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The Impact of Culture, Race & Ethnicity on a Person’s Identity - Lesson | Study.com

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Culture, race, and ethnicity are social constructs that affect a person’s identity in many ways. Explore the concepts of culture, race, and…

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The level of influence that peers can have over an adolescent makes these relationships particularly important in personal development.

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70897

1. Parental Relationships

2. Peer Relationships

3. Romantic relationships

4. Community, Society, and Culture

The influence of parental and peer relationships, as well as the broader culture, shapes many aspects of adolescent development.

The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their development. Adolescence is a crucial period in social development, as adolescents can be easily swayed by their close relationships. Research shows there are four main types of relationships that influence an adolescent: parents, peers, community, and society.

Parental Relationships

When children go through puberty in the United States, there is often a significant increase in parent‐child conflict and a decrease in cohesive familial bonding. Arguments often concern new issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the right to privacy. Parent‐adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on the child; this is especially true when parents do not approve of new friends' values or behaviors.

Figure 7.5.1: The parent-child relationship - When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent-child conflict.

While adolescents strive for freedom, the unknowns can be frightening for parents. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, they are often related to relatively minor issues. Regarding more important life issues, many adolescents will still share the same attitudes and values as their parents. Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risky behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected sex.

Peer Relationships

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). The level of influence that peers can have over an adolescent makes these relationships particularly important in personal development. As children begin to create bonds with various people, they start to form friendships; high quality friendships may enhance a child's development regardless of the particular characteristics of those friends.

Adolescents associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.

Peer groups offer members of the group the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as academic motivation and performance; however, they can also have negative influences, such as peer pressure to engage in drug use, drinking, vandalism, stealing, or other risky behavior. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, and while peers may facilitate positive social development for one another, they may also hinder it. One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior.

Emotional reactions to problems and emotional instability-both characteristic of the hormonal changes in adolescence-have been linked with physical aggression among peers. Research has linked both physical and relational aggression to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, including depression.

Romantic relationships

Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same‐sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed‐sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence.

Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed‐sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000[5]). Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short‐lived rather than long‐term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003[6]). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents' identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents' emotional and behavioral adjustment.

Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents' emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents' sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009[7]). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.

Community, Society, and Culture

There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief‐system development, for instance, are all likely to vary based on culture. Furthermore, many distinguishing characteristics of an individual (such as dress, employment, recreation, and language) are all products of culture.

Figure 7.5.2: Culture - Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development, for instance, are all things that are likely to vary by culture.

Many factors that shape adolescent development vary by culture. For instance, the degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous, or independent, beings varies widely in different cultures, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is also profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities, for example, is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. Adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities, while others are given more freedom or come from families with more privilege where responsibilities are fewer. Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reflect various socioeconomic backgrounds, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values.

Adolescents begin to develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. These belief systems encompass everything from religion and spirituality to gender, sexuality, work ethics, and politics. The range of attitudes that a culture embraces on a particular topic affects the beliefs, lifestyles, and perceptions of its adolescents, and can have both positive and negative impacts on their development. In the United States and many other parts of the world, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth face much discrimination and bullying by their peers based on the broader cultural attitudes about LGBTQ issues; many are ostracized from peer groups because they are seen to be breaking culturally based gender norms. This can have a tremendous impact on the development of queer or transgender adolescents, increasing their risk for depression, anxiety, and even suicide. Similarly, early‐maturing girls may suffer teasing or sexual harassment related to their developing bodies, contributing to a higher risk of depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks‐Gunn, 1997; Striegel‐Moore & Cachelin, 1999).

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7.5: Cultural and Societal Influences on Adolescent Development

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Page ID 70897 Parental Relationships Peer Relationships Romantic relationships Community, Society, and Culture The influence of parental and peer relationships, as well as the broader culture, shapes many aspects of adolescent development. The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in their development.

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In light of the gender and sexual orientation diversity within the human race, and in light of the stigma associated with being a sexual orientation or gender identity minority, in August 2014, APA's Council of Representatives adopted the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools. The resolution calls for K-12 public schools to be places of safety and support for all students, and offers recommendations for policies, programs, training, and practices.

