of books. Opponents of bans argue that by restricting information and discouraging freedom of thought, censors undermine one of the primary functions of education: teaching students how to think for themselves. Such actions, assert free speech proponents, endanger tolerance, free expression, and democracy.

Community standards may be taken into account when deciding if materials are subject to censor

Although censorship violates the First Amendment right to freedom of speech, some limitations are constitutionally permissible. The courts have told public officials at all levels that they may take community standards into account when deciding whether materials are obscene or pornographic and thus subject to censor.

They cannot, however, censor publications by generally accepted authors - such as Mark Twain, for example, J. K. Rowling, R. L. Stine, Judy Blume, or Robert Cormier - in order to placate a small segment of the community. Cormier's Chocolate War was one of the American Library Association's Top 10 Banned Books for 2005 and 2006.

Those who oppose book banning emphasize that the First Amendment protects students' rights to receive and express ideas. The Supreme Court in Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District v. Pico (1982) ruled 5-4 that public schools can bar books that are "pervasively vulgar" or not right for the curriculum, but they cannot remove books "simply because they dislike the ideas contained in those books." The Court's decision was, however, narrow, applying only to the removal of books from school library shelves. In this photo, Makenzie Hatfield a student at George Washington high school, holds banned books by author Pat Conroy in West Virginia in 2007. The Pat Conroy books "Beach Music" and "The Prince of Tides" were suspended from nearby Nitro High School English classes after parents of two students complained about depictions of violence, suicide and sexual assault. Conroy defended the books in an e-mail reply last month to Hatfield, who teamed with classmates and Nitro students to form a coalition against censorship. (AP Photo/Jeff Gentner, used with permission from the Associated Press)

Opponents of book banning emphasize the First Amendment rights of students

Those who oppose book banning emphasize that the First Amendment protects students' rights to receive and express ideas. The Supreme Court in Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District v. Pico (1982) ruled 5-4 that public schools can bar books that are "pervasively vulgar" or not right for the curriculum, but they cannot remove books "simply because they dislike the ideas contained in those books." The Court's decision was, however, narrow, applying only to the removal of books from school library shelves.

The American Library Association's Office for Intellectual Freedom documents censorship incidents around the country and suggests strategies for dealing with them. Each September, the American Library Association, the American Booksellers Association, the American Society of Journalists and Authors, the Association of American Publishers, and the National Association of College Stores sponsor Banned Books Week - Celebrating the Freedom to Read.

Designed to "emphasize that imposing information restraints on a free people is far more dangerous than any ideas that may be expressed in that information," the week highlights banned works, encourages citizens to explore new ideas, and provides a variety of materials to promote free speech events.

The American Library Association publishes the bimonthly Newsletter on Intellectual Freedom, which provides information on censorship, as well as an annual annotated list of books and other materials that have been censored.
This article was originally published in 2009. Susan Webb is an Adjunct Librarian at Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
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Book banning, the most widespread form of censorship, occurs when private individuals, government officials, or organizations remove books from libraries, school reading lists, or bookstore shelves because they object to their content, ideas, or themes.

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Lilac Girls By: Martha Hall Kelly

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After Representation?: The Holocaust, Literature, and Culture on JSTOR

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After Representation?explores one of the major issues in Holocaust studiesùthe intersection of memory and ethics in artistic expression, particularly within lit...

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affects humans + animals

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https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/academic-concerns

Affects teenagers that are currently in school

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Academic concerns, which might include issues such as learning difficulties or disabilities, underachievement, lack of attention from teachers, and bullying, affect a number of students throughout their academic careers, from elementary school to college. Academic concerns may influence a student's performance in the classroom negatively, but they are also likely to have a significant effect on other areas of life, often placing undue stress on a child and interfering with home, work, and play dimensions. A student who experiences some type of academic concern may benefit from speaking to a mental health professional.

Understanding Academic Concerns

Concerns of an academic nature can relate to a child's performance in the classroom, but they might also include a child's behavior toward teachers or fellow students. Some typical academic concerns include:

Learning disabilities

Lack of proper attention from school officials

Bullying at school

Inability to pay for schooling or lack of financial means

Disinterest in topic(s) of study

Confusion about or misunderstanding of topic(s) of study

Underachievement in studies

Procrastination and time management issues

Parents and classroom instructors who maintain an awareness of any difficulties the children in their care might be having may be able to recognize an academic concern early in its development. This mindfulness may benefit a child significantly, as academic concerns, especially those that go unrecognized, may have a lasting impact on a child's educational outlook. For example, a child who struggles with reading in primary school will be more likely to consistently underachieve in the classroom throughout high school, at which point he or she may find it difficult to prepare for college-level work. Areas of concern in the classroom may also have an effect on a child's mental health.

Academic Concerns and Mental Health

Academic concerns are closely related to the mental health of children. According to reports from the United States Department of Health and Human Services, 21% of school-age children have a diagnosable mental health condition. However, only about 20% of these children are diagnosed and treated. The remaining 80% often experience difficulty in school and may be more likely to drop out of school. They are also more likely to attempt suicide: More than 90% of adolescents who commit suicide have a serious mental health condition.

Academic concerns may result from mental health issues, such as anxiety or attention-deficit hyperactivity, but at the same time, a child might also develop mental health concerns, such as stress, as a result of his or her academic difficulties. A child with a learning disability that is not recognized or correctly treated, for example, might become stressed due to parental pressure to earn better grades and frustrated with teachers who do not offer adequate assistance. The child might then become anxious about school, and the stress might also manifest as aggression toward the child's teacher or peers.

Support for Students with Academic Concerns

Students who are struggling with school might obtain help in a number of ways. Concerns that are academic in nature can often be resolved with greater support from the academic system. A child who struggles with a particular subject might benefit from specialized study or a tutor, while a child who has a learning disability may be able to complete assignments with accuracy but need more time to do so than his or her peers. Classroom accommodations for students with disabilities are often effective at meeting the different needs of students, and special education classrooms might be an option for some students whose current classroom placement may not allow them to thrive. School tutoring programs might also benefit some children, and teachers can make sure that all students are aware of the counseling services, accommodations for disabilities, and tutoring services that are available to them.

Children who experience stress as a result of academic pressure may benefit from counseling. School counselors can often help identify causes of concern and refer a child to a therapist, if necessary. Academic concerns can also occur as a result of a traumatic experience, personal or family problems, or family financial issues. Psychotherapy can address those underlying issues and help treat them. An adolescent who experiences difficulty in school after a traumatic incident, for example, may find his or her performance in the classroom improving once he or she is able to discuss the trauma in therapy.

Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities

As awareness of learning disabilities has increased, so have classroom-based accommodations for students who have learning disabilities. Learning disabilities can fall into several categories, potentially affecting a student's abilities in the areas of spoken language, written language, mathematics, or reasoning, and a teacher can work with a student and the student's parents to accommodate these disabilities.

