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Before the settlement of European colonists, many different Indigenous American tribes inhabited North America. With their own distinct cultures, languages, customs, and religious practices, the Native American nations presented a variety of different beliefs, societal lifestyles, and forms of governance. Some Native tribes had matriarchal structures, while others were strict patriarchies. The female Indigenous women in the image above is Lenape. The Lenape were an Indigenous American tribe where women were granted roles in government and property passed down through the maternal side of the family.

“Some of the Ways of the Delaware Indian Women.” Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://delawaretribe.org/blog/2016/08/07/some-of-the-ways-of-the-delaware-indian-women/.

Press, Stanford University. “The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877 - Edited by Joseph L. Locke and Ben Wright.” Stanford University Press Home Page. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.sup.org/books/cite/?id=27850.

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Jamestown was one of the first European settler communities in North America. The definition of who is an American was in its infancy. The Jamestown settlers were a group of Protestant English men who arrived in North America intending to set up a religious community. The Jamestown settlers still considered themselves English and had no initial intention of permanently leaving the country of England. There were no women in the original Jamestown settlement because individuals at the time believed that it was not a woman's place to deal with the hardship of settling a new community. Jamestown women began arriving around 1608, often the wives of Jamestown colonists.

Press, Stanford University. “The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877 - Edited by Joseph L. Locke and Ben Wright.” Stanford University Press Home Page. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.sup.org/books/cite/?id=27850.

“The Indispensable Role of Women at Jamestown.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/the-indispensible-role-of-women-at-jamestown.htm.

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Witch trial in Salem, Massachusetts, lithograph by George H. Walker, 1892.Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-DIG-pga-02986)

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In the town of Salem in colonial Massachusetts, many community members began viewing women as a threat. The “threatening” behavior of women in this community included egregious acts such as reading, writing, and disobeying one’s husband. Women at the time were looked down upon and seen as inferior. Men controlled almost every aspect of authority in society and were able to condemn over 200 Massachusetts women to execution through orders from male judges, juries, and lawmakers. The Salem Witch trials are an example of the lack of power women were generally given in pre-colonial American settlements, and the discrimination they faced if they did not conform completely to the men’s decisions. The image depicts a woman being charged with witchcraft throwing books at frightened men, emphasizing the fear that many pre-colonial men had of educated women.

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Many of the early laws of European colonies were crafted from English Common Law, which defined men as the primary and most important sex within American society, and viewed women as secondary. “The very being and legal existence of the woman are suspended during the marriage, or at least is incorporated into that of her husband under whose wing and protection she performs everything.”
Women were not given the right to own property or keep any money or income under their own names.

Nicholas, Susan C., Alice M. Price, and Rachel Rubin. “The Three Unequal Partners .” Essay. In Rights and Wrongs: Women's Struggle for Legal Equality, 27. New York: Feminist Pr. at the City Univ. of New York, 1989.

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"A Patriotic Young Woman", illustration published in Our Country: A Household History for All Readers, 1877

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As revolutionary sentiment in the American colonies emerged, the Sons of Liberty arose. The Sons of Liberty were a group of pro-revolution American men who met in secret to discuss plans for pushing back against English laws and tyranny. At the same time, a group of women joined together to create the Daughters of Liberty. While both groups had different roles, they were equally dedicated to the cause of American freedom. However, the “sons' ' concerned themselves with plans for physical and sometimes violent revolt, and with the responsibility for creating laws and government. Meanwhile, the “daughters”, due to the view of women in 18th-century American society, were tasked with sewing and cooking, in a protest against buying English goods. This primary source depicts a woman spinning clothing as her daughter watches, with the caption "A Patriotic Young Woman". This serves to show that although woman's role in the revolution was valued, it was confined to the ideas and norms of femininity, and often fragility, at the time. The image depicts the woman as a mother and homemaker, who is raising her daughter with the same skills and values that made her an "ideal American wife".

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1776: Continental Congress and Abigail Adams

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1776: Continental Congress and Abigail Adams

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The continental congress was instrumental in establishing what it meant to be an American. The Founding Fathers defined America as a democracy valuing freedom for all Americans. However, the only “Americans” they believed were deserving of freedom were Protestant White Males. In 1776, Abigail Adams, the wife of Founding Father John Adams, wrote to her husband “I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands…. all Men would be tyrants if they could… the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.” Abigail’s plea to her husband ultimately did not yield any tangible results for women's rights at the time, however, provided a powerful message that American women for generations would fight for: the idea of equality of the sexes.

Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March - 5 April 1776. Accessed November 15, 2022. https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760331aa.

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1776: The Declaration of Independence is Signed

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1776: The Declaration of Independence is Signed

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The American declaration of independence begins with the line "we hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal." The signing of this document was a pivotal moment in American history, and truly defined what it meant to be an American, free from colonial rule, for the first time. However, although the language of the document gives great reverence to the concept of equality, it only only leaves out women from its protection, it allows allows for the continuation of slavery.

“Declaration of Independence: A Transcription.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript.

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James Peale, The Artist and His Family, (1795)

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Republican Motherhood was the idea that the ideal American woman was a first and primarily a wife and mother. Women were seen as the caregivers in American society, and it was the patriotic duty to look after and raise their children and be obedient to their husbands. Again, this sentiment reinforces the idea that American men should be the providers in society, and that equality of the sexes was unnecessary since each had a unique role to play in their lives.

Press, Stanford University. “The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877 - Edited by Joseph L. Locke and Ben Wright.” Stanford University Press Home Page. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.sup.org/books/cite/?id=27850.