Note: The following resources were not formally adopted as part of the resolution by council, but were developed by the resolution working group to support and facilitate dissemination and implementation of the resolution.

Introduction to the Resolution

The stress and stigma of being a sexual orientation or gender identity minority can increase developmental risks for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, queer, asexual, or intersex children and youth. In particular, still too common are concerns around bullying in schools and schools not fully addressing the educational needs of children and youth who are sexual or gender minorities, or those who are questioning their sexual and gender identities. Many sexual and gender minority children and youth experience truancy, dropping out or sometimes being pushed out of school, subtly, or explicitly.

The resolution calls for:

Promoting safe and supportive school policies for all children and youth.

Protecting the right to privacy around sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity for children and youth in schools.

Collecting data on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools.

Developing anti-bullying efforts within schools.

Developing programs to increase school engagement for sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth.

Increasing access to facilities and programs for youth and children based on their gender identity, not their assigned gender.

See fact sheets, best practices and other resources for implementing the resolution's recommendations.

While issues addressed in this resolution impact sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth in schools worldwide (e.g. stigmatization, stress, bullying, lack of support), they speak more closely to the lived experiences and needs of sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth living in the United States. For example, group identities and other terminology described in the resolution, and literature cited, represent the realities sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth encounter in the United States; they may not apply to those living in other sociocultural contexts. Therefore, this resolution is primarily intended to inform and support the school-based practice of psychologists, counselors and other mental health professionals working with sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth in the United States.

This resolution is aligned with APA's strategic plan - specifically, expanding psychology's role in advancing health and increasing recognition of psychology as a science (i.e., expanding the translation of psychological science into evidence-based practice and promoting the applications of psychological science to daily living). It also advances the National Association of School Psychologists' (NASP) strategic priorities and goals that relate to culturally responsive services and schools; and advocacy for children, youth, families and schools by working to improve policies that will more effectively meet the needs of the whole child.

Context for the Resolution

The current context for this resolution is one of rapid societal change. Youth and children in the context of schools are part of this phenomenon of rapid change. Youth and children are grappling with issues and questions of sexual orientation and gender identity in ways different from previous generations, and often at earlier ages. The last time that APA and NASP addressed sexual minority youth in schools was in 1993, in the joint resolution Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youth in the Schools. There have been significant changes in societal attitudes since then, but also a lack of improvement in some fundamental ways regarding how our institutions address the needs of sexual orientation and gender identity minority youth.

June 2013 saw the U.S. Supreme Court decide that the Defense of Marriage Act was unconstitutional, and the overturning of Proposition 8 in California, which had rescinded marriage equality for same-sex couples. Since then, state level bans across the country have largely been overturned making marriage equality for same-sex couples available to a significant majority of the population. The "don't ask, don't tell policy" prohibiting open LGBT people from serving in the U.S. military was repealed in 2010.

States are also adopting policies to protect sexual orientation and gender diverse youth in schools. For example, The California Student Safety and Violence Prevention Act of 2000 amended California Education Code to specifically prohibit discrimination against and harassment of students and staff in schools on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity - adding to the protected categories of sex, ethnic group identification, race, national origin, religion, color, or mental or physical disability.

Despite advances in LGBT rights, the prevalence of bullying within school and neighborhood contexts has not declined (Patrick, Bell, Huang, Lazarakis, & Edwards, 2013), and in some communities hate crimes against sexual orientation minorities have even increased (Mustanski, 2013). There has been controversy over "reparative therapy" and sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE). APA and NASP have taken clear stands against these and other efforts to pathologize variations in sexual orientation and gender identity and expression, which infringe on the rights of LGBT individuals. Numerous other education, mental health, and medical professions have adopted similar positions about the ineffectiveness of SOCE, and raise the concern that SOCE may be harmful (APA, 2009; Just the Facts Coalition, 2008).

While this resolution is about schools, schools also have a role in the larger community, in neighborhoods and with families. Thus, the observations and recommendations contained in this resolution are relevant beyond the school walls. Schools should be safe and welcoming to all students, and a resource to the whole community in efforts to enhance the resiliency and psychological well-being of sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth.