A student with a learning disability or other special needs will often benefit from an Individualized Education Plan, or IEP, which describes a child's needs and goals for any given school year and outlines the accommodations that a child might need to reach those goals. The parents, teacher, and student might work together to create this plan in order for the student to obtain the most benefit from classroom instruction. For example, a student who has difficulty writing might be allowed to type assignments or record them orally, and a student who cannot read easily might benefit from reading along to a recording of the lesson. An IEP may be used both within a special education classroom and without.

Some students who have learning disabilities are able to develop academically without being placed in a special education program, but other students, who may be identified as "exceptional" by school boards, are determined to potentially obtain more benefit from a special education classroom. The goal of special education programs is to allow those children with exceptionalities to receive the same opportunities and benefits from education as their peers.

Students with disabilities may also, under the Section 504 statute, develop a plan that provides for their reasonable access to services that will meet their specialized needs. A 504 Plan does not refer to specialized instruction but ensures that a student with a disability will receive any accommodations necessary to allow that student the same opportunities to succeed academically as a student without a disability. Students who are considered to be eligible for a 504 Plan may have a mental health condition, learning disability, medical condition, or physical impairment that somehow impairs their ability to adequately access learning in the classroom and limits their activities. They generally do not need placement in a special education classroom, only accommodations that allow them to succeed.

Case Examples

Poor academic performance resulting from vision problems: Rosalin, 8, visits the school counselor because her teacher has expressed concern about her sudden poor performance in the classroom. She does not participate in classroom work, has stopped turning in homework assignments, and puts her head down on her desk often, as if she were tired. The counselor asks Rosalin if she is getting enough sleep and tries to identify other potential problems. Rosalin does not have anything negative to say about her home life and reports that she eats three meals a day and sleeps often. In fact, she tells the counselor, she takes a nap every day after school because her head always hurts, and she has difficulty seeing. The counselor asks if that is why Rosalin has not been completing assignments, and Rosalin says yes. The school nurse finds that Rosalin's vision seems to be very poor and calls her mother. An eye doctor determines that Rosalin needs glasses. Once she begins wearing her glasses, her classroom performance returns to its former state.

Classroom performance affected by dyslexia: Mateo, 11, is beginning the fifth grade for the second time. He has always experienced difficulty in language arts subjects, especially reading and spelling, but past teachers have told him that he just needs to try harder and spend more time reading at home. His new teacher, who notices that he does not speak much in class and seems to have difficulty when he does, realizes that there may be another factor and refers Mateo to the school counselor. The counselor suspects, after talking to Mateo, that he may be dyslexic, and she refers him to a psychologist, where he is diagnosed with dyslexia. At school, the counselor works with Mateo's parents and teacher to help develop an IEP and establish him with a tutor, who begins to work with Mateo individually each day. His teacher offers alternative assignment formats to Mateo, allowing him to use a computer to complete certain assignments, and slowly Mateo's work begins to show an improvement.

References:

1. Accommodations, Techniques, and Aids for Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://ldaamerica.org/accommodations-techniques-and-aids-for-learning.

2. Diagnosing Dyslexia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/learn-about-dyslexia/diagnosing-dyslexia#13.

3. Durheim, M. (2010, January 1). A parent's guide to Section 504 in public schools. Retrieved from http://www.greatschools.org/special-education/legal-rights/868-section-504.gs?page=all.

4. Facts on Children's Mental Health in America. (2010, July 1). Retrieved from http://www2.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=federal_and_state_policy_legislation&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=43804.

5. Lyness, A. (2014, September 1). Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org/parent/growth/learning/iep.html#.

6. Taking a Closer Look: My Child's Academic Success. (2008, July 28). Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/taking-closer-look-my-childs-academic-success.

7. What is the difference between an IEP and a 504 Plan? (2013, January 24). Retrieved from http://www.washington.edu/doit/what-difference-between-iep-and-504-plan.

Last updated: 07-03-2015

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Academic concerns, which might include issues such as learning difficulties or disabilities, underachievement, lack of attention from teachers, and bullying, affect a number of students throughout their academic careers, from elementary school to college.

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Animals are being tested on to make sure these products are safe for humans. This causes alot of animals to die and be poisoned each year. If we keep this up, we will endanger animals like rats and rabbits mainly.

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Animals are used in many different kinds of experiments. These are just a few examples and alternatives to using animals in experiments.

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https://www.chihulygardenandglass.com/about/dale-chihuly

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Over the course of five decades, Chihuly has explored new and old techniques, pushing the boundaries of contemporary art. He draws inspiration from the world around him, creating statements using color and form to capture the imagination, and catapult beyond conventional ideas of function and beauty.

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Over the course of five decades, Chihuly has explored new and old techniques, pushing the boundaries of contemporary art. He draws inspiration from the world around him, creating statements using color and form to capture the imagination, and catapult beyond conventional ideas of function and beauty.

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This affects teenagers

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-From part-time jobs to internships - there are plenty of ways you can start making money as a teenager.

-Before you apply for jobs, make sure you have a resume, a cover letter and are prepared for interviews.

-After you secure a side hustle, consider making a plan for your financial future such as saving money or investing it.

Are you a teen looking to make money but don't know where to start? At Greenlight, we're here to help you earn money and manage it, too. Grow your wealth and enjoy every step in the process.

Now, let's get to it - and learn all about how teens can make money!

Types of jobs for teens

The good news? There are plenty of jobs you can apply for. Depending on your availability, experience and interests, we can help match you to the right kind.

Holiday or summer jobs are perfect for the teen that wants to gain meaningful experience in a short amount of time. If you don't have enough time to work during the school year, a seasonal or summer job may be right for you. Some examples include becoming a lifeguard during summer vacation - or a tutor during your winter break!

Pro tip: Summer jobs are a great way to keep you busy when school's out. Plus, they'll give you insight into the different types of industries that many adults work in.

Part-time jobs can be a great way to make some extra money, even while you're in school. If you have the time to work a couple of hours each day after your classes or on the weekends, you'll be surprised by how much money can add up over time. One example of a part-time job is working as a cashier at a smoothie shop after school or on the weekends.

Internships are meant to be educational experiences for students. While some are unpaid, many internships today provide stipends or even an hourly minimum wage.

An internship helps you gain valuable experience. And it can help introduce you to a potential employer or career for your future. Think social media intern for a tech company - like the ones that work at Greenlight!

How to apply to jobs as a teen

Now that you know what type of job you're looking for - here's what you'll need in order to apply for jobs and internships.

A resume is typically a one-page document that includes a brief overview, usually a bulleted list, of all of your skills, accomplishments, related coursework and work experience. Employers typically require candidates to submit their resumes (sometimes with a cover letter) to apply for a job. Resumes are brief, straightforward and follow a specific format.

A cover letter is a one-page document that explains your qualifications and experiences in more detail - almost like a mini-essay. Cover letters are written in paragraph form to convey a story about why you feel you're right for this particular job. A cover letter and resume go hand-in-hand when it comes to job applications.

Pro tip: There are tons of free resume and cover letter templates online. No need to build it from scratch.

