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Mohammad Zahir Shah (born Oct. 15, 1914, Kabul, Afg.—died July 23, 2007, Kabul) was the king of Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973, who provided an era of stable government to his country.

For a number of years Zahir Shah remained in the background while his relatives ran the government, but he asserted his power through the constitution of 1964, which established a constitutional monarchy and prohibited royal relatives from holding public office.

Research questions:

Who was Zahir Shah?

How did he become king of Afghanistan?

What were the key features of Zahir Shah’s constitutional monarchy, and how did they contribute to a sense of stability and prosperity in pre-war Afghanistan?

The Last King of Afghanistan, King Zahir Shah - Click here

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Who was Mohammad Zahir Shah

Mohammad Zahir Shah was the last king of Afghanistan, reigning from 1933 until 1973, and is recognized as the country’s longest-serving ruler.

His forty-year reign is widely described as a period of relative stability, modernization, and neutrality in international conflicts.

Zahir Shah became king at age nineteen following the assassination of his father. Initially, real power was held by his uncles, but over time—especially after the 1964 constitution—he took a more active role in governance.

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Mohamad Zahir Shah was born on October 15th 1914 and died in July 23d 2007 and was born as the son of the then king of Afghanistan Mohammed Nadir Shah. When his Dad died in 1933 he was 19 and took the spot as king in 1933 and was king until 1973.

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Zahir Shah was the last king of Afghanistan, ruling from 1933 to 1973. He focused on modernising the country and kept it neutral during major global conflicts. He was overthrown in a coup while he was away in Italy. B

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Zahir Shah - The Last King Of Afghanistan | Times Now Plus

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King Mohammed Zahir Shah introduces a constitutional monarchy, bringing a decade of relative democracy and modernization to Afghanistan. This period represents the peaceful Kabul of Amir and Hassan's childhood, where kite fighting flourished in the winters.

Research questions:

How did the monarchy end?

How did the fall of the monarchy in 1973 affect Afghanistan socially and politically?

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Background

-              Mohammad Zahir Shah’s monarchy fell on July 17, 1973, in a bloodless coup led by his cousin and former prime minister, Mohammad Daoud Khan, while the king was abroad receiving medical treatment in Italy.

Factors leading up to the fall of the monarchy.

-              Political Instability: Despite economic modernization efforts and a long period of relative peace during Zahir Shah’s reign (1933–1973), the monarchy was unable to effectively centralize power or address Afghanistan’s enduring tribal divisions and economic difficulties, especially outside Kabul.

-              Economic and Social Pressures: The early 1970s brought severe drought and famine, exacerbating economic hardship, and weakening popular support for the government.

-              Daoud Khan’s Ambition: Daoud Khan, a powerful and ambitious royal family member and former prime minister, sought to end the monarchy and establish a republic. He leveraged dissatisfaction with the government’s slow reforms and inability to manage crises.

-              Military Support: Daoud Khan mobilized army units and supporters, including the 444th Commando Battalion, to seize key points in Kabul, including the royal residence and airport, in the early hours of July 17, 1973. The coup occurred without significant armed resistance, as the king was in Italy for medical care.

-              Abdication: Zahir Shah formally abdicated on August 24, 1973, and remained in exile in Italy.

-              Symbolic End: Daoud Khan proclaimed Afghanistan a republic and became its president, marking the end of the Afghan monarchy.

Consequences:

The fall of the monarchy set off decades of political upheaval. Daoud Khan was himself overthrown in 1978 by communist forces, leading to Soviet intervention and ultimately the prolonged conflict that would define Afghanistan’s modern history.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Mohammad Zahir Shah, (born Oct. 15, 1914, Kabul, Afg.-died July 23, 2007, Kabul), king of Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973, who provided an era of stable government to his country.

The sons of Moḥammad Nāder Shah, Zahir and his brothers reasserted central government control during a period of anarchy and banditry in the late 1920s. Zahir Shah came to the throne at the age of 19, after the assassination of his father in November 1933, having previously served as a cabinet minister. For a number of years Zahir Shah remained in the background while his relatives ran the government, but he asserted his power through the constitution of 1964, which established a constitutional monarchy and prohibited royal relatives from holding public office.

Zahir Shah undertook a number of economic development projects, including irrigation and highway construction, backed by foreign aid, largely from the United States and the Soviet Union. He was also able to maintain Afghanistan's neutral position in international politics. His reforms seemed to have little effect outside the Kabul area, however. In the early 1970s the country suffered drought and famine. Pashto tribes along the Pakistan border continued to press for autonomy, and the political structure in the capital was unable to deal with the country's economic problems. In a bloodless coup on July 17, 1973, Zahir Shah was deposed. The leader of the coup, General Mohammad Daud Khan (the king's brother-in-law), proclaimed Afghanistan a republic with himself as its president. Zahir Shah formally abdicated on Aug. 24, 1973, and went into exile in Italy. Following the U.S. overthrow of the Taliban, he returned to Afghanistan in 2002. Zahir Shah, who publicly opposed the restoration of the monarchy and declined to run for president, was later given the honorary title Father of the Nation.

Amy Tikkanen.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

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...was succeeded by his son Zahir Shah, who reigned until July 17, 1973, when he was deposed and a republic was proclaimed. The Bārakzay rulers, in chronological order, were Dōst Moḥammad Khan, Shīr ʿAlī Khan, Yaʿqūb Khan, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Khan, Ḥabībullāh Khan, ʿAmānullāh Khan, Moḥammad Nāder Khan, and Mohammad Zahir...

Mohammad Daud Khan, Afghan politician who overthrew the monarchy of Mohammad Zahir Shah in 1973 to establish Afghanistan as a republic. He served as the country's president from 1973 to 1978. Educated in Kabul and France, Daud Khan, a cousin and...