Definitions and Limitations of Language

The language around gender and sexuality continues to evolve rapidly, even as the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools was being written. Words and their definitions change or become refined as our understanding of complex constructs related to sexuality and gender evolves. Using words or phrases that are most accurate, respectful and useful is an important goal in implementing this resolution.

Given how rapidly terminology changes, even the following list of terms and definitions might undergo significant change in the future. The resolution drafters therefore decided it important to explicitly and consciously articulate their current understanding of terms that appear in the resolution and in its supporting documents as follows:

Asexual refers to a person who does not experience sexual attraction or has little interest in sexual activity.

Bullying is unwanted, repetitive and aggressive behavior marked by an imbalance of power. It can take on multiple forms, including physical (e.g., hitting), verbal (e.g., name calling or making threats), relational (e.g., spreading rumors) and electronic (e.g., texting, social networking). (Rossen & Cowan, 2012).

Cisgender replaces the terms "nontransgender" or "bio man/bio woman" to refer to individuals who have a match between the gender they were assigned at birth, their bodies and their gender identity. (Schilt & Westbrook, 2009).

DSD refers to "disorders of sex development," a term that is used to discuss intersex and variations in sex development by some medical professionals and community members. See entry for Intersex .

Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex. Behavior that is compatible with cultural expectations is referred to as gender-normative; behaviors that are viewed as incompatible with these expectations constitute gender non-conformity. (APA, 2012).

Gender expression refers to an individual's presentation - including physical appearance, clothing choice and accessories - and behavior that communicates aspects of gender or gender role. Gender expression may or may not conform to a person's gender identity.

Gender diversity refers to the extent to which a person's gender identity, role or expression differs from the cultural norms prescribed for people of a particular sex. This term is becoming more popular as a way to describe people without reference to a particular cultural norm, in a manner that is more affirming and potentially less stigmatizing than gender nonconformity (Gender Spectrum, n. d.).

Gender dysphoria refers to discomfort or distress that is associated with a discrepancy between a person's gender identity and that person's sex assigned at birth - and the associated gender role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics (Fisk, 1974; Knudson, De Cuypere, & Bockting, 2010). Only some gender-nonconforming people experience gender dysphoria at some point in their lives (Coleman, et al. 2011).

Gender identity refers to one's sense of oneself as male, female or something else (APA, 2011). When one's gender identity and biological sex are not congruent, the individual may identify along the transgender spectrum (APA, 2012; Gainor, 2000).

Gender identity and sexual orientation are different constructs. Transgender people, like disgender people, may be sexually oriented toward men, women, both sexes or neither sex, and like most people, usually experience their gender identity (who they feel themselves to be) and their sexual orientation (whom they are attracted to) as separate phenomena (Bockting & Gray, 2004; Chivers & Bailey, 2000; Coleman, Bockting, & Gooren, 1993; Docter & Fleming, 2001; Docter & Prince, 1997). Many transgender people experience a shift in their sexual attractions at some point (Daskalos, 1998; Meier, Pardo, Labuski, & Babcock, 2013), indicating that sexual orientation may be more dynamic than previously thought.

Gender non-conforming is an adjective and umbrella term to describe individuals whose gender expression, gender identity, or gender role differs from gender norms associated with their assigned birth sex. Subpopulations of the transgender and gender non-conforming community can develop specialized language to represent their experience and culture, such as the term "masculine of center" that is used in communities of color to describe a gender non-conforming identity.

Gender role refers to a pattern of appearance, personality and behavior that, in a given culture, is associated with being a boy/man/male or being a girl/woman/female. A person's gender role may or may not conform to what is expected based on a person's sex assigned at birth. Gender role may also refer to the social role one is living in (e.g., as a woman, a man or another gender), with some role characteristics conforming and others not conforming to what is associated with girls/women or boys/men in a given culture and time.

Genderqueer refers to a person whose gender identity falls outside of the gender binary (i.e., identifies with neither or both genders). Genderqueers may also use the term "gender fluid" as an identifier but typically reject the term "transgender" because it implies a change from one gender category to another.