Most jobs will require you to have one or more interviews before you are offered a position. This means you'll have to prepare for questions relating to your skills, such as your strengths and capabilities. For example, if you're interviewing for a cashier position, they might ask you if you're good at basic math since you'll be handling money.

Once you secure a job, you'll need a place to store your money. You'll need a money account where you can set up direct deposit.

Greenlight makes it easy for teens to set up Direct Deposit, Savings Goals and more.

Pro tip: With Greenlight you'll get a debit card and in-app experience made just for you. Learn to invest, save and earn even more money - all from your app.

Ways to make money as a teen

1. Work at a grocery store or supermarket.

Grocery stores typically hire cashiers and sales associates year-round. Through a job like this one, you can gain valuable customer service experience.

2. Work at a coffee, smoothie or juice shop.

Coffee, smoothie or juice shops regularly hire baristas to help make and serve drinks. Tips are often an added bonus!

3. Work at a clothing store.

If you like shopping for clothes, consider being a sales associate at a clothing store. Employees typically get special discounts as a perk. Think about all the money you can save - your wardrobe and virtual piggy bank will be happy!

4. Sell clothes or resell items with free apps.

Selling old electronics or unwanted items can help you rack in a few extra bucks. There are many free apps where you can list your items for free. With shipping options available, you don't even have to leave your home. Just make sure to check in with a parent before you start.

Clean room, happy wallet. Cha-ching!

5. Take surveys online with survey junkie.

Want a remote job that you can do from the comfort of your own home? Surveys are a great way to work from anywhere. Survey junkie is just one of many sites where you can get started. However, instead of receiving cash, it's important to note that many survey sites will pay you with gift cards or let you earn points before turning them into a form of payment.

6. Work as a golf caddy.

If you're an athlete, working as a golf caddy lets you stay on the green while making some green of your own. Best of both worlds.

7. Work as an assistant coach or referee.

Similarly, if you want to be more hands-on - coaching or becoming a referee could be a great alternative. If you want to teach younger kids how to hit the perfect serve or kick a soccer ball, being an assistant coach may be the right fit for you.

8. Work as a summer camp counselor.

Many summer camps enlist the help of teens to fill their counselor positions - at day camps or sleepaway residential camps. If you enjoyed camp as a kid, you might enjoy being a camp counselor for others, too.

9. Become a tutor.

Help and teach other students by becoming a tutor. Figure out what subjects you feel comfortable teaching - like Math or English. Then, spread the word about your services with friends and family.

10. Start dog walking.

Most adults don't have summers off, and many of them need help taking care of their pets during the day. If you're a dog lover (like us), consider offering dog walking services to your neighbors.

11. Start a blog online.

Blogs are a great way to make passive income while building up your personal brand. Blog about baseball, dance, makeup or anything else you're passionate about. If your blog gets enough visitors, you can monetize it with ads.

12. Start a YouTube channel.

It's 2022, and the reality is that if you can build a large following, you can make money by posting YouTube videos or any type of content on their social media accounts. All you need is a good idea and a phone with a camera to get started. Just make sure to check in with your parent for approval before you start.

13. Make money online through referral programs like Greenlight's.

Teens can now earn money when they refer friends to join Greenlight. That's right. You can earn up to $600 per calendar year just by sharing Greenlight with your group chats. Check out all the details here.

14. Work as an intern at an established company.

We mentioned internships earlier, and how you can get paid to gain work experience to help launch your career. Some examples include Social Media intern, Software Engineering intern, People Operations intern, etc.

15. Work as an intern for a small business.

If you live closer to smaller businesses, consider asking the owner if they can hire you as an intern. Typically, smaller businesses can help you gain hands-on experience, like assisting customers online or helping create a marketing strategy.

16. Work as a babysitter.

Babysitting is a great way to help families near you - like your neighbors and family friends. Some families may be extra generous and also provide meals and transportation for you. A win-win solution!

17. Become a lifeguard.

What better way to spend your summer than on the beach? If you're at least 16 years old, a sunset lover, and can swim well, consider applying for a lifeguard position at your nearest beach. You'll typically need training, CPR certification and a passing score on any swimming tests. No beach, no problem - community pools are always hiring too.

18. Chore more.

Greenlight lets parents pay teens for completing chores like washing dishes or doing laundry. Learn more about chores here.

19. Start your own business.

Every business starts as an idea. If you have one, consider creating a business plan. Then, use the resources around you to get started. You never know what it could lead to!

20. Invest to earn passive income.

Passive income is any money you earn with minimal effort. One way to earn passive income is to learn to invest with Greenlight. Research stocks and ETFs - and start with as little as $1.

With a little bit of patience and a lot of time, you may be able to earn passive income in the long term. To learn more about investing, check out this blog post.

How to manage your money as a teen with Greenlight

Now that you know how to make money as a teen, it's time to talk about what to do with any earned money. Although it feels great to spend money, it's also important to save some, too.

By saving for your long-term goals like your first car or a new laptop, you'll build better money habits and prepare for your financial future. And when you finally get the keys to your first car or open your brand new laptop, you'll feel so independent - and ready to take on the world. In fact, Greenlight can help you meet your money goals with Saving Goals. Visit us here to learn more about saving, investing, earning and so much more!

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How to make money as a teen - 20 ideas to get started

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From part-time jobs to internships - there are plenty of ways you can start making money as a teenager. -Before you apply for jobs, make sure you have a resume, a cover letter and are prepared for interviews. -After you secure a side hustle, consider making a plan for your financial future such as saving money or investing it.

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In the past 10-15 years elbow and shoulder injuries are up 500% in baseball and softball players. ACL injuries are up 400%

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The Rise of Youth Sports Injuries

Over the past 10-15 years, there has been a large increase in the occurrence of injuries to young athletes. Shoulder and elbow injuries are up 500% in baseball and softball players. While anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries have increased 400%. There are numerous other examples for all sports. It's obvious that there's a problem here, so the purpose of today's article is to identify the cause of the increased injuries and talk about prevention.

The single biggest cause of the increase in youth injuries is the year round participation in a single sport. Fifteen years ago, middle and high school athletes all played multiple sports. Basically, young athletes were cross-training year round, which is ideal for preventing injuries. Today, many athletes (and/or their parents) want to specialize and focus on one sport. A young female athlete may play soccer in both the fall and spring, and have multiple camps and training leagues throughout the year. A minor muscle imbalances or dysfunction is now much more likely to lead to an overuse injury or even an ACL tear.

For prevention, it's easy to tell a young athlete to play multiple sports. However, it may be difficult to implement. Many young athletes love one single sport and have no desire to play other sports. In these instances, it's important to work with coaches and/or trainers to prevent overtraining. Leading the way in this area is Little League Baseball's rules for pitchers. They limit the number of daily pitches and set mandatory rest periods between games. Hopefully, guidelines like this will be adopted for multiple sports.