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The Bill of Rights was added to the US constitution in 1789. It provides an essential legal blueprint for the fundamental and unalienable rights of American citizens. However, despite the Rights being very important, they were still not extended to everyone. Women and non-white individuals would not be granted the same rights as other Americans until much later in US history.

“The Bill of Rights: A Transcription.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript.

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James Akin’s caricature, The Philosophic Cock, 1804. 

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Throughout pre and post-colonial American society, the barbaric practice of slavery flourished. Southern plantations were home to hundreds of thousands of African slave laborers and their families. One such plantation was owned and operated by founding father, and second US president, Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson is alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his slaves, by the name of Sally Hemings. Despite being an architect of defining American freedom, Jefferson was one of many American slave owners who raped and fathered children with his female slaves.
The cartoon above depicts Thomas Jefferson on the right as a rooster, and Sally Hemings on the left as a hen and ridicules the president's relationship with his African slave.

“Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account.” Monticello. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/jefferson-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-a-brief-account/.

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Sacagawea with Lewis and Clark at the Three Forks, mural at Montana House of Representatives

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1804: Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion

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1804: Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion

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During the 19th century, many American begin moving West in search of new opportunities and land. An important event in American Westward expansion is the expedition of Lewis and Clark. Lewis and Clark's journey West and the discoveries they made were in large part due to the guidance of Sacagawea, a Native woman who helped them navigate their journey.
White and wealthy men were still the only Americans with full legal rights, however, many of their accomplishments would not have been possible without the guidance and intelligence of the women who aided them.

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In 1848, the first woman's rights convention in American history was hosted. At this convention, woman discussed their desire for equality in American society, and their frustration at the hypocrisy of American rights being only extended to men. The men and women attending this convention wrote and signed the Declaration of Sentiments, a powerful petition to give American women the same rights and freedoms as those extended to American men.

“Declaration of Sentiments.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/declaration-of-sentiments.htm.

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Image of Harriet Tubman in 1868, Library of Congress 

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As abolitionist movements grew across the United States, many began viewing slavery as fundamentally anti-American. Believing that if the United States is truly a country founded on freedom and equality, many Americans demanded the inclusion of African slaves into the promise of American opportunity. This represented a societal shift in beginning to see African-American's as not only slaves and "property" but is fellow people, equally deserving of the freedoms granted to other Americans.
In the 1850s, many southern slaves began escaping to the free North. Harriet Tubman, depicted in the image above, was one of them. The routes many of these escaped slaved used and assistance they received from abolitionists, became known as the Underground Railroad. After escaping to freedom, Tubman made thirteen trips back to the South to help rescue other African-American slaves and help them gain their freedom. Tubman was one of many woman at this time who played a pivotal role in helping expand the abolition movement and demanding rights for marginalized communities within America. Tubman, being both African and a woman, was faced with an intersectionality that made life in the early American republic particularly challenging. However, this did not dissuade her from showing great bravery and determination in helping to expand the ideals of American freedom and demand equal rights for all US citizens.

“Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/hatu/index.htm.

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 “Woman’s Emancipation,” 1851, engraving, published in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, August 1851, page 424, Courtesy, American Antiquarian Society.

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The above image depicts a satirical sketch making fun of the Woman's Rights movement. As the moment gained traction in the 1850s, many American men saw it as a threat to their accustomed lifestyle and systems of beliefs. The above sketch shows a woman wearing pants, top hats, and short skirts while smoking. The artist is attempting to portray the woman's rights movement as radical and silly. Rather than realizing that women were seeking equal rights, the artist decided to depict women as attempting to become more masculine.
Despite the mockery of this drawing, it also serves to show that was woman's rights movement was becoming prominent enough to gain the attention and concern of dissenting voices.
As American history continues, the voices of women and other marginalized groups only grows louder, and the demands to be treated as equals in American society are continually built upon.

Lange, Alison. “Lampooning Political Women.” HNY, October 21, 2020. https://humanitiesny.org/lampooning-political-women/.

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New Primary Sources:
James Akin’s caricature, The Philosophic Cock, 1804.

Lange, Alison. “Lampooning Political Women.” HNY, October 21, 2020. https://humanitiesny.org/lampooning-political-women/.

“Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account.” Monticello. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/jefferson-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-a-brief-account/.

Nicholas, Susan C., Alice M. Price, and Rachel Rubin. “The Three Unequal Partners .” Essay. In Rights and Wrongs: Women's Struggle for Legal Equality, 27. New York: Feminist Pr. at the City Univ. of New York, 1989.

Image: Sacagawea with Lewis and Clark at the Three Forks, mural at Montana House of Representatives

“Some of the Ways of the Delaware Indian Women.” Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://delawaretribe.org/blog/2016/08/07/some-of-the-ways-of-the-delaware-indian-women/.

Image: Witch trial in Salem, Massachusetts, lithograph by George H. Walker, 1892.Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-DIG-pga-02986)

New Secondary Sources:
“The Indispensable Role of Women at Jamestown.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/the-indispensible-role-of-women-at-jamestown.htm.

“Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 17, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/hatu/index.htm.

In-Class Sources:
“Declaration of Independence: A Transcription.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript.

“Declaration of Sentiments.” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/declaration-of-sentiments.htm.

Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March - 5 April 1776. Accessed November 15, 2022. https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760331aa.

“The Bill of Rights: A Transcription.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript.

Painting: James Peale, The Artist and His Family, (1795)

Press, Stanford University. “The American Yawp: A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook, Vol. 1: To 1877 - Edited by Joseph L. Locke and Ben Wright.” Stanford University Press Home Page. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.sup.org/books/cite/?id=27850.