# data[].attributes.headline
Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills

# data[].attributes.subject
Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills

# data[].attributes.body
WHY HANDWRITING INSTRUCTION MATTERS: RESEARCH LESSONS

# data[].attributes.headline
Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills

# data[].attributes.subject
Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills

# data[].attributes.body
EDUCATING HYBRID WRITERS

# data[].attributes.headline
The Importance of Teaching Handwriting: Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.subject
The Importance of Teaching Handwriting: Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Importance of Teaching Handwriting _ Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.headline
Want to Improve Children's Writing? Don't Neglect their Handwriting

# data[].attributes.subject
Want to Improve Children's Writing? Don't Neglect their Handwriting

# data[].attributes.body
Steve Graham

# data[].attributes.headline
Strengthening the Mind's Eye: The Case for Continued Handwriting Instruction in the 21st Century 

# data[].attributes.subject
Strengthening the Mind's Eye: The Case for Continued Handwriting Instruction in the 21st Century 

# data[].attributes.body
Virgina Berninger

# data[].attributes.headline
The Dyslexic Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the Dyslexic Brain

# data[].attributes.subject
The Dyslexic Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the Dyslexic Brain

# data[].attributes.headline
Reading In the Brain: The New Science of How We Read

# data[].attributes.subject
Reading In the Brain: The New Science of How We Read

# data[].attributes.body
Definition: We need to recognize which aspect of a word does not vary-the sequence of letters-in spite of the thousand and one possible shapes that the actual characters can take on.

# data[].attributes.headline
KQED: Should Schools Still Teach Cursive? 

# data[].attributes.subject
KQED: Should Schools Still Teach Cursive? 

# data[].attributes.body
Korbey, H. (2013, June 28). Retrieved August 27, 2022, from https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/29580/should-schools-still-teach-cursive.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Research suggests a strong connection between handwriting and brain development -- not only in the development of fine motor skills, but also in how children learn. In one study conducted by psychologist and cognitive scientist Karin Harman James at Indiana University, children who printed letters instead of just seeing and saying them showed "adult" brain activity; in another, led by educational psychologist Virginia Berninger at the University of Washington, second, fourth and sixth grade students wrote better sentences, wrote more and faster when using a pen and paper as opposed to a keyboard.

But is there a benefit, a definitive connection between the connected loops of cursive and improved function of the brain? James's preliminary research on the benefits of using cursive exclusively shows promising findings: in one study, college students remembered information better when they copied a paragraph in cursive compared to both printing and typing. James emphasized, however, that the study of cursive is just beginning, and noted that "scientists have not determined the benefits of teaching or not teaching cursive."

OUTDATED PRACTICE?

Kids are lacking in so many skills, says retired fourth-grade teacher Barbara Kuykendall, who taught cursive handwriting for twenty years in Evansville, Indiana, she's glad the Common Core Standards no longer require students to learn cursive. "I used to teach cursive and am glad it's out of the curriculum now. It's a time issue. It just takes so much time to teach it and there are far more important things for kids to learn now." She said it would be easy to teach kids to sign their name in cursive, then leave it at that. "If none of them know cursive, it wouldn't be as big a deal to them as it is to us."

"I think there is value in learning a skill that that takes patience, perseverance, and diligence to master."

And for children with developmental issues, not having the pressure of learning cursive can be a relief. Chicago mom and graphic designer Christina Kakavas' five-year-old son Markos has dyspraxia, and works with a therapist on his fine motor skills. Markos has trouble shaping letters by hand. Kakavas discovered some iPad apps that let him trace letters with his finger or by using the trackpad on the laptop instead of holding a pencil, incorporating the best of both the digital and the handwriting worlds. "Initially, I didn't want Markos playing games or sitting on the computer or iPad. Then I realized using the mouse or trackpad [to shape letters] would allow him to improve his fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination."

Of course, there is more to cursive handwriting than the time it takes to teach it, or the cognitive benefits of using it. Cursive's roots are deeply embedded in cultural significance: the Declaration of Independence was written in cursive; there is the overwhelming recognition of finding a letter written in a loved one's unique handwriting. And beyond the logistical problem of future generations not being able to read cursive, is there a reason to learn cursive for no reason at all, besides doing it for its own sake?