Another key to prevention is trying to identify potential injuries before they happen. In our office, we have various functional screens to identify muscle imbalances or movement dysfunctions. This allows us to identify a pitcher who is at risk for a labrum tear or find a basketball player at risk for an ACL tear. Once we identify these at-risk athletes, we can prescribe simple home exercises and/or stretches to correct these problems.

The last point is to address any injury as soon as it happens. Athletes are notorious for playing through pain. Favoring a painful ankle will place additional stress at the knee and hip, which could lead to more injuries. Luckily, young athletes typically respond to treatment more rapidly than their parents. They're often pain free after only a few visits.

Here's to all athletes having a rewarding and injury free summer!

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The Rise of Youth Sports Injuries | Active Health KC Chiropractic

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The Rise of Youth Sports Injuries Over the past 10-15 years, there has been a large increase in the occurrence of injuries to young athletes. Shoulder and elbow injuries are up 500% in baseball and softball players. While anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries have increased 400%. There are numerous other examples for all sports.

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what is Chemo therapy

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Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells. This type of cancer treatment works by keeping cancer cells from growing, dividing, and making more cells.

Chemotherapy can be used as a treatment for many different cancers. Your doctor may refer to chemotherapy as standard chemotherapy, traditional chemotherapy, or cytotoxic chemotherapy.

This article will help you understand basic information about chemotherapy. Learn more in other articles about what to expect when getting your chemotherapy treatments and the possible side effects of chemotherapy.

How does chemotherapy treat cancer?

Chemotherapy is a systemic medication. This means it travels through the bloodstream and reaches all parts of the body.

There are many different kinds of chemotherapy. In general, drugs used for chemotherapy are powerful chemicals that treat cancer by attacking cells during specific parts of the cell cycle. All cells go through the cell cycle, which is how new cells are made. Cancer cells go through this process faster than normal cells, so chemotherapy has more of an effect on these fast-growing cells.

Because chemotherapy travels through the whole body, it can also damage healthy cells as they go through their normal cell cycle. This is why chemotherapy can cause side effects like hair loss and nausea.

What are the goals of chemotherapy?

The goals of chemotherapy depend on your type of cancer and how far it has spread. Chemotherapy can be given alone or as a part of a treatment plan that includes different treatments. Some of the ways chemotherapy is used include:

As the primary treatment. Sometimes, the goal of chemotherapy treatment is to get rid of all the cancer and keep it from coming back. This might be called "curative chemotherapy."

Before other treatments. Chemotherapy can be given before surgery or radiation therapy to shrink tumors. This can be called "neoadjuvant chemotherapy."

After other treatments. Chemotherapy can be given after surgery or radiation therapy to destroy any remaining cancer cells. This is called "adjuvant chemotherapy."

To slow the progression of cancer and relieve symptoms. Even when the cancer is not curable, chemotherapy can partially shrink tumors and prevent tumor growth and spread for various lengths of time. In such settings, chemotherapy can extend survival, relieve cancer-related symptoms, and improve quality of life.Chemotherapy used for these purposes is sometimes called "palliative chemotherapy."

Chemotherapy can be used to treat many types of cancers. It can also be used to treat recurrent cancer and metastatic cancer. Recurrent cancer is cancer that comes back after treatment. Metastatic cancer is cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

What factors determine a chemotherapy plan?

There are many drugs available to treat cancer. A doctor who specializes in treating cancer with medication is called a medical oncologist. This type of doctor will prescribe your chemotherapy. You may receive a combination of drugs, because this sometimes works better than 1 drug by itself.

The drugs, dose, and treatment schedule depend on many factors. These include:

The type of cancer

The stage of the cancer. Cancer stage is determined by the size and location of the tumor and whether or not the cancer has spread. tumor size, its location, and if or where it has spread.

Your age and general health

The possible side effects of each drug. If a drug causes you to have too many side effects, this can also change your treatment plan.

Any other medical conditions you have

Previous cancer treatments

Where do you receive chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy can be given at a medical center or taken at home, depending on the specific drug.

Your health care team may need you to come in regularly to the clinic, doctor's office, or hospital to receive the chemotherapy. This may be called outpatient treatment.

Some types of chemotherapy can be taken at home. Ask your health care team how to safely store, handle, and dispose of your at-home medication. See more below, under "oral chemotherapy" and "topical chemotherapy."

Learn more about what to expect when getting chemotherapy.

How is chemotherapy delivered?

Chemotherapy may be given in several different ways, which are discussed below.

Intravenous (IV) chemotherapy. Many drugs require injection directly into a vein. This is called intravenous or IV chemotherapy. Treatment takes a few minutes to a few hours. Some IV drugs work better if you get them over a few days or weeks. You take them through a small pump you wear or carry. This is called continuous infusion chemotherapy.

Oral chemotherapy. Oral chemotherapy is taken by mouth. This can be as a pill, capsule, or liquid. This means that you may be able to pick up your medication at the pharmacy and take it at home. Oral treatments for cancer are now more common. Some of these drugs are given daily, and others are given less often. Be sure to ask your health care team about your drug's schedule and how to store the drug. Learn more about how to keep track of taking your medication at home.

Injected chemotherapy. This is when you receive chemotherapy as a shot. The shot may be given in a muscle or injected under the skin. You may receive these shots in the arm, leg, or abdomen. Abdomen is the medical word for your belly.

Chemotherapy into an artery. An artery is a blood vessel that carries blood from your heart to another part of your body. Sometimes chemotherapy is injected into an artery that goes directly to the cancer. This is called intra-arterial or IA chemotherapy.

Chemotherapy into the peritoneum or abdomen. For some cancers, medication might be placed directly in your abdomen. This type of treatment works for cancers involving the peritoneum. The peritoneum covers the surface of the inside of the abdomen and surrounds the intestines, liver, and stomach. Ovarian cancer is one type of cancer that frequently spreads to the peritoneum.

Topical chemotherapy. Some types of chemotherapy come as a cream that you put on your skin. You get your medication at the pharmacy and apply it at home.

What types of chemotherapy are there?

Chemotherapy for cancer includes more than a 100 different drugs. Although all chemotherapy drugs damage cells, they attack different cell targets at different times during the cell cycle. Combining drugs that damage the cancer cell in different ways can increase how well the treatment works.

Below are the main types of chemotherapy:

Chemotherapy in combination with other cancer treatments

There are other types of drugs besides chemotherapy that also treat cancer, such as hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Sometimes oncologists use chemotherapy alongside another type of drug in a person's treatment plan. These categories of drugs work in different ways to treat cancer, and their side effects are usually different than chemotherapy. Talk with your health care team about what to expect with your specific prescriptions.

Hormone therapy. Hormone therapy is a type of cancer treatment that removes, blocks, or adds specific hormones to the body. It is also called hormonal therapy or endocrine therapy. Hormone therapy can be used to treat several types of cancer.

Immunotherapy. This type of treatment helps your body's natural defenses fight the cancer. Immunotherapy has developed rapidly during the last few years, and is now an important part of treatment for several types of cancer.