Intersex refers to a range of conditions associated with atypical development of physical sex characteristics (APA, 2006). Intersex individuals may be born with chromosomes, genitals and/or gonads that do not fit typical female or male presentations (2013). Some examples of these conditions include ambiguous external genitals, inability of the body to respond typically to sex-related hormones and inconsistency between external genitals and internal reproductive organs (APA, 2006). Since 2006, the medical and research community has used the term disorders of sex development . This term refers to congenital conditions characterized by atypical development of chromosomal, gonadal or anatomical sex (Houk, Hughes, Ahmed, Lee, & Writing Committee for the International Intersex Consensus Conference Participants, 2006). An alternate term - differences of sex development (DSD)- has been recommended to prevent a view of these conditions as diseased or pathological (Wisemann, Udo-Koeller, Sinnecker, & Thyen, 2010). In order to be inclusive of various terminology preferences, the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools uses intersex/DSD when referring to individuals who are part of this community.

Pansexual is a term "most commonly used in the world outside academia as a sexual identity (and sexual orientation) term similar to 'bisexuality,' but more inclusive of trans people. It also shows an awareness of the implied gender binary in the term 'bisexual.'" (Elizabeth, 2013, p. 333).

Pushout refers to a student who leaves school before graduation due to the encouragement of school personnel, often to enable the school to achieve a performance goal or to lower disruption within the school, or because the school views the student as too much trouble. This term is in contrast to "drop out" to highlight the institutional influence on individual behavior (Find Youth Info, n.d.).

Queer is an umbrella term that individuals may use to describe a sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression that does not conform to dominant societal norms. Historically, it has been considered a derogatory or pejorative term and the term may continue to be used by some individuals with negative intentions. Still, many LGBT individuals today embrace the label in a neutral or positive manner (Russell, Kosciw, Horn, & Saewyc, 2010). Some youth may adopt 'queer' as an identity term to avoid limiting themselves to the gender binaries of male and female or to the perceived restrictions imposed by lesbian, gay and bisexual sexual orientations (Rivers, 2010).

Questioning is an identity label for people exploring their sexual orientation or gender identity, and is in a state of moratorium in terms of identity formation.

Sex refers to a person's biological status and is typically categorized as male, female or intersex. There are a number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs and external genitalia. (APA, 2012).

Sex assignment is the initial categorization of an infant as male or female.

Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay men or lesbians), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexuals), and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexuals). Some people identify as pansexual or queer in terms of their sexual orientation, which means they define their sexual orientation outside of the gender binary of "male" and "female" only. While these categories continue to be widely used, research has suggested that sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and instead occurs on a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebhard, 1953; Klein, 1993; Klein, Sepekoff, & Wolff, 1985; Shively & DeCecco, 1977). In addition, some research indicates that sexual orientation is fluid for some people; this may be especially true for women (e.g., Diamond, 2007; Golden, 1987; Peplau & Garnets, 2000).

Transgender is an umbrella term that incorporates differences in gender identity wherein one's assigned biological sex doesn't match their felt identity. This umbrella term includes persons who do not feel they fit into a dichotomous sex structure through which they are identified as male or female. Individuals in this category may feel as if they are in the wrong gender, but this perception may or may not correlate with a desire for surgical or hormonal reassignment (Meier & Labuski, 2013).

References for Definitions

American Psychological Association. (2006). Answers to your questions about individuals with intersex conditions. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/intersex

American Psychological Association. (2009). Report of the task force on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/sexual-orientation

American Psychological Association. (2011). Answers to your questions: About transgender people, gender identity, and gender expression. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/transgender

American Psychological Association. (2012). Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. American Psychologist®, 67(1), 10-42.

Bockting, W. O., & Gray, N. (2004, August). Transgender identity and HIV risk: An Internet-based study. Abstract presented at the 112th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, Hawaii.

California Safety and Violence Prevention Act of 2000, Cal. Stat. §§ 200-220 (2000).

Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2000). Sexual orientation of female-to-male transsexuals: A 1615 comparison of homosexual and non-homosexual types. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(3), 259-278.

Coleman, E., Bockting, W., Botzer, M., Cohen-Kettenis, P., DeCuypere, G., Feldman, J., ... Zucker, K. (2011). Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-Nonconforming People, Version 7. International Journal of Transgenderism, 13, 165-232. doi: 10.1080/15532739.2011.700873

Coleman, E., Bockting, W. O., & Gooren, L. J. G. (1993). Homosexual and bisexual identity in sex-reassigned female-to-male transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22(1), 37-50.