Marjorie Martin teaches cursive in her second-grade class at Crossroads Academy in Lyme, New Hampshire, even though she often wonders if it's worth it. But she continues, because she believes there's value in the process. "There aren't too many things like this for the general population of kids anymore," she said. "No woodworking class, the endless sawing and sanding to make a coatrack, no knitting, the frustration of needing to pull out 5 rows when you see that you dropped a stitch. I think there is value in learning a skill that that takes patience, perseverance, and diligence to master. Then, there's also the end product to consider. We are creating a generation that won't know how to build a simple doghouse or replace a button. But shouldn't they be able to create a reasonably attractive handwritten note?"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The decline in teaching cursive handwriting, the rise of the keyboard, and the introduction of the Common Core State Standards that do not require children to know cursive all question its relevance.

# data[].attributes.headline
KQED: Why Are We So Obsessed with Teaching Kids Cursive Handwriting?

# data[].attributes.subject
KQED: Why Are We So Obsessed with Teaching Kids Cursive Handwriting?

# data[].attributes.body
Schwartz, K. (2016, September 30). Why Are We So Obsessed With Teaching Kids Cursive Handwriting? Retrieved August 27, 2022, from https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/46509/why-are-we-so-obsessed-with-teaching-kids-cursive-handwriting.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
As computers become a common part of daily life for most adults and children, the debate about whether handwriting should be taught in school has heated up. Some claim it will be more important for students to learn keyboarding than writing with pen and paper given the ubiquity of digital communication. But there's a lot of strong research showing that learning to write by hand aids cognition. Linking motor skills and the sense of touch to writing helps the brain recognize letters, an important part of learning to read. But while handwriting is supported by research, as well as the link between writing by hand and memory, it is far less obvious that students must learn cursive in order to get those cognitive benefits.

In a Nautilus article dissecting the claims made about cursive, Philip Ball writes:

But imposing cursive from an early age is another matter. There should be a sound reason for it, as there should be reasons for teaching anything to children. Yet the grip that cursive exerts on much of teaching practice is sustained only by a disturbing blend of traditionalism, institutional inertia, folklore, prejudice, and bribery. It suggests that what teachers "know" about how children learn is sometimes more a product of the culture in which they're immersed than a result of research and data. It seems unlikely, in this regard, that teaching cursive is unique in educational practice. Which forces us to wonder: What happened to evidence?

Ball writes that teachers often cite three reasons for teaching cursive: it's faster, helps with spelling and helps children with dyslexia. In this article he takes on those claims one by one, looking at the research, and the myths behind them. This deep dive into the research on handwriting -- both manuscript and cursive -- cuts through the noise and emotion often raised when the subject of handwriting comes up.

http://nautil.us/issue/40/learning/cursive-handwriting-and-other-education-myths

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why Are We So Obsessed With Teaching Kids Cursive Handwriting? | KQED

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As computers become a common part of daily life for most adults and children, the debate about whether handwriting should be taught in school has heated up. Some claim it will be more important for students to learn keyboarding than writing with pen and paper given the ubiquity of digital communication.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Schwartz, J. (2009, September 16). The pen may be mightier than the keyboard. Retrieved August 27, 2022, from https://www.washington.edu/news/2009/09/16/the-pen

# data[].attributes.headline
The Pen May Be Mightier Than the Keyboard

# data[].attributes.subject
The Pen May Be Mightier Than the Keyboard

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The pen may be mightier than the keyboard _ UW News copy

# data[].attributes.headline
Handwriting Instruction: Commentary on 5 Studies

# data[].attributes.subject
Handwriting Instruction: Commentary on 5 Studies

# data[].attributes.headline
Development of Handwriting Speed & Legibility in Grades 1-9

# data[].attributes.subject
Development of Handwriting Speed & Legibility in Grades 1-9

# data[].attributes.headline
Effective Beginning Handwriting Instruction: Multi-Modal, consistent format for 2 years, and linked to spelling & Composing 

# data[].attributes.subject
Effective Beginning Handwriting Instruction: Multi-Modal, consistent format for 2 years, and linked to spelling & Composing 

# data[].attributes.headline
Effects of Manuscript, Cursive or Manuscript/Cursive Styles on Writing Development in Grade 2

# data[].attributes.subject
Effects of Manuscript, Cursive or Manuscript/Cursive Styles on Writing Development in Grade 2

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Even in the age of computer keyboards, the ability to write neatly on paper is an important skill. Children are taught to print their letters, or write each one separately. That writing looks like what you're reading right now. But what about cursive writing?

Many schools no longer teach cursive. Some people think it's a dated form of writing and that school hours are better spent on other subjects. Others say learning to write in cursive is still useful. In 2019, the Texas state board of education reintroduced cursive as an essential skill.