Targeted therapy. These treatments target and disable genes or proteins found in cancer cells that the cancer cells need to grow. Targeted therapy can treat many types of cancer.

How long will I need chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy is often given for a specific time, such as 6 months or a year. Or you might receive chemotherapy for as long as it works.

Side effects from many anti-cancer drugs are too severe to give treatment every day. Doctors usually give these drugs with breaks, so you have time to rest and recover before the next treatment. This lets your healthy cells heal.

For example, you might get a dose of chemotherapy on the first day and then have 3 weeks of recovery time before repeating the treatment. Each 3-week period is called a treatment cycle. Several cycles make up a course of chemotherapy. A course usually lasts 3 months or more.

Some cancers are treated with less recovery time between cycles. This is called a dose-dense schedule. It can make chemotherapy more effective against some cancers. But it also increases the risk of side effects.

Your health care team will explain how often and for how long you'll receive chemotherapy. Be sure to talk with your doctor, nurse, or other team member regularly about side effects of chemotherapy, including what you can expect and what you are experiencing.

Questions to ask the health care team

What type of chemotherapy do you recommend for me? Why?

What are the goals of this chemotherapy?

Will chemotherapy be my only cancer treatment? If not, will it be given before, during, or after another cancer treatment?

How will I receive chemotherapy, such as by pill or by IV? How often? For how long?

Where will I receive this chemotherapy?

If I need to come into the medical center for chemotherapy, how long will it take to give the treatment? How often will I need to travel to the center?

If I should take this medication at home, are there special instructions on how to store or handle the chemotherapy? What should I do if I miss a dose?

What are the possible side effects of this treatment in the short term?

Will this treatment affect my daily life? Will I be able to work, exercise and do my usual activities?

Will chemotherapy affect what or how I eat? If so, how can I eat well during my treatment period?

What are the possible long-term effects of this treatment?

Who should I talk with about any side effects I experience? How soon?

Who should I call with questions or problems?

How can I reach them during regular office hours? After hours?

If I'm very worried or anxious about having this treatment, what can I talk with?

If I'm worried about managing the cost of this treatment, who can help me?

How will we know if the chemotherapy is working?

Will I need any tests or scans before, during, or after chemotherapy?

Could the dose or duration of my chemotherapy change over time?

Related Resources
What to Expect When Having Chemotherapy Catheters and Ports in Cancer Treatment Making Decisions About Cancer Treatment Side Effects of Chemotherapy Small Changes to Help Food Taste Better When You Have Cancer
More Information
Chemocare.com: What is Chemotherapy? National Cancer Institute: Chemotherapy to Treat Cancer

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Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells. This type of cancer treatment works by keeping cancer cells from growing, dividing, and making more cells.Chemotherapy can be used as a treatment for many different cancers. Your doctor may refer to chemotherapy as standard chemotherapy, traditional chemotherapy, or cytotoxic chemotherapy.

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Tables of Contents

1. Why are college athletes not getting paid by their schools?

2. How do student athlete scholarships work?

3. What are the pros and cons of compensation for college athletes?

4. Keeping education at the center of college sports

Since its inception in 1906, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has governed intercollegiate sports and enforced a rule prohibiting college athletes to be paid. Football, basketball, and a handful of other college sports began to generate tremendous revenue for many schools in the mid-20th century, yet the NCAA continued to prohibit payments to athletes. The NCAA justified the restriction by claiming it was necessary to protect amateurism and distinguish "student athletes" from professionals.

The question of whether college athletes should be paid was answered in part by the Supreme Court's June 21, 2021, ruling in National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Alston, et. al. The decision affirmed a lower court's ruling that blocked the NCAA from enforcing its rules restricting the compensation that college athletes may receive.

As a result of the NCAA v. Alston ruling, college athletes now have the right to profit from their name, image, and likeness (NIL) while retaining the right to participate in their sport at the college level. (The prohibition against schools paying athletes directly remains in effect.)

Several states have passed laws that allow such compensation. Colleges and universities in those states must abide by these new laws when devising and implementing their own policies toward NIL compensation for college athletes.

Participating in sports benefits students in many ways: It helps them focus, provides motivation, builds resilience, and develops other skills that serve students in their careers and in their lives. The vast majority of college athletes will never become professional athletes and are happy to receive a full or partial scholarship that covers tuition and education expenses as their only compensation for playing sports.

Athletes playing Division I football, basketball, baseball, and other sports generate revenue for their schools and for third parties such as video game manufacturers and media companies. Many of these athletes believe it's unfair for schools and businesses to profit from their hard work and talent without sharing the profits with them. They also point out that playing sports entails physical risk in addition to a considerable investment in time and effort.

This guide considers the reasons for and against paying college athletes, and the implications of recent court rulings and legislation on college athletes, their schools, their sports, and the role of the NCAA in the modern sports environment.

Why are college athletes not getting paid by their schools?

The reasons why college athletes aren't paid go back to the first organized sports competitions between colleges and universities in the late 19th century. Amateurism in college sports reflects the " aristocratic amateurism " of sports played in Europe at the time, even though most of the athletes at U.S. colleges had working-class backgrounds.

By the early 20th century, college football had gained a reputation for rowdiness and violence, much of which was attributed to the teams' use of professional athletes. This led to the creation of the NCAA, which prohibited professionalism in college sports and enforced rules restricting compensation for college athletes. The rules are intended to preserve the amateurism of student participants. The NCAA justified the rules on two grounds:

Fans would lose interest in the games if the players were professional athletes.

Limiting compensation to capped scholarships ensures that college athletes remain part of the college community.

NCAA rules also prohibited college athletes from receiving payment to " advertise, recommend, or promote " any commercial product or service. Athletes were barred from participating in sports if they signed a contract to be represented by an agent as well. As a result of the NIL court decision, the NCAA will no longer enforce its rule relating to compensation for NIL activities and will allow athletes to sign contracts with agents.

Major college sports now generate billions in revenue for their schools each year

For decades, colleges and universities have operated under the assumption that scholarships are sufficient compensation for college athletes. Nearly all college sports cost more for the schools to operate than they generate in revenue for the institution, and scholarships are all that participants expect.

But while most sports don't generate revenue, a handful, notably football and men's and women's basketball, stand out as significant exceptions to the rule:

Many major colleges and universities generate a considerable amount of money from their athletic teams:

The Power Five college sports conferences - the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), Big Ten, Big 12, Pac 12, and Southeastern Conference (SEC) - generated more than $2.9 billion in revenue from sports in fiscal 2020, according to federal tax records reported by USA Today.

This figure represents an increase of $11 million from 2019, a total that was reduced because of restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

In the six years prior to 2020, the conferences recorded collective annual revenue increases averaging about $252 million.

What are name, image, likeness agreements for student athletes?