Daskalos, C. T. (1998). Changes in the sexual orientation of six heterosexual male-to-female 1671 transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27(6), 605-614. doi:10.1023/A:1018725201811

Diamond, L. M. (2008). Sexual fluidity: Understanding women's love and desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Docter, R. F., & Fleming, J. S. (2001). Measures of transgender behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30(3), 255-271

Docter, R. F., & Prince, V. (1997). Transvestism: A survey of 1032 cross-dressers. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(6), 589-605.

Elizabeth, A. (2013). Challenging the binary: sexual identity that is not duality. Journal of Bisexuality, 13(3), 329-337. doi: 10.1080/15299716.2013.813421

Find Youth Info. (n.d.). How trained service professionals and self-advocacy makes a difference for youth with mental health, substance abuse, or co-occurring issues. Retrieved from http://www.findyouthinfo.gov/youth-briefs/transition-age-youth-challenges

Fisk, N. (1974). Gender dysphoria syndrome: The conceptualization that liberalizes indications for total gender reorientation and implies a broadly based multi-dimensional rehabilitative regimen [Editorial comment]. Western Journal of Medicine, 120(5) 386-391.

Gainor, K. (2000). Including transgender issues in lesbian, gay and bisexual psychology: Implications for clinical practice and training. In B. Greene, & G. Croom (Eds.), Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Issues, Volume 5: Education, research, and practice in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered psychology: A resource manual. (pp. 131-161). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Gender Spectrum. (n. d.). Understanding gender. Retrieved from https://www.genderspectrum.org/quick-links/understanding-gender/

Golden, C. (1987). Diversity and variability in women's sexual identities. The Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective, ed., Lesbian psychologies: explorations and challenges (pp.19-34). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Houk, C. P., Hughes, I.A., Ahmed, S. F., Lee, P.A., and Writing Committee for the International Intersex Consensus Conference Participants. (2006). Summary of consensus statement on intersex disorders and their management. Pediatrics, 118(2)753-757. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-0737

Just the Facts Coalition. (2008). Just the facts about sexual orientation and youth: A primer for principals, educators, and school personnel. Retrieved from www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.html

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Oxford, England: Saunders.

Klein, F. (1993). The bisexual option (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harrington Park.

Klein, F., Sepekoff, B., & Wolf, T. J. (1985). Sexual orientation: A multi-variable dynamic process. Journal of Homosexuality, 11(1-2), 35-49.

Knudson, G., De Cuypere, G., & Bockting, W. (2010). Process toward consensus on recommendations for revision of the DSM diagnoses of gender identity disorders by The World Professional Association for Transgender Health. International Journal of Transgenderism, 12(2), 54-59.

Meier, S. C. & Labuski, C. M. (2013) The demographics of the transgender population. In A. K. Baumle (ed.), International Handbooks of Population, International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality, 5 (pp. 289-327). doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-5512-3_16

Meier, S. C., Pardo, S., Labuski, C. & Babcock, J. (2013). Measures of clinical health among female-to-male transgender persons as a function of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 463-474. doi: 10.1007/s10508-012-0052-2

Mustanski, B. (2013, June 12). Are violent hate crimes against lgbt people on the rise? The Sexual Continuum, Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-sexual-continuum/201306/are-violent-hate-crimes-against-lgbt-people-the-rise

Intersex Campaign for Equality. (2013). FAQs: What is intersex and how common is it? Retrieved from http://oii-usa.org/category/faqs/

Patrick, D. L., Bell, J. F., Huang, J. Y., Lazarakis, N.C ., & Edwards, T.C. (2013). Bullying and Quality of Life in Youths Perceived as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual in Washington State, 2010. American Journal of Public Health, 103(7), 1255-1261. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.301101

Peplau, L. A., & Garnets, L. D. (2000). A new paradigm for understanding women's sexuality and sexual orientation. Journal of Social Issues, 56(2) 330-350. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00169

Rivers, I. (2010). Understanding the changing nature of identity in LGBTQ youth research. Society for Research in Child Development [Commentary]. Social Policy Report, 24, 18.

Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2012). A framework for school-wide bullying prevention and safety. Communique , 41(2). Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/bullying/bullying_brief_12.pdf

Society for Research in Child Development. (2010) Russell, S. T., Kosciw, J., Horn, S., & Saewyc, E. Safe Schools Policy for LGBTQ Students (Social Policy Report, 24(4), 1-17). Retrieved from http://www.srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/spr_24_4_final.pdf

Schilt, K., & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: 'Gender Normals,' Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender & Society, 23(4), 440-464. doi: 10.1177/0891243209340034

Shively, M. G., & De Cecco, J. P. (1977). Components of sexual identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 3(1), 41-48.

Wiesemann, C., Ude-Koeller, S., Sinnecker, G.H.G., & Thyen, U. (2010). Ethical principles and recommendations for the medical management of differences of sex development (DSD)/intersex in children and adolescents. European Journal of Pediatrics, 169(6), 671-679.

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resolution on gender and sexual orientation diversity in children and adolescents in schools

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Gender and sexual orientation diversity in children and adolescents in schools

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The working group that wrote the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools created these additional resources to support and facilitate dissemination and implementation of the policy. Together, these policy resources call for K-12 public schools to be places of safety and support for all students.

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Implicit bias is where someone unconsciously discriminates against someone who is different from them.

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The Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity

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A Pantene ad recently gained attention for addressing unconscious discrimination in the workplace. Watching descriptors like "boss" turn to "bossy" and "persuasive" turn to "pushy" depending on whether a man or woman was onscreen provides food for thought.

While most people do not intend to discriminate, these subtle differences in perception have a lasting influence on how they interact with others.

Ways teachers practice unconscious discrimination - and how to fix it

Most educators are dedicated to treating all students equally, but even they can sometimes fall victim to the phenomenon of unconscious discrimination. We've gathered four examples of hidden bias below, along with strategies teachers can use to defeat them in the classroom.

Teacher bias #1: Boys are out of control in the classroom

The gender biases illustrated in the Pantene commercial are a source of unconscious discrimination for many teachers. In "Stop Penalizing Boys for Not Being Able to Sit Still In School," teacher Jessica Lahey notes that in her own classroom, she punished boys at twice the rate of girls - and nearly every warning was for disruptive behavior. Ask any mother or teacher of boys and they'll tell you that their energy level and need for gross motor movement is difficult to tether.

It is painful to watch a brilliant student fail. Boys aren't broken, and harnessing the very energy that makes them occasionally disruptive can turn these qualities into a strength. Lahey suggests a variety of ways to improve education for boys. These include designing lessons that:

Utilize competitive games and motor activities

Combine competition with teamwork

Encourage boys to struggle with open-ended questions and perceive learning as a sort of quest

In addition to harnessing boys' unique personalities, these strategies can enhance the traditional classroom model and appeal to female outliers as well.

Teacher bias #2: Girls aren't good at math

In a study from the University of Texas at Austin, high school teachers rated the math ability of white girls lower than white boys, even when grades and test scores were the same for both genders. One of the study's authors, Dr. Catherine Riegle-Crumb, said, "The bias teachers revealed against white female students may very well be something they are not consciously aware of, and it's usually subtle, but it's definitely present, per our research findings."

The past few years have brought a renewed focus on getting girls involved not only in math but in all STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects. According to Encouraging Girls in Math and Science, a guide published by the Institute of Education Sciences, teachers who want to eliminate the bias against girls in math - and help them succeed in all STEM areas- can use the following strategies:

Teach students that academic abilities improve with persistence

Provide informational, prescriptive feedback to students: "You worked hard to solve that problem" instead of "You're smart."

Introduce girls to female role models in math and science

Teacher bias #3: The students you like get better grades

Another classroom group gets the benefit of the doubt more often than we realize: teacher's pets. A recent study in England found that in one in ten cases, a teacher's feelings about a student had a direct influence on their toughness in grading. Considerations like length and neatness of writing also led to better teacher perception. Researchers considered this evidence that teacher-run assessments can and should be replaced with more formal standardized testing in order to avoid these issues.