Should cursive be taught in schools? We asked TIME for Kids readers to share their thoughts. Here's what four of them had to say.

Yes

COURTESY PADDY IVENGAR
Jayita Iyengar, 12 East Rutherford, New Jersey
Putting pen to paper has benefits that typing can't replace. Research shows that learning to write by hand is a key to good spelling and composition skills. Plus, cursive writing could be considered an art form all on its own. It's one way for students to develop the side of their brain that isn't developed by basic reading and writing skills.

No

COURTESY DENISE DELGADO-KERMAN
Keith N. Kerman, 10 Pelham, New York
Cursive shouldn't be taught in schools anymore. It's hard to do, and it's a waste of time. The letters are so complicated and fancy that practically nobody's able to do it accurately. And with all of this technology around nowadays, such as computers and phones, why should cursive still exist? Besides, who cares about cursive?

Yes

COURTESY VICKY NING
Justin Lining, 9 Bellevue, Washington
Cursive writing looks more glamorous than printing. Its letter formation has extraordinary curves and arches. Some parts are wide, while some parts are narrow. That will naturally appeal to people's eyes and impress people. You can write in cursive faster because you connect the words. Your pen doesn't pause. Cursive can let your thoughts flow.

No

COURTESY PRADEEP SEETHRAM
Spriha Pradeep, 10 Fremont, California
Learning cursive can take away time from subjects we use every day. Typing is increasingly important. Cursive writing is slower, harder to read, and harder to learn. Due to technology, cursive has become insignificant. We hardly use handwriting. There's no reason to teach students a skill that they won't use and will most likely forget.
The Next Debate! Should people be rewarded for recycling? Email your opinion to tfkeditors@time.com by March 8, 2021. Your response might be featured in an upcoming issue.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Even in the age of computer keyboards, the ability to write neatly on paper is an important skill. Children are taught to print their letters, or write each one separately. That writing looks like what you're reading right now. But...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
After a long period of neglect in education, attention to teaching handwriting in the primary grades may finally be returning. This attention can benefit many youngsters, including those with learning disabilities (LDs) involving handwriting, which may accompany reading disabilities, writing disabilities, nonverbal learning disabilities, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Although word-processing programs and assistive technology are undeniably boons to children with writing problems, technological advances do not eliminate the need for explicit teaching of handwriting. Furthermore, very modest amounts of instructional time in the earliest grades - kindergarten and grade one - may help to prevent later writing difficulties for many children.

Why handwriting is important

Contrary to the view that handwriting is a trivial skill, handwriting actually is important for a number of reasons.

One involves the concept of mental resources to which I have alluded in several other columns, in relation to reading and mathematics as well as writing. Just as effortful word decoding may impair reading comprehension, or lack of automatic recall may reduce the mental resources available for learning advanced computational algorithms in math, labored handwriting creates a drain on mental resources needed for higher-level aspects of writing, such as attention to content, elaboration of details, and organization of ideas.

Because handwriting is a basic tool used in many subjects - taking notes, taking tests, and doing classroom work and homework for almost every content area as well as in language arts classes - poor handwriting can have a pervasive effect on school performance.

Moreover, when handwriting is perceived as arduous and time-consuming, motivation to write may be greatly reduced, leading to a lack of practice that may further compound difficulties with writing.

Finally, handwriting in the earliest grades is linked to basic reading and spelling achievement; for example, when children learn how to form the letter m, they can also be learning its sound. Attention to the linkages among handwriting, reading, and spelling skills can help to reinforce early achievement across these areas.

Manuscript or cursive?

At one time, manuscript (print) writing was typically taught in first grade, whereas cursive was introduced later, usually in third grade. Historically, some authorities argued for the superiority of one form over the other for children with LDs, most often for the superiority of cursive over manuscript.

However, there is little evidence that cursive is easier to learn than manuscript, and there are clear advantages to having children focus on the form of writing similar to what they must read in print.

Most critically, children should be able to use at least one form to produce legible, reasonably effortless writing, and instruction should focus on the form that appears most likely to lead to that outcome, especially for older children with handwriting difficulties.

Assessment of handwriting skills

Assessment of handwriting should incorporate observations of execution, legibility, and speed of writing.

Execution includes correct and consistent pencil hold, posture, and letter formation. Counterproductive habits in these latter areas are not always obvious from looking only at writing samples and can greatly impede progress in handwriting. For instance, young children may "draw" a letter such as m using separate strokes, starting on the right side of the letter. Forming the letter beginning on the left side, without lifting the pencil from the paper, is much more conducive to building eventual speed of writing.