In recent years some college athletes at schools that field teams in the NCAA's highest divisions have protested the restrictions placed on their ability to be compensated for third parties' use of their name, image, and likeness. During the 2021 NCAA Division I basketball tournament known familiarly as March Madness, several players wore shirts bearing the hashtag "#NotNCAAProperty " to call attention to their objections.

Following the decision in NCAA v. Alston, the NCAA enacted a temporary policy allowing college athletes to enter into NIL agreements and other endorsements. The interim policy will be in place until federal legislation is enacted or new NCAA rules are created governing NIL contracts for college athletes.

Student athletes are now able to sign endorsement deals, profit from their use of social media, and receive compensation for personal appearances and signing autographs.

If they attend a school located in a state that has enacted NIL legislation, they are subject to any restrictions present in those state laws. As of mid-August 2021, 40 states had enacted laws governing NIL contracts for college athletes.

If their school is in a state without such a law, the college or university will determine its own NIL policies, although the NCAA prohibits pay-for-play and improper recruiting inducements.

Student athletes are allowed to sign with sports agents and enter into agreements with school boosters so long as the deals abide by state laws and school policies.

Within weeks of the NCAA policy change, premier college athletes began signing NIL agreements with the potential to earn them hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Bryce Young, a sophomore quarterback for the University of Alabama, has nearly $1 million in endorsement deals.

Quarterback Quinn Ewers decided to skip his last year of high school and enroll early at Ohio State University so he could make money from endorsements.

A booster for the University of Miami pledged to pay each member of the school's football team $500 for endorsing his business.

How will the change affect college athletes and their schools?

The repercussions of court decisions and state laws that allow college athletes to sign NIL agreements continue to be felt at campuses across the country, even though schools and athletes have received little guidance on how to manage the process.

The top high school athletes in football, basketball, and other revenue-generating college sports will consider their potential for endorsement earnings while being recruited by various schools.

The first NIL agreements highlight the disparity between what elite college athletes can expect to earn and what other athletes may realize. On one NIL platform, the average amount earned by Division I athletes was $471, yet one athlete made $210,000 in July alone.

Most NIL deals at present are for small amounts, typically about $100 in free apparel, in exchange for endorsing a product on social media.

The presidents and other leaders of colleges and universities that field Division I sports have not yet responded to the changes in college athlete compensation other than to reiterate that they do not operate for-profit sports franchises. However, the NCAA requires that Division I sports programs be self-supporting, in contrast to sports programs at Division II and III institutions, which receive funding directly from their schools.

Many members of the Power 5 sports conferences have reported shortfalls in their operations, leading analysts to anticipate major structural reforms in the governing of college sports in the near future. The recent changes have also caused some people to believe the NCAA is no longer relevant or necessary.

How do student athlete scholarships work?

The primary financial compensation student athletes receive is a scholarship that pays all or part of their tuition and other college-related expenses. Other forms of financial assistance available to student athletes include grants, loans, and merit aid.

Grants are also called "gift aid," because students are not expected to pay them back (with some exceptions, such as failing to complete the course of study for which the grant was awarded).
Grants are awarded based on a student's financial need. Thefour types of grants awarded by the U.S. Department of Education are Federal Pell Grants, Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants, Iraq and Afghanistan Service Grants, and Teacher Education Assistance for College or Higher Education (TEACH) Grants.

Loans are available to cover education expenses from government agencies and private banks. Students must pay the loans back over a specified period after graduating from or leaving school, including interest charges. EducationData.org estimates that as of 2020, the average amount of school-related debt owed by college graduates was $37,693.

Merit aid is awarded based on the student's academic, athletic, artistic, and other achievements. Athletic scholarships are a form of merit aid that typically cover one academic year at a time and are renewable each year, although some are awarded for up to four years.

Full athletic scholarships vs. partial scholarships

When most people think of a student athlete scholarship, they have in mind a full-ride scholarship that covers nearly all college-related expenses. However, most student athletes receive partial scholarships that may pay tuition but not college fees and living expenses, for example.

A student athlete scholarship is a nonguaranteed financial agreement between the school and the student. The NCAA refers to full-ride scholarships awarded to student athletes entering certain Division I sports programs as head count scholarships because they are awarded per athlete. Conversely, equivalency sports divide scholarships among multiple athletes, some of whom may receive a full scholarship and some a partial scholarship. Equivalency awards are divided among a team's athletes at the discretion of the coaches, as long as they do not exceed the allowed scholarships for their sport.

These Division I sports distribute scholarships per head count:

Men's football

Men's basketball

Women's basketball

Women's volleyball

Women's gymnastics

Women's tennis

These are among the Division I equivalency sports for men:

These are the Division I equivalency sports for women:

All Division II and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) sports programs distribute scholarships on an equivalency basis. Division III sports programs do not award sports scholarships, although other forms of financial aid are available to student athletes at these schools.

How college athletic scholarships are awarded

In most cases, the coaching staff of a team determines which students will receive scholarships after spending time scouting and recruiting. The NCAA imposes strict rules for recruiting student athletes and provides a guide to help students determine their eligibility to play college sports.

Once a student has received a scholarship offer from a college or university, the person may sign a national letter of intent (NLI), which is a voluntary, legally binding contract between an athlete and the school committing the student to enroll and play the designated sport for that school only. The school agrees to provide financial aid for one academic year as long as the student is admitted and eligible to receive the aid.

After the student signs an NLI, other schools are prohibited from recruiting them. Students who have signed an NLI may ask the school to release them from the commitment; if a student attends a school other than the one with which they have an NLI agreement, they lose one full year of eligibility and must complete a full academic year at the new school before they can compete in their sport.

Very few student athletes are awarded a full scholarship, and even a "full" scholarship may not pay for all of a student's college and living expenses. The average Division I sports scholarship in the 2019-20 fiscal year was about $18,000, according to figures compiled by ScholarshipStats.com, although some private universities had average scholarship awards that were more than twice that amount. However, EducationData.org estimates that the average cost of one year of college in the U.S. is $35,720. They estimate the following costs by type of school.

The average annual cost for an in-state student attending a public four-year college or university is $25,615.

Average in-state tuition for one year is $9,580, and out-of-state tuition costs an average of $27,437.

The average cost at a private university is $53,949 per academic year, about $37,200 of which is tuition and fees.

Student athlete scholarship resources

What are the pros and cons of compensation for college athletes?

There are many reasons why student athletes should be paid, but there are also valid reasons why student athletes should not be paid in certain circumstances. The lifting of NCAA restrictions on NIL agreements for college athletes has altered the landscape of major college sports but will likely have little or no impact on the majority of student athletes, who will continue to compete as true amateurs.

Reasons why student athletes should be paid

The argument raised most often in favor of allowing college athletes to receive compensation is that colleges and universities profit from the sports they play but do not share the proceeds with the athletes who are the ultimate source of that profit.

In 2017 (the most recent year for which figures are available), the NCAA recorded $1.07 billion in revenue. The organization's president earned $2.7 million in 2018, and nine other NCAA executives had salaries greater than $500,000 that year.

Elite college coaches earn millions of dollars a year in salary, topped by University of Alabama football coach Nick Saban's $9.3 million annual salary.

Many of the athletes at leading football and basketball programs are from low-income families, and the majority will not become professional athletes.

College athletes take great physical risks to play their sports and put their future earning potential at risk. In school they may be directed toward nonchallenging courses, which denies them the education their fellow students receive.

Reasons why student athletes should not be paid

Opponents to paying college athletes rebut these arguments by pointing to the primary role of colleges and universities: to provide students with a rewarding educational experience that prepares them for their professional careers. These are among the reasons they give for not paying student athletes.

Scholarships are the fairest form of compensation for student athletes considering the financial strain that college athletic departments are under. Most schools in Division I, II, and III spend more money on athletics than they receive in revenue from the sports.

College athletes who receive scholarships are presented with an opportunity to earn a valuable education that will increase their earning power throughout their career outside of sports. A Gallup survey of NCAA athletes found that 70% graduate in four years or fewer, compared to 65% of all undergraduate students.

Paying college athletes will "diminish the spirit of amateurism" that distinguishes college sports from their professional counterparts. Limiting compensation for playing a sport to the cost of attending school avoids creating a separate class of students who are profiting from their time in school.

How do college athlete endorsements work?

Soon after the Supreme Court released its decision in NCAA v. Alston, the NCAA issued guidelines for schools that allow college athletes to make money from product endorsements, social media accounts, autographs, and other uses of their name, image, or likeness. This counters the NCAA's longstanding opposition to student athletes profiting from endorsements. At present, implementation of the guidelines varies from school to school and state to state, which means athletes at some institutions may benefit more from NIL agreements than those attending other schools.

Several NIL consultancy firms are actively soliciting endorsements from college athletes in the aftermath of the rule change.

Highly touted 19-year-old basketball recruit Hercy Miller, who joined the Tennessee State University basketball team in 2021, signed a $2 million endorsement deal with Web Apps America.

University of Michigan quarterback Cade McNamara has entered into an endorsement deal with cryptocurrency company More Management that will pay him in cryptocurrency.

Twin sisters Haley and Hanna Cavinder of the Fresno State University basketball team have marketing agreements to promote Boost Mobile and Six Star Pro Nutrition to the 3.3 million followers of their TikTok account.

Gable Steveson, a wrestler for the University of Minnesota, entered into an endorsement deal with the delivery service Gopuff; Steveson has 245,000 followers on Instagram and 30,000 on Twitter.

Despite the rush of high-profile college athletes signing endorsement deals, some educators and analysts express concern about the impact of the endorsements on schools, athletes, and college sports.

Schools with more favorable endorsement rules may entice student athletes away from the schools they are currently attending.

Likewise, states that have enacted endorsement laws that provide more earning potential for college athletes may see more top recruits choosing to attend schools in those states.

The time college athletes spend meeting the requirements of their endorsement contracts could detract from study and practice time. This can have an adverse effect on their education and athletic careers - if they are unable to maintain grade requirements, for example, they may be disqualified from playing.

If a college athlete's performance in the sport declines, they may be less likely to attract and retain endorsement deals. While the NCAA has banned NIL agreements based on the athlete meeting specific performance criteria, the group acknowledges that a student's athletic performance may enhance their NIL value.

Because of complicated contracts and tax laws, student athletes will have to rely on agents, advisers, and managers, which may leave them vulnerable to exploitation.

Keeping education at the center of college sports

From the onset of intercollegiate sports, students have benefited from their participation by learning dedication to their sport, building relationships, and being part of a team. Sports allow students to acquire many important values, such as fair competition and physical and mental health. Education should remain at the forefront of all aspects of college, including sports, whether or not collegiate athletes are paid.
Infographic Source Best Colleges, "Should College Athletes Be Paid?" College Strategic, "Why College Athletes Should Be Paid" CollegeVine, "Should College Athletes Be Paid? Pros and Cons" Fansided, "64 Reasons College Athletes Need to Be Paid" Future of Working, "17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Paying College Athletes" NCAA, "Scholarships" Next College Student Athlete, "What Are the Different Types of Offers I Could Get?" Salarship, "Should College Athletes Be Paid: Pros and Cons"

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Should College Athletes Be Paid? Reasons Why or Why Not

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Even though college athletes can now be paid for use of their name, image, or likeness, the debate continues: Should college athletes be paid or stay amateurs?

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This affects all people, animals, and our environment.

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lack of support for mental health patients

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lack of support for mental health patients

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affects people struggling with mental health

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If you're fighting a nasty cough, you're likely to tell your friends that you've caught a minor cold. However, there's a chance you won't tell them about the depression symptoms you've been experiencing in the last few months. Mental illnesses, while just as frequent as the common cold, are more rarely discussed, diagnosed, and treated.

"No one would be shocked if we learned that 99% of people had a physical illness during their life," McNeil Family Professor of Health Care Policy Ronald C. Kessler told Brigham Health Magazine. While physical ailments seem much more common, Kessler notes that "we've all had the common cold of mental illness".

"Many people who have just broken up with a boyfriend or girlfriend will meet the criteria for major depression," Kessler said, although they probably won't require treatment such as psychotherapy. This "common cold" mental illness may pass, but it's important to recognize if these symptoms are pointing towards a more serious illness. Many people ignore their symptoms as they are afraid to be stigmatized. Nearly 60% of people with mental illnesses did not seek treatment last year.

Although mental illness is widespread- 25% of adults in developed countries experience significant mental health problems each year- the treatment is outdated and lacking. Kessler says that mental disorders are treated as acute, episodic ailments instead of chronic illnesses.

"We're waiting for the equivalent of a heart attack- the suicides, the overdoses, or violent outbursts- to occur before we do anything," Kessler told Brigham Health. As it deals with a vast variety of disorders affecting the body's most complex organ, mental health treatment has taken longer to advance than other medical fields. Mental illnesses prove tricky to treat because it is so hard to pinpoint exactly what to do; treating a mental illness is not as simple as taking cold medicine. There isn't an equivalent catchall treatment like a statin or cholesterol pill.

Half of all mental illnesses begin to show symptoms by age 14. Children develop anxieties and phobias, which can be warning signs of more severe illnesses. However, stigma surrounds treating mental illness even in children and increases in adulthood. Funding and awareness for childhood and adult cancers are abundant, yet this enthusiasm wanes when it comes to mental illnesses. One bipolar patient noted that when she expressed shame about her diagnosis, her therapist pointed out that she would not feel ashamed of receiving a cancer diagnosis or being diagnosed as a diabetic.

On top of stigma, lack of availability and options for treatment add to the obstacles. Over the past six years, the number of people seeking emergency mental health care at the Brigham increased by over 1,000. Many people admitted with other complaints are dealing with underlying mental disorders. However, mental health departments in hospitals are grossly short on beds. Patients may wait days in the emergency department in hopes that an inpatient bed opens. Unfortunately it's common that patients are discharged from the ED without receiving the treatment they need because no inpatient beds are available.