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Mohammad Zahir Shah | king of Afghanistan

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Mohammad Zahir Shah, king of Afghanistan from 1933 to 1973, who provided an era of stable government to his country. The sons of Moḥammad Nāder Shah, Zahir and his brothers reasserted central government control during a period of anarchy and banditry in the late 1920s.

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The Fall of the Monarchy in 1973: Social and Political Effects on Afghanistan

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The Fall of the Monarchy in 1973: Social and Political Effects on Afghanistan

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The fall of Afghanistan's monarchy in 1973, through a coup by Mohammad Daoud Khan, ended centuries of royal rule and established a republic. Politically, it led to authoritarianism, increased military involvement in governance, and political instability, paving the way for the 1978 communist coup and later Soviet invasion. Socially, it disrupted traditional structures, weakened national unity, and triggered factionalism, especially between leftists and Islamists. The removal of the monarchy created a legitimacy gap, leading to decades of conflict, civil war, and social upheaval.

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The 1973 Afghan coup d’état, also called by Afghans as the Coup of 26 Saratan (Dari: کودتای ۲۶ سرطان)[3] and self-proclaimed as the Revolution of 26 Saratan 1352,[a][4] was led by Army General and prince Mohammad Daoud Khan against his cousin, King Mohammad Zahir Shah, on 17 July 1973, which resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Afghanistan under a one-party system led by Daoud Khan.[5][2]

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Afghanistan’s 1973 transition from monarchy to republic replaced the constitutional monarchy led by Zahir Shah with a centralized presidential republic under Daoud Khan. This involved the abolition of the monarchy, the institution of a one-party state, suppression of political opposition, and a realignment of foreign policy, all of which significantly altered Afghanistan’s political structure in a variety of ways:

Abolition of the Monarchy and Royal Privileges: The 1964 Constitution, which established a constitutional monarchy, was nullified. The royal family lost its formal power and privileges.

Creation of a Presidential Republic: Daoud Khan declared himself both President and Prime Minister, consolidating executive power. He established a one-party system under the National Revolutionary Party and became the undisputed leader.

Suppression of Opposition: Daoud's regime curtailed political freedoms. In 1977, a new constitution cemented the presidential one-party state, banning opposition parties and taking repressive measures against dissenters, sometimes using violence.

Shift in Foreign Policy: Initially reliant on the Soviet Union for support, Daoud Khan later sought to balance Afghanistan’s external relations, reaching out to Western and Muslim countries to reduce Soviet influence, though he faced continued internal challenges from communist factions and Islamists.

Modernization and Reform Attempts: Daoud resumed efforts at modernization, particularly in the areas of women’s rights and economic development, but with limited progress and increasing centralization of authority.

The transition was initially peaceful but set in motion a period of chronic instability, political repression, and factionalism. Daoud Khan’s autocratic tendencies and alienation of various political groups ultimately paved the way for his own violent overthrow in the 1978 Saur Revolution, which replaced the republic with a communist regime and deepened Afghanistan’s descent into turmoil.

-Jack T

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The sport is deeply rooted in Afghan culture, particularly in cities like Kabul, where parks like Chaman-e-Babrak become hubs for kite-flying competitions, especially during autumn. Kite fighting is more than just a game; it's a cultural tradition enjoyed by people of all ages, though largely off-limits to girls and women.

Research questions:

What are the cultural traditions and rules surrounding kite fighting in Afghanistan, and how does this tradition reflect community values in the novel?

Afghanistan's kite runners paint the skies - 30 Oct 07 - Click here

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Afghan Kite Fighting: Traditions & Rules

Cultural Traditions

Kite fighting, or gudiparan bazi, is a deeply rooted Afghan tradition, stretching back more than a century. It is especially popular among boys and men, serving as both a pastime and a symbol of resilience and freedom.

Kites are often handmade using paper and bamboo, with vibrant colors and unique designs reflecting Afghan artistic heritage.

Traditionally, kite string is coated with ground glass and glue, making it sharp enough to cut an opponent's string in aerial combat.

Events and occasions: Kite fighting is celebrated most intensely during festivals and New Year, becoming a communal celebration where crowds gather to compete or watch.

During Taliban rule (1996–2001 and after 2021), kite flying was banned as "un-Islamic," making it a symbol of cultural defiance and hope when permitted.

Basic Rules and Practices

The main objective is to cut the string of other kites. When your kite is the last flying, you are the winner.

There are few formalized rules; in the words of The Kite Runner: "The rules were simple: no rules. Fly your kite. Cut the opponents. Good luck.".

Teams: Most kites are flown by two people—one controls the spool, the other steers the kite.

Kite running: After a kite is cut loose, children and young men chase it, trying to catch it as it drifts to the ground. Capturing a defeated kite is considered a prized reward.

Community participation: Even though women and girls generally do not participate, the events attract crowds, and the activity is a cherished family and community gathering.

Dangers & Skill

Sharp strings can cause injuries—flyers protect their hands with leather or tape.

Kite-fighting string is often imported, and having the sharpest string is a mark of competitive edge.

Reflection in The Kite Runner

Symbolism and Community Values

Honor and pride: Winning a kite tournament is a prestigious achievement, emblematic of skill, perseverance, and the desire for honor—central values in Afghan society.

Personal and communal identity: For Amir, the protagonist, winning the kite tournament is about earning his father's approval and enhancing his family’s reputation, symbolizing the importance of community perception and personal honor.

Loyalty and sacrifice: Kite running in the novel is tied to deep loyalty—Hassan's devotion as Amir's kite runner highlights themes of friendship, selflessness, and the complex class dynamics within Afghan society.