Legibility involves the readability of letters, as well as spacing within and between words.

Speed is important as children advance beyond the first few grades so that they can use writing efficiently in a variety of tasks.

If children have learned both manuscript and cursive, as is often the case with older youngsters, then assessment should consider the execution, legibility, and speed of both forms of writing.

Instruction in handwriting

Relatively modest investments of instructional time devoted to handwriting - perhaps the equivalent of ten or fifteen minutes daily - may pay off in preventing later writing problems, including difficulties with higher-level composition skills.

The early years of schooling are especially critical for handwriting instruction; once children have formed counterproductive habits in handwriting, such as poor pencil hold or inefficient letter formation, those habits can be difficult to change.

Even for young children, however, handwriting instruction should occur in the context of a broader program of written expression in which children learn many other writing skills and develop motivation to write.

Of course, children also should have access to word-processing programs and assistive technology, with appropriate accommodations as needed for individual students.

Here are a few specific suggestions for teaching handwriting:

Teach children consistent formation of letters using a continuous stroke if possible.
Children should learn a highly consistent way to form a given letter every time they write it. Although some letters, such as f and t, require lifting the pencil from the paper to make a second stroke, teach letter formation using a continuous stroke (without lifting the pencil from the paper) when possible.

For example, teach children to write the letter b by starting at the top with a vertical stroke, then making the loop to the right without lifting the pencil, rather than having children form the vertical line and the loop in separate strokes.

Focus initially on learning the motor pattern rather than perfect legibility or size.
When children are learning to form a new letter, it is helpful to begin with large movements such as forming the letter in the air; have children use a sweeping movement with the entire arm, not just the hand. This initial practice should emphasize learning the motor pattern with correct formation of the letter (e.g., as discussed for the letter b above) rather than writing the letter on paper with perfect legibility or size.

Teach similarly formed letters together, and use an instructional sequence that takes into account both ease of formation and frequency in words.
For instance, the manuscript letters c, a, and d all begin with the same loop and can be taught in one group; i should be taught before y because it is simpler to form and is needed more frequently to write words.

Separate reversible letters such as b and d.
Children appear less likely to confuse visually similar letters if they have learned one letter of a confusable pair well prior to introduction of the other letter of the pair. In addition, it can be helpful to teach children to form confusable letters differently; for example, b starts at the top whereas d starts with the loop.

Use written arrow cues to help children remember how to form letters.
Especially when the teacher is working with large groups of youngsters, monitoring each child while he or she is writing may be difficult. Written arrow cues for tracing dotted letters and copying letters are important so that children do not inadvertently practice incorrect letter formation repeatedly.

For children at beginning stages of reading and spelling, integrate handwriting instruction with instruction in letter sounds.
For instance, while children are practicing writing a given letter, they can also be saying the sound the letter makes.

In teaching cursive, explicitly teach connections between letters as well as formation of single letters.
Unlike manuscript writing, cursive writing involves making connections between letters within a word. Once children can form individual letters, explicit teaching of letter connections is important.

Connections involving four letters - cursive b, o, v, and w - followed by a subsequent letter (e.g., as in the words bed, on, have, will) are often especially confusing for children, because unlike most cursive connections, these do not involve going back down to the bottom line before writing the subsequent letter.

Aim for speed as well as legibility.
Whether children are learning manuscript or cursive, speed should not be emphasized until children can form letters legibly and from memory. With either form, however, children must eventually develop enough speed to use writing efficiently in tasks such as note-taking or test-taking.

It also is useful to distinguish different standards for legibility depending on the purpose for writing; for example, in taking notes, "messy" handwriting is entirely acceptable as long as children can easily read their own writing.

Examples of sources

Peer-reviewed journal articles

Berninger, V., & Graham, S. (1998). Language by hand: A synthesis of a decade of research on handwriting. Handwriting Review, 12, 11-25.

Connelly, V., Dockrell, J., & Barnett, J. (2005). The slow handwriting of undergraduate students constrains overall performance in exam essays. Educational Psychology, 25, 99-107.

Edwards, L. (2003). Writing instruction in kindergarten: Examining an emerging area of research for children with writing and reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 136.

Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 620-633.

Graham, S., Struck, M., Richardson, J.,& Berninger, V. (2006). Dimensions of good and poor handwriting legibility in first and second graders. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 43-60.

Graham, S., Weinstein, N., & Berninger, V. (2001). Which manuscript letters do primary grade children write legibly? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 488-497.

Other helpful sources

Berninger, V. (2004). Understanding the graphia in dysgraphia. In D. Dewey & D. Tupper (Eds.), Developmental motor disorders: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 328-350). New York: Guilford.

Berninger, V. W., & Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems: Research into practice. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of Learning Disabilities (pp. 345-363). New York: Guilford.

Troia, G.A. (2006). Writing instruction for students with learning disabilities. In C.A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research. New York: Guilford.

LD OnLine links

Other helpful links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
After a long period of neglect in education, attention to teaching handwriting in the primary grades may finally be returning. This attention can benefit many youngsters, including those with learning disabilities (LDs) involving handwriting, which may accompany reading disabilities, writing disabilities, nonverbal learning disabilities, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

# data[].attributes.headline
Memorization wrong path to proficiency in spelling

# data[].attributes.subject
Memorization wrong path to proficiency in spelling

# data[].attributes.body
This is an article from the Houston Chronicle written by Suzanne Carreker.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The recent article by Chronicle reporter Ericka Mellon about how schools are dropping weekly spelling tests in favor of teaching methods that focus less on memorization and more on understanding why and how words are constructed has created quite a stir. The article prompted letters to the editor and an editorial supporting the more traditional approach.

Noah Webster, noted lexicographer, once wrote, "Spelling is the foundation of reading and the greatest ornament of writing." Webster's quote so succinctly captures the importance of spelling instruction. Students' spellings provide insight as to how well students are connecting sounds to reliable patterns in the language. Students who have a sense of how the language works spell more accurately and use more sophisticated words. The trick is how to provide students with instruction that will lead to improved spelling.

The goal of spelling instruction is to heighten students' consciousness of sounds in words and frequently recurring patterns that spell those sounds. Reliable spelling patterns need to be taught. This instruction is enhanced by teaching students about the origins of words.

A common misconception about English is that the language is hopelessly irregular and the only way to learn to spell the language is to memorize it. However, memorization is not the key to spelling proficiency.

First, English is not as irregular as it may seem. Approximately 50 percent of English can be spelled by knowing simple sound-letter correspondences. Another 37 percent is regular except for one sound, as in "knit" or "doubt" or "team." When word origins are factored into the mix, such as Greek words that spell "f" as "ph" (photograph, philodendron), only 4 percent is truly exceptional.

A second argument against memorization is that recent research does not support spelling as a rote, visual-memory skill. For example, studies have shown that students spell perfectly regular words (stamp, went, think) better than words of the same length and frequency that are not perfectly regular (said, they, there). If spelling proficiency were based solely on visual memory, students would spell all those words equally well.

Think about the last time you tried to spell a word that you could not remember how to spell. Undoubtedly, you sounded out the word and matched letters to those sounds. Once you had the word on paper, you looked at it and assessed whether or not it looked right.

What you did to spell that less-than-familiar word is what current reading research advocates for students learning to spell. Research suggests that students must perceive the sounds in spoken words (you did that as you sounded out the unfamiliar word). Students then must appreciate that the sounds are represented in printed words with letters (you demonstrated this understanding as you wrote down your approximation of the word).

With the understanding of sounds and letters, students can sound out unfamiliar words. More importantly, students begin to build words in memory (when you decided your spelling looked right, you were comparing your spelling to spellings of similar words you held in memory). Words held in memory can be instantly retrieved and are remembered because sound-letter connections have been made, not because the words have been memorized.

Spelling errors can help teachers make informed instructional decisions that will improve students' spelling. Going beyond "right" or "wrong" spellings provides the best measures of students' spelling achievement and understanding of language structures. For example, the student who spells "celebrate" as "selebrate" has greater spelling knowledge than the student who spells "celebrate" as "salaprat."

The American Federation of Teachers ( www.aft.org) provides two helpful articles on spelling and informed spelling instruction: "How Words Cast Their Spell" and "How Spelling Supports Reading."

Whether or not it is right or just, assumptions about a person's levels of literacy and intelligence are often based on spelling proficiency. Spelling instruction that is informed by knowledge of language structures, not based on mere memorization, greatly improves spelling proficiency.
Carreker is vice president of research and program development for the Bellaire-based Neuhaus Education Center.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Memorization wrong path to proficiency in spelling

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The recent article by Chronicle reporter Ericka Mellon about how schools are dropping weekly spelling tests in favor of teaching methods that focus less on memorization and more on understanding why and how words are constructed has created quite a stir. Students' spellings provide insight as to how well students are connecting sounds to reliable patterns in the language.