Together, the Brigham Health community is working together to help end the stigma around mental illness and open up gateways to modern, effective treatment options.

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Mental Illnesses are Common, but Care is Lacking

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If you're fighting a nasty cough, you're likely to tell your friends that you've caught a minor cold. However, there's a chance you won't tell them about the depression symptoms you've been experiencing in the last few months. Mental illnesses, while just as frequent as the common cold, are more rarely discussed, diagnosed, and treated.

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The workforce, school, online, pretty much everyone.

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The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in 2002, when women earned 80% as much as men.

As has long been the case, the wage gap is smaller for workers ages 25 to 34 than for all workers 16 and older. In 2022, women ages 25 to 34 earned an average of 92 cents for every dollar earned by a man in the same age group - an 8-cent gap. By comparison, the gender pay gap among workers of all ages that year was 18 cents.

While the gender pay gap has not changed much in the last two decades, it has narrowed considerably when looking at the longer term, both among all workers ages 16 and older and among those ages 25 to 34. The estimated 18-cent gender pay gap among all workers in 2022 was down from 35 cents in 1982. And the 8-cent gap among workers ages 25 to 34 in 2022 was down from a 26-cent gap four decades earlier.

The gender pay gap measures the difference in median hourly earnings between men and women who work full or part time in the United States. Pew Research Center's estimate of the pay gap is based on an analysis of Current Population Survey (CPS) monthly outgoing rotation group files ( IPUMS) from January 1982 to December 2022, combined to create annual files. To understand how we calculate the gender pay gap, read our 2013 post, "How Pew Research Center measured the gender pay gap."

The COVID-19 outbreak affected data collection efforts by the U.S. government in its surveys, especially in 2020 and 2021, limiting in-person data collection and affecting response rates. It is possible that some measures of economic outcomes and how they vary across demographic groups are affected by these changes in data collection.

In addition to findings about the gender wage gap, this analysis includes information from a Pew Research Center survey about the perceived reasons for the pay gap, as well as the pressures and career goals of U.S. men and women. The survey was conducted among 5,098 adults and includes a subset of questions asked only for 2,048 adults who are employed part time or full time, from Oct. 10-16, 2022. Everyone who took part is a member of the Center's American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP's methodology.

Here are the questions used in this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology.

The U.S. Census Bureau has also analyzed the gender pay gap, though its analysis looks only at full-time workers (as opposed to full- and part-time workers). In 2021, full-time, year-round working women earned 84% of what their male counterparts earned, on average, according to the Census Bureau's most recent analysis.

Much of the gender pay gap has been explained by measurable factors such as educational attainment, occupational segregation and work experience. The narrowing of the gap over the long term is attributable in large part to gains women have made in each of these dimensions.
Related: The Enduring Grip of the Gender Pay Gap
Even though women have increased their presence in higher-paying jobs traditionally dominated by men, such as professional and managerial positions, women as a whole continue to be overrepresented in lower-paying occupations relative to their share of the workforce. This may contribute to gender differences in pay.

Other factors that are difficult to measure, including gender discrimination, may also contribute to the ongoing wage discrepancy.

Perceived reasons for the gender wage gap

When asked about the factors that may play a role in the gender wage gap, half of U.S. adults point to women being treated differently by employers as a major reason, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in October 2022. Smaller shares point to women making different choices about how to balance work and family (42%) and working in jobs that pay less (34%).

There are some notable differences between men and women in views of what's behind the gender wage gap. Women are much more likely than men (61% vs. 37%) to say a major reason for the gap is that employers treat women differently. And while 45% of women say a major factor is that women make different choices about how to balance work and family, men are slightly less likely to hold that view (40% say this).

Parents with children younger than 18 in the household are more likely than those who don't have young kids at home (48% vs. 40%) to say a major reason for the pay gap is the choices that women make about how to balance family and work. On this question, differences by parental status are evident among both men and women.

Views about reasons for the gender wage gap also differ by party. About two-thirds of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (68%) say a major factor behind wage differences is that employers treat women differently, but far fewer Republicans and Republican leaners (30%) say the same. Conversely, Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say women's choices about how to balance family and work (50% vs. 36%) and their tendency to work in jobs that pay less (39% vs. 30%) are major reasons why women earn less than men.

Democratic and Republican women are more likely than their male counterparts in the same party to say a major reason for the gender wage gap is that employers treat women differently. About three-quarters of Democratic women (76%) say this, compared with 59% of Democratic men. And while 43% of Republican women say unequal treatment by employers is a major reason for the gender wage gap, just 18% of GOP men share that view.

Pressures facing working women and men

Family caregiving responsibilities bring different pressures for working women and men, and research has shown that being a mother can reduce women's earnings, while fatherhood can increase men's earnings.

Employed women and men are about equally likely to say they feel a great deal of pressure to support their family financially and to be successful in their jobs and careers, according to the Center's October survey. But women, and particularly working mothers, are more likely than men to say they feel a great deal of pressure to focus on responsibilities at home.

About half of employed women (48%) report feeling a great deal of pressure to focus on their responsibilities at home, compared with 35% of employed men. Among working mothers with children younger than 18 in the household, two-thirds (67%) say the same, compared with 45% of working dads.

When it comes to supporting their family financially, similar shares of working moms and dads (57% vs. 62%) report they feel a great deal of pressure, but this is driven mainly by the large share of unmarried working mothers who say they feel a great deal of pressure in this regard (77%). Among those who are married, working dads are far more likely than working moms (60% vs. 43%) to say they feel a great deal of pressure to support their family financially. (There were not enough unmarried working fathers in the sample to analyze separately.)

About four-in-ten working parents say they feel a great deal of pressure to be successful at their job or career. These findings don't differ by gender.

Gender differences in job roles, aspirations

Overall, a quarter of employed U.S. adults say they are currently the boss or one of the top managers where they work, according to the Center's survey. Another 33% say they are not currently the boss but would like to be in the future, while 41% are not and do not aspire to be the boss or one of the top managers.

Men are more likely than women to be a boss or a top manager where they work (28% vs. 21%). This is especially the case among employed fathers, 35% of whom say they are the boss or one of the top managers where they work. (The varying attitudes between fathers and men without children at least partly reflect differences in marital status and educational attainment between the two groups.)

In addition to being less likely than men to say they are currently the boss or a top manager at work, women are also more likely to say they wouldn't want to be in this type of position in the future. More than four-in-ten employed women (46%) say this, compared with 37% of men. Similar shares of men (35%) and women (31%) say they are not currently the boss but would like to be one day. These patterns are similar among parents.
This is an update of a post originally published on March 22, 2019. Anna Brown and former Pew Research Center writer/editor Amanda Barroso contributed to an earlier version of this analysis. Here are the questions used in this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology.

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Gender pay gap in U.S. hasn't changed much in two decades

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In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new analysis of median hourly earnings of full- and part-time workers.

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people this issue affects