While this bias may cast doubt on internal assessment, it is important to note there are means of handling unconscious bias without switching entirely to computer-run standardized testing. Teachers should consider grading in teams, if possible, with norming sessions that help them articulate the expectations of the assessment. Other means of handling such unconscious bias could simply be instituting blind grading or other policies that allow for a separation of the student from their work to some extent.

Teacher bias #4: Introverted students are stupid

Another group that suffers unconscious discrimination in the classroom: introverts. Although researchers estimate that between 16 and 50 percent of people are introverts - naturally inclined to need quiet and time to themselves - some teachers assume that they lack intelligence. A 2011 study revealed that teachers gave (hypothetical) students a low rating on intelligence and academic ability when the child was described as quiet or shy instead of average or talkative. As class discussion and student participation take precedence over traditional lecture-based classes, introverted students can feel increasingly uncomfortable in the classroom.

In Education Week's article "Studies Illustrate Plight of the Introverted Student," Sarah Sparks says that one good way to differentiate for introverted students is to balance class discussions with time for students to reflect quietly. Additionally, allowing students to choose between working in groups or alone gives introverts space to do their best work while also supporting those who excel at working with others.

It appears that the best means of addressing unconscious discrimination is continued improvement on the part of educators. Ensuring that classrooms are dynamic and functional for all students and that lesson planning and assessment methods are fair is one way to eliminate hidden biases. A little reflection on the part of teachers goes a long way toward ensuring that every student gets the education they deserve.
Monica Fuglei is a graduate of the University of Nebraska in Omaha and a current adjunct faculty member of Arapahoe Community College in Colorado, where she teaches composition and creative writing.

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4 Hidden Teacher Biases & How to Defeat Them | Resilient Educator

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A Pantene ad recently gained attention for addressing unconscious discrimination in the workplace. Watching descriptors like "boss" turn to "bossy" and "persuasive" turn to "pushy" depending on whether a man or woman was onscreen provides food for thought. While most people do not intend to discriminate, these subtle differences in perception have a lasting influence on how they interact with others.

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How does teacher bias influence students?: An introduction to the special issue on teachers’ implicit attitudes, instructional practices, and student outcomes

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The teacher ignores a student just because they have some mental disability and makes them feel that they can not succeed.

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When a teacher treats a student of a different race differently, the other students treat that student the same way the teacher does.

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Cultural competence is where someone is willing to try and understand someone who is different from themselves.

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This revision of the "Standards and Indicators for Cultural Competence in the Social Work Practice" (the Standards) reflects the growth in the understanding of cultural competence since the development of both the NASW "Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice" published in 2001 and the "Indicators for the Achievement of the NASW Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work  Practice" (NASW, 2007).

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Darrell P. Wheeler, PhD, ACSW, MPH NASW
President

Angelo McClain, PhD, LICSW NASW
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National Committee on Racial and Ethnic Diversity (NCORED) 2014-2016

Carol E. Bonner, EdD, MSW, MBA (Chair)
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National Committee on Racial and Ethnic Diversity 2002-2006 (Indicators)

Sally Alonozo Bell, PhD, LCSW
Barbara A. Candales, PhD, LCSW, MPH
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Halaevalu F. Vakalahi, PhD
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Ada E. Deer, ACSW
Lina Fong, PhD, ACSW, LCSW
Inderjit K. Jaipaul, DSW, ACSW
Emma Montero, MSW
Irene Moreda, DSW
Carmen Ortiz Hendricks, DCSW, ACSW
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Clara Simmons, ACSW, DCSW
Saundra H. Starks, EdD, ACSW, LCSW
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Standards and Indicators for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice

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These standards reinforce the concept of "culture" as being inclusive beyond race and ethnicity; inclusive of, but not limited to, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, andreligious identity or spirituality.

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Developing Cultural Competence: A Journey Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion | Share Collaborative

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While developing cultural competence, it’s helpful to think of it as the journey to a mountain summit—how do we continue to climb?

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I believe I can apply the framework of cultural competence in my future classroom by keeping an open mind for all my students and showing them that I am willing to take any criticism or praise to improve.