Redemption and guilt: The kite-fighting episode becomes a pivotal moment, as Amir’s quest for victory leads to a betrayal of Hassan—a metaphor for lost innocence and the lasting impact of personal choices on relationships and community standing.

Social divisions: The division between kite flyers (often from wealthier families) and kite runners (often from poorer backgrounds), as seen with Amir and Hassan, reflects broader social and ethnic hierarchies in Afghanistan.

Key Takeaways

Kite fighting is a culturally rich and emotionally charged tradition in Afghanistan, woven into the fabric of family, community, and national identity.

In The Kite Runner, this tradition is used to explore and dramatize universal themes: honor, loyalty, sacrifice, social hierarchy, and the possibilities of redemption.

The intense competition and communal joy of kite fighting mirror the complexities of Afghan life, resonating through the lives and choices of the novel’s characters.

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(1930s–early 1970s, especially under King Zahir Shah)

Afghanistan’s "Golden Age" refers to a period of relative peace, stability, and modernization, particularly during the reign of King Zahir Shah (1933–1973). This era is remembered fondly in The Kite Runner as the peaceful, prosperous Afghanistan of Amir’s childhood.

Key Features of the Golden Age:

1. Peace and Stability

Afghanistan remained neutral during World War II and avoided major conflicts.

The monarchy provided steady leadership, reducing tribal violence.

2. Modernization and Reforms

Education expanded, including schools for girls.

Infrastructure improved: roads, hospitals, and public services were built.

The 1964 Constitution introduced democracy, women’s rights, and a parliament.

3. Cultural Flourishing

Arts, literature, and Afghan traditions thrived.

Kabul was a vibrant, cosmopolitan city known for its beauty and culture.

4. International Relations

Afghanistan maintained positive relations with both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

It received foreign aid while remaining officially non-aligned during the Cold War.

Research questions:

What was daily life like for inhabitants of Kabul during its Golden Era?

How did the international community view Afghanistan during its golden era?

President John Fitzgerald Kennedy greets Mohammed Zahir Shah, September 9, 1963 - Click here

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President John F. Kennedy and King Zahir Shah

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In the early 1900-1960s, Kabul was a much different place. With lots of restaurants, jazz music and living life to the fullest, in the 60s, the country was a very popular tourist spot. Many "hippys" would visit the city. Women could vote, and they could also get an education.

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-              Education and Youth

Kabul University and other schools educated thousands, including many women.

Girls and boys attended school, often wearing uniforms; coeducation became more common.

Foreign languages like English, French, and Russian were taught.

Youth had access to libraries, bookstores, and sports clubs.

-              Women’s Lives

Many urban women chose whether or not to wear the chador or hijab—it wasn’t compulsory.

Women held jobs as teachers, doctors, nurses, radio announcers, and civil servants.

Women walked freely in public, went to cinemas, cafes, parks, and participated in civic life.

Fashion included skirts, blouses, high heels, or colorful scarves, inspired by both Afghan and Western styles.

-              Transportation and Infrastructure

Streets in Kabul were paved and lined with trees; buses, bicycles, and taxis were common.

Some families owned cars (often imported), while others walked or rode buses.

The city had streetlights, modern schools, universities, hospitals, and even a few nightclubs.

TL, CB, ZL, CH

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During Kabul's golden era - Before the Soviet invasion in 1979 - Kabul was characterised by modernity, safety, social progress and increasing cosmopolitanism.

Egalitarianism also characterised life in Kabul, particularly for women. With many entering previously male-exclusive roles such as teaching, science, law, finance, and business management. Furthermore, dress codes were relaxed for women, mini skirts and head scarfs were popular trends in woemn clothing at the time.

Kabul could often be described as the 'Paris of Central Asia.' The city juxtaposed modern buildings with mud structures, creating a cityscape of clashing modernism and traditionalism.

Encyclopædia Britannica

New York Times

(with a little bit of help from perplexity)

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Hosseini was born on March 4, 1965, in Kabul, Afghanistan, the eldest of five children. His father, Nasser, worked as a diplomat for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Kabul while his mother worked as a Persian language teacher at a girls' high school; both originate from Herat.

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Kabul, Afghanistan (1970s)

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Kabul, Afghanistan (1970s)

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Kabul, Afghanistan (1970s)

Significance: This is where Amir and Hassan grow up.

Features: Peaceful, upper-class neighborhood (Wazir Akbar Khan); vibrant Afghan culture and traditions like kite fighting.

Themes linked: Childhood innocence, friendship, class division, nostalgia.

In the 1970s, Afghanistan experienced a period of transition, with some urban areas, particularly Kabul, embracing modern, Westernized influences while traditional customs remained strong in rural areas. This era, often called Kabul's "golden era," saw a mix of modern and traditional elements in society. Women in Kabul were seen in miniskirts and other Western-style clothing, while others adhered to more conservative dress, reflecting the diverse cultural landscape.

Key Aspects of Afghan Culture in the 1970s:

Modernization and Westernization:

Kabul, in particular, saw a shift towards a more modern, Westernized lifestyle, with women participating in universities and the workforce.

Traditional Values:

Despite the modernization, traditional values and customs remained strong, especially in rural areas and among more conservative communities.

Social Life:

The 1970s were a time of social gatherings, with men and women enjoying restaurants, discos, and open-air theaters.

The "Hippie Trail":

Afghanistan was a popular stop on the "Hippie Trail," attracting Western travelers with its vibrant culture and bazaars.

Cultural Institutions:

The government encouraged the restoration of historical monuments and the development of cultural institutions like the School of Fine Arts in Kabul.

Religious Influence:

Islam was the state religion, and while the 1964 Constitution didn't prescribe a specific Hanafi practice, the 1977 Constitution reaffirmed Islam as the state religion.

Political Instability:

The decade was marked by political changes, including the overthrow of the monarchy in 1973 and the establishment of the Republic of Afghanistan.

Regional Differences:

It's crucial to remember that Afghanistan is a diverse country with distinct regional variations in culture and traditions.

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1970: Hosseini and his family moved to Iran

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1970: Hosseini and his family moved to Iran

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In 1970, Hosseini and his family moved to Iran where his father worked for the Embassy of Afghanistan in Tehran. In 1973, Hosseini's family returned to Kabul, and Hosseini's youngest brother was born in July of that year. In 1976, when Hosseini was 11 years old, his father secured a job in Paris, France, and moved the family there. They were unable to return to Afghanistan because of the April 1978 Saur Revolution in which the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power.

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1973: The Republic of Afghanistan Established

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1973: The Republic of Afghanistan Established

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Mohammed Daoud Khan overthrows the monarchy in a bloodless coup, establishing Afghanistan as a republic. This marks the beginning of political instability that would later impact the lives of The Kite Runner's characters.

Research questions:

What political changes occurred when Afghanistan transitioned from a monarchy to a republic in 1973?

How did these changes disrupt the Afghan society?

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1973: The Republic of Afghanistan Established

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1973: The Republic of Afghanistan Established

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Q) What were the political changes that occurred when Afghanistan Transitioned from a monarchy to a Republic.

End of the monarchy: King Zahir Shah was overthrown and Mohammad Daoud Khan declared Afghanistan a republic and became its first president.

Centralised power: Authority shifted from the king and parliament to a strong presidential system with Daoud Khan holding most power.

Secular reforms: The new government pushed for modernization and secular policies, such as expanding women’s rights, which upset traditional and religious groups.

Political instability: The shift led to increased opposition, social unrest, and eventually set the stage for further coups and conflict.

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The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seizes power in a communist coup. This event begins the period of dramatic change in Afghanistan, reflecting the mounting tensions in Amir and Hassan's relationship.

Research questions:

What was the Saur Revolution, and who took control of Afghanistan afterward?

How did the Saur Revolution change life for ordinary Afghan people?

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What was the Saur Revolution, and Who Took Control of Afganistan Afterwards?

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What was the Saur Revolution, and Who Took Control of Afganistan Afterwards?

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The Saur Revolution, also known as the April Revolution, was a military coup in Afghanistan on April 27-28, 1978, that overthrew the government of President Mohammad Daoud Khan. The coup was led by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a communist party, which subsequently established a socialist government. Following the Saur Revolution, the PDPA, specifically its Khalq faction led by Hafizullah Amin, seized control.

AB- OL

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How did the Saur Revolution change life for ordinary Afghan people

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How did the Saur Revolution change life for ordinary Afghan people

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The Saur Revolution changed life for Afghan people in various ways:

-Widespread Repression: brutality, night time raids, mass arrests and torture

Suppresion of dissent: the PDPA silenced politically or religiously opposing people and even those with suspected ties to activist organisations

-“Red Terror”: The period saw the execution of around 27,000 political prisoners. Atrocities were committed against civilians, including sexual violence, looting, and arbitrary killings, especially in rural areas.

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The Soviet Union invades Afghanistan, installing a communist regime. This pivotal event forces many Afghans, including Amir and Baba, to flee the country. The invasion marks the beginning of a decade-long occupation and resistance.

Research questions:

Why did the Soviet Union invade Afghanistan, and what were they trying to achieve?

How did the Soviet invasion affect Afghan families?

What long-term impact did the Soviet invasion have on Afghanistan’s stability and future?

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan Footage | Behind the Lines with Afghan Mujahideen (1980) - Click here

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1- Why did the Soviet Union invade Afghanistan, and what were they trying to achieve?
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 to support the communist Afghan government, which was under threat from Islamic insurgents known as the mujahideen. Their goal was to stabilize the regime and maintain influence in the region by replacing the unstable leadership with a more loyal ally, Babrak Karmal.

2- How did the Soviet invasion affect Afghan families?
The invasion led to mass bombings and depopulation of rural areas, causing millions of Afghans to flee. By 1982, around 2.8 million had taken refuge in Pakistan and another 1.5 million in Iran, indicating widespread displacement and hardship for Afghan families.

3- What long-term impact did the Soviet invasion have on Afghanistan’s stability and future?
The war entrenched instability, as the Soviet-backed regime never gained public support and the conflict created a power vacuum after Soviet withdrawal in 1989. Afghanistan was left fragmented, militarized, and deeply destabilized, setting the stage for continued conflict in the decades that followed.

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Kabul, Afghanistan (1980s–2000s, under Soviet and Taliban rule)

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Kabul, Afghanistan (1980s–2000s, under Soviet and Taliban rule)

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Kabul, Afghanistan (1980s–2000s, under Soviet and Taliban rule)

Significance: Amir returns to a war-torn, devastated Kabul.

Features: Destruction, fear, public executions, Taliban control.

Themes linked: Loss, guilt, redemption, moral courage.

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Kabul, Afghanistan under Soviet and Taliban rule

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The Refugee Act of 1980 aimed to create a fair and consistent system for admitting refugees into the United States. It brought U.S. law in line with international standards, clearly defined who qualifies as a refugee, and set up a formal process for resettlement. The Act also set annual limits on refugee admissions and established support programs to help refugees adjust to life in the U.S.

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How were the Afghan refugees viewed by American society?

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the establishment of The Refugee Act of 1980

By the 1990, there were 28,444 Afghan born individuals in America

In particular there was a large concentration of Afghan-born people in Fremont, California there was a large community called Little Kabul

Typically they were treated better than some other refugee groups at the time. However, there was growing islamiphobia, from the majority Christian population

Often in media they were reported as "Afghan Refugees" and rarely "Afghan Americans" until a lot later.

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The Mujahideen wage guerrilla warfare against Soviet forces with support from the US, Pakistan, and other countries. This decade of conflict transforms Afghanistan from the peaceful nation of Amir's childhood into a war zone.

Research questions:

Who were the main groups involved in the Mujahideen?

Describe the Mujahideen's guerrilla warfare tactics against the Soviet forces?

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The Mujahideen, meaning those who engaged in struggle was a decentralised group of Afghani militants who opposed the Peoples Democratic Party Of Afghanistan and the subsequent invasion by the Soviet Union in 1979. The Mujahideen was very ecliptic in their fighters with both ethnicities and political views varying wildly, from anticommunists to radical islamists. Furthermore many Islamists from outside Afganistan joined the Mujahideen, some these foreigners would eventually form a terrorist organisation known as the base Al-Qaeda, other splinters of the Mujahideen include the Taliban and the Northern league, which was a loose coalition of anti-Taliban fighters.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/mujahideen-Afghani-rebels

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In 1980, shortly after the start of the Soviet–Afghan War, they sought political asylum in the United States and made their residence in San Jose, California. When Hosseini initially came to the United States, he was fifteen years old and could not speak English. He describes the experience as "a culture shock" and "very alienating".

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Fremont, California, USA (1980s–1990s)

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Fremont, California, USA (1980s–1990s)

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Significance: Where Baba and Amir settle as refugees.

Features: Afghan immigrant community, flea markets, culture clash.

Themes linked: Identity, exile, assimilation, generational conflict.

The Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts in Afghanistan led to a mass exodus of refugees, with many seeking asylum in the US. The influx of refugees led to the rapid development of Afghan communities, with Fremont, California, eventually becoming home to the largest Afghan American population in the US. The Refugee Act of 1980 facilitated the resettlement of Afghan refugees by increasing the number of international refugees admitted to the US each year. Afghan refugees in California have faced various challenges, including adjusting to a new culture, dealing with trauma from their experiences in Afghanistan, and navigating social and economic integration.

Research questions:

What were the aims of The Refugee Act of 1980?

How were the Afghan refugees viewed by American society?

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Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan, leaving behind a devastated country. This period corresponds to Amir and Baba's life in America, while their homeland continues to face internal struggles.

Research questions:

Why did the Soviet Union withdraw its troops from Afghanistan in 1989?

What happened in Afghanistan after the Soviets left, and how did this affect the country’s stability?

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Why did the soviet's withdrawal from Afghanistan?

The Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 due to a number of factors, such as strong resistance by the US backed Mujahideen (who continued to disrupt the Soviet’s operations using guerrilla warfare), frequent desertion by Soviet allies, and a failure to install a sympathetic regime.

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Final Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan - February 15, 1989 - CBS Evening News

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The Mujahideen employed a variety of tactics such as ambushes on critical infrastructure like radios for communication and ammo resupply convoys.

They also utilized the mountainous terrain as cover from artillery fire and also to gain the height advantage which Afghanistan also used against the British.

During Ambushes, they would employ the 'hit-and-run' method to avoid counter attacks from the Soviet Forces.

The Mujahideen also would perform raids on enemy facilities and outposts during night time as it limited enemy sightline and reduced artillery effectiveness. The outposts also provided supplies of ammunition and arms for the Mujahideen.

https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/96457/02_Jan.pdf

(PDF from the Conflict Studies Research Centre)

https://csr.cs.uml.edu/afghanistan-war-guide-soviet-tactics-and-outcomes

(csr website)

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The Mujahideen capture Kabul, but different factions soon begin fighting for control, leading to civil war. This period represents the continuing deterioration of Afghanistan while Amir builds his new life in California.

Research questions:

Who were the Mujahideen, and what role did they play in Afghanistan’s history after the Soviet withdrawal?

What were the immediate effects of the Mujahideen's capture of Kabul on the city's population and daily life?

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Who were the mujahideen and what role did they play in Afghanistans history after the soviet withdrawal?

The Mujahideen were Afghan fighters who resisted the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989. The word Mujahideen means "those engaged in jihad" or holy struggle. They were made up of various factions, including Islamist groups and tribal fighters, and were supported by countries like the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and China, who provided weapons, funding, and training during the Cold War.

After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, the Mujahideen played a major role in shaping Afghanistan’s future. However, instead of uniting, the different Mujahideen factions turned on each other, leading to a brutal civil war 1992–1996 as they competed for control of Kabul and the country. This conflict devastated the nation and created chaos, paving the way for the rise of the Taliban, who promised stability and eventually took control of most of Afghanistan by 1996.

Brittanica

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Taliban political and militant movement 

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Taliban political and militant movement 

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Taliban, ultraconservative political and religious faction that emerged in Afghanistan in the mid-1990s following the withdrawal of Soviet troops, the collapse of Afghanistan’s communist regime, and the subsequent breakdown in civil order.

Research questions:

What is the Taliban and its main aims?

What methods did the Taliban use to consolidate and maintain control over Afghanistan after capturing Kabul in 1996?

The Taliban, explained - Click here

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Taliban Political and Militant Movement 

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Taliban Political and Militant Movement 

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Research Question 1: What is the Taliban, and what are its main aims? The Taliban is a Sunni Islamist nationalist and militant movement that originated in the early 1990s in Afghanistan. The Taliban was mainly composed of Pashtun religious students. The main aims of the Taliban are to establish and maintain an Islamic state governed by a strict interpretation of Sharia, enforce its vision of religious and social order, and control Afghanistan's territory and society.

(CD)

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What methods did the Taliban use to consolidate and maintain control over Afghanistan after capturing Kabul in 1996?

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What methods did the Taliban use to consolidate and maintain control over Afghanistan after capturing Kabul in 1996?

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After capturing Kabul in 1996 they used some of the following methods to maintain control:

Enforcement of social and religious codes: Established the Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, which enforced their version of Islamic morality.

Banned women from most education and employment, required full-body coverings (burqa), and enforced restrictions on movement, speech, and appearance for women and girls.

Prohibited music, television, photography, movies, and most forms of public entertainment.

Imposed severe punishments (amputation, public executions, flogging) for crimes or moral offenses according to their interpretation of Islamic law

Use of Violence and Repression

Conducted systematic campaigns of massacres, executions, and forced displacements of ethnic and religious minorities (notably Hazara, Tajik, and Uzbek communities).

Employed public punishments—including whipping, stoning, and executions—to deter dissent and criminal activity.

RA + HM

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The Taliban is a political and religious faction and militia that came to power in Afghanistan in the mid-1990s. Following the Soviet Union’s 1989 withdrawal from Afghanistan (see Afghan Wars), the Taliban (Persian: “students”)—whose name refers to the Islamic religious students who formed the group’s main recruits— The Taliban’s extreme oppression of women is rooted in their ultra-conservative ideology, which blends a strict interpretation of Islamic law with patriarchal tribal codes. They believe that preserving men’s honour requires rigid control and seclusion of women, often treating women as men’s property and a source of social “sin.” For the Taliban, restricting women’s visibility, mobility, and autonomy is seen to create a “moral” society under their religious authority. This worldview has driven the Taliban to ban women from education, work, and most aspects of public life, erasing protections and forcing women into near-complete dependence and invisibility. Their actions are also a deliberate assertion of power—controlling women is a way to demonstrate their authority over all of society, and efforts to promote women’s rights are rejected as threats to their rule and ideology.

HM + RA

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The Taliban and their subsequent and small fall from power

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The Taliban and their subsequent and small fall from power

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What is the Taliban and its main aims?

The Taliban was a de facto Islamic regime that begun during the fall of the previous government of the Soviet-backed Afghan government.

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The Taliban capture Kabul and establish the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, imposing strict Islamic law. This is the Afghanistan that Amir finds when he returns to rescue Sohrab, where kite flying is banned and public executions are common.

Research questions:

How did the Taliban’s rise to power change political and social life in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul?

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How did the Taliban's rise to power change political and social life in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul? 

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The Taliban first rose to power in 1996, establishing a strict theocratic regime that ended democratic processes and suppressed opposition. After being overthrown in 2001, they returned to power in August 2021, once again enforcing harsh restrictions, especially on women, who were banned from education, many jobs, and public life. In Kabul, cultural freedoms disappeared as music, art, and media were censored or banned, and moral policing returned. Daily life in the city became dominated by fear, surveillance, and repression. Many Afghans, particularly educated citizens, fled the country, leading to brain drain and international isolation.

(HH)

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Peshawar, Pakistan

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: Peshawar, Pakistan

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Significance: Amir travels here before returning to Afghanistan.

Features: Safe haven for Afghan refugees, meeting place with Rahim Khan.

Themes linked: Transition, decision-making, the call to redemption.

Amir visits Pakistan in June 2001 after receiving a call from Rahim Khan, who asks him to come see him because he is very sick and has something important to discuss. Amir leaves for Pakistan about a week after the call, traveling from his home in the United States to meet Rahim Khan in Peshawar.

Pakistan, particularly Peshawar, serves as a critical place of refuge for Amir and Baba after they flee the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This escape marks the end of Amir's privileged childhood and the beginning of his life as a refugee, fundamentally altering his identity and status.

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: The Orphanage and Taliban-Controlled Areas in Afghanistan

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"THE KITE RUNNER" SETTING: The Orphanage and Taliban-Controlled Areas in Afghanistan

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Significance: Where Amir finds Sohrab.

Features: Desperate conditions, brutality, courage required to act.

Themes linked: Injustice, rescue, sacrifice, hope.

Life in Taliban-run orphanages had severe social and psychological impacts on children, especially those orphaned by war or poverty:

Psychological Trauma: Many children suffered PTSD, anxiety, and depression due to violence, loss, and insecurity.

Social Isolation: Orphans faced extreme isolation, with little access to mental health support or caring adults, leading to helplessness and despair.

Exploitation and Abuse: Children were vulnerable to forced labour, early marriage, trafficking, and, for boys, recruitment by armed groups.

Malnutrition: Chronic poverty led to malnutrition, illness, and even starvation.

Long-term Difficulties: Early trauma and deprivation caused lasting cognitive and social challenges, affecting future relationships and opportunities.

In summary: Taliban-run orphanages deepened the trauma and hardship of Afghan children, leaving many with lasting scars and limited hope for recovery.

Research questions:

How did Taliban control affect the daily living conditions and resources available to children in orphanages?

In what ways were orphanages and schools used by the Taliban for ideological or political purposes?

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How were Afghan Refugees Viewed by American Society Pre-9/11

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How were Afghan Refugees Viewed by American Society Pre-9/11

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The typical refugee from Afghanistan around this time would have been well educated and wealthy, or already studying in the United States. Many refugees however had to leave behind much of their property and spend large sums of money to escape the country, leaving them poor when they arrive in the country. Many worked in the service sector as taxi drivers or in restaurants. Afghani refugees were percepted much better than other Muslim refugees at the time as the US supported the Mujahideen in fighting against soviet occupation, whereas other countries tended to attack the US and support of the USSR of their own will. In the late 90s many articles about afghani refugees would describe them as 'Afghan Americans" and by this time many refugees had also become citizens. Generally the US population was receptive to these refugees and supported them

JV

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September 11 attacks, series of airline hijackings and suicide attacks committed in 2001 by 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda against targets in the United States, the deadliest terrorist attacks on American soil in U.S. history.

Research questions:

How did the 9/11 attacks lead to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban from power?

How did the international perception of Afghanistan and its people change after 9/11?

'AMERICA'S DARKEST DAY': See newspaper headlines from around the world after 9/11 Click here

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How did the 9/11 attacks lead to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban from power?

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How did the 9/11 attacks lead to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban from power?

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The September 11, 2001, attacks—carried out by al-Qaeda, an extremist network then based in Afghanistan—led the U.S. to demand that the Taliban government, which controlled Afghanistan and provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda, hand over Osama bin Laden and shut down terrorist training camps; when the Taliban refused, a U.S.-led international coalition invaded Afghanistan in October 2001 to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove Taliban power. The U.S. military, working with local anti-Taliban forces like the Northern Alliance, quickly drove the Taliban from their strongholds, ousting their regime from major cities and ending their formal control of the country.Although al-Qaeda was largely driven out of Afghanistan and the Taliban regime was toppled, the group survived to eventually regain power after two decades of insurgency and U.S. military involvement

JG + CM

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How did the international perception of the Afghanistan and its people change after 9/11 

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How did the international perception of the Afghanistan and its people change after 9/11 

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After the 9/11 attacks, Afghanistan was thrust into the international spotlight as the homeland of the Taliban regime that harbored Osama bin Laden, shifting global perceptions from relative obscurity to one of scrutiny and concern. The Afghan people were often viewed collectively through the lens of terrorism and conflict, leading to stigmatization and challenges for Afghans abroad, especially refugees and migrants. Initial international intervention was framed as a mission to liberate Afghans from oppression, with hopes of democratic transformation and human rights improvements. Over time, as the war dragged on and humanitarian crises deepened, Afghanistan became associated with instability, prolonged conflict, and failed state-building attempts. These changing perceptions were further reinforced by the enduring image of Afghanistan as a country in turmoil, overshadowing the agency and diversity of its people in global discourse.

LM + GK

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Khaled Hosseini was in the United States on September 11, 2001. He was living in California, having moved there with his family as refugees in 1980. At the time, he was working as a doctor. The events of 9/11, and the subsequent focus on Afghanistan, inspired him to finish writing "The Kite Runner"

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Following the September 11 attacks, the US launches military operations in Afghanistan, deposing the Taliban regime. This corresponds to the period when Amir returns to Afghanistan to find Sohrab.

Research questions:

How did the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001 affect life in Kabul and the rest of Afghanistan? Consider the following: political, social and economic progress as well as basic freedoms.

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Its policies included the near-total exclusion of women from public life (including employment and education).

Resistance was particularly ethnic groups—namely, the Tajik, the Uzbek, and the Hazara—in the north, west, and central parts of the country.

The United States and its allies began bombarding Afghanistan in October and supported the efforts of the Northern Alliance.

In 2005 the Taliban began enjoying a resurgence, showing indications of greater coordination and resilience among its fighters.

the Taliban’s continued resilience and the inability of Afghanistan’s central government to exert control throughout the country prompted the central government to seek reconciliation with the Taliban.-

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2002: Hamid Karzai becomes the leader of the Afghan Transitional Administration. 

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2002: Hamid Karzai becomes the leader of the Afghan Transitional Administration. 

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Hamid Karzai becomes the leader of the Afghan Transitional Administration. This period represents hope for Afghanistan's future, mirroring Amir's personal redemption and his attempt to give Sohrab a new life in America.

Research questions:

Describe Hamid Karzai's main achievements?

How was Hamid Karzai viewed by the USA during and after his presidency?

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Hamid Karzai became Afghanistan’s first democratically elected president in 2004, marking a key milestone in the country's shift toward democracy. He played a crucial role in uniting the country after decades of war, establishing a new constitution, and building critical government institutions. Karzai was notable for securing significant international aid to rebuild Afghanistan’s devastated infrastructure and economy. Despite immense internal challenges, he maintained relative national stability and pursued peace talks with the Taliban. (Brittanica)

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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica • Edit History

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Hamid Karzai | Biography, Presidency, & Facts

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Hamid Karzai, (born December 24, 1957, Kandahār, Afghanistan), Afghan politician who was the first elected president of Afghanistan (2004–14). Karzai was the son of the chief of the Popalzai Pashtuns, and both his father and grandfather served in the government of Mohammad Zahir Shah. Under the Sov…

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What were the key features of Zahir Shah's constitutional monarchy and how did they contribute to a sense of stability and prosperity in pre-war Afghanistan.   

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What were the key features of Zahir Shah's constitutional monarchy and how did they contribute to a sense of stability and prosperity in pre-war Afghanistan.   

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After joining the Afghanistan government as the cabinet minister, his father the king at the time got assassinated in November 1933. This allowed 19 year old Zahir Shah to become king. Due to his young age he allowed his relatives to predominantly run the government affairs. Then in 1964 he asserted his power through the constitution. He established a constitutional monarchy forbidding relatives to hold any positions in the public office. After taking control, Zahir shah decided to undertake many civil benefiting tasks. Such as a number of economic development projects, including irrigation and highway construction. Then he expanded foreign relations with many powerful nations. Including US, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan. This overall allowed Afghanistan to be stable and allow the start of a prosperous future. LF & GR.

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In 2003, Hosseini published his first novel, The Kite Runner.

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Despite the fall of the Taliban, Afghanistan remained unstable. The Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency, leading to ongoing violence, insecurity, and periodic attacks, especially in rural areas. The Afghan government, supported by international forces, struggled to maintain control outside major cities.

August 15, 2021: The Taliban return to power, marking the end of the post-Taliban era.

Research questions:

Describe some of the major changes that characterise post-Taliban Afghanistan including social and cultural changes, the presence of foreign forces and the enduring impact of war?

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Explore the class and Enthic division, particularly between Pashtuns and Hazars?

In Afghanistan, the Pashtuns and Hazaras have long experienced serious class and ethnic divisions.

Pashtuns - Historically, Pashtuns (mostly Sunni) have dominated politics, land, and government,

Hazaras - (mostly Shia) have faced discrimination, violence, and exclusion since the late 1800s.

Contrast:

Hazaras have been pushed into poor, low-status jobs and regularly targeted by both state and extremist groups, especially under the Taliban, who exclude them from power and sometimes forcibly take their land. These divisions are kept alive not just by religion, but also by government policies, social attitudes, and ongoing violence, leading to deep inequality and mistrust between the groups.

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Masculinity is first framed by Baba’s ideals — “A boy who can’t stand up for himself becomes a man who can’t stand up for anything” (Chapter 3). Amir feels he doesn’t measure up to this standard, lamenting, “I always felt like Baba hated me a little” (Chapter 4). Baba’s view is later challenged when Rahim Khan tells Amir, “There is a way to be good again” (Chapter 14), implying true manhood is defined by redemption, not toughness.

Bravery is redefined through Amir’s journey. At first, he sees kite fighting as courage: “The blue kite was my key to Baba’s heart” (Chapter 7). Yet when Hassan is assaulted, Amir hides, confessing, “I ran because I was a coward” (Chapter 7). Years later, he redeems himself by confronting Assef: “I stood my ground. This time I did not flee” (Chapter 22), showing bravery is moral courage, not just physical.

Loyalty is the strongest and most complicated theme. Hassan embodies pure devotion: “For you, a thousand times over” (Chapter 7). Despite Amir’s betrayal — “I lifted Hassan’s mattress and planted my new watch and a handful of Afghani bills under it” (Chapter 9) — Hassan remains loyal, even falsely confessing to theft. Amir finally mirrors this loyalty by saving Sohrab, echoing Hassan’s words: “For you, a thousand times over” (Chapter 25).

By the end, masculinity shifts from dominance to integrity, bravery becomes about facing guilt and injustice, and loyalty is redefined as active sacrifice and love.

Citations Used (10 total):

1. Baba: “A boy who can’t stand up for himself becomes a man who can’t stand up for anything” (Ch. 3)

2. Amir’s insecurity: “I always felt like Baba hated me a little” (Ch. 4)

3. Rahim Khan: “There is a way to be good again” (Ch. 14)

4. Amir’s goal: “The blue kite was my key to Baba’s heart” (Ch. 7)

5. Amir’s guilt: “I ran because I was a coward” (Ch. 7)

6. Amir’s redemption: “I stood my ground. This time I did not flee” (Ch. 22)

7. Hassan’s devotion: “For you, a thousand times over” (Ch. 7)

8. Amir’s betrayal: planting the watch under Hassan’s mattress (Ch. 9)

9. Hassan falsely confessing to theft (Ch. 9)

10. Amir repeating Hassan’s words to Sohrab: “For you, a thousand times over” (Ch. 25)

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In Afghanistan, men and women have very different roles because of religion, culture, and years of war. Men usually lead the family, earn money, and make big decisions. They work in politics, business, and religion. Women are mostly expected to stay home, raise children, and protect family honor by dressing modestly. Many girls cannot go to school or work, especially in villages with strict traditions. War forced some women to work when men were gone, and in cities like Kabul more women studied and worked. But since the Taliban took power in 2021, strict rules again limit women’s education, jobs, and freedom. Some young people want change, but for most Afghan women, life still has many limits compared to men.

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Afghan/ immigrant experience whilst in America 

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Afghan/ immigrant experience whilst in America 

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For many, the initial challenges are immense. Language barriers, securing housing, navigating immigration systems, finding employment, and accessing education or healthcare can feel overwhelming for many. Culturally, Afghan refugees must adjust to a society that often feels radically different from their own, where customs, religious practices, and family roles may not be fully understood or respected by the host community. Discrimination, stereotyping, and Islamophobia can further deepen their sense of alienation.

Yet despite these obstacles, Afghan refugees also demonstrate extraordinary resilience and adaptability. Community networks, both local and national, often provide critical support. Many Afghan immigrants work tirelessly to contribute to their new society—whether through entrepreneurship, education, or civic engagement—while also preserving their rich cultural traditions. Second-generation Afghan Americans, in particular, often serve as bridges between cultures, embodying both American values and Afghan heritage.

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Islam is deeply embedded in daily life and social customs across Afghanistan.

Religious influence intensified during the mujahideen era, with Islamic practices such as banning alcohol and encouraging traditional Muslim dress for women.

Under Taliban rule, Islamic codes became far stricter, reflecting a more extreme interpretation of Islam.

Entertainment like television was banned, aligning with conservative Islamic views on morality and distraction.

Men were required to grow full beards, considered a religious obligation by extremist groups, with non-compliance leading to fines or imprisonment.

Harsh punishments were enforced for criminal behavior, reflecting a strict interpretation of Islamic justice.

Despite the unpopularity of some rules, many Afghans accepted Taliban policies due to the order and stability they provided in the absence of other governance options.

Religion, particularly Islam, functions not only as a belief system but also as a tool for societal control and identity in Afghanistan.

Published by Daniel Leclezio

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Khaled Hosseini: Background and influences on Kite Runner

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Khaled Hosseini: Background and influences on Kite Runner

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Born: 4th march 1964, Kabul, Afghanistan.

Parents: Father was a diplomat and his mother a secondary school teacher.

They moved to Prais in 1976, where his father worked in the Afghan embasy. In 1979, their return home would have been made difficult due to the soviet invasion of Afghansitsan. As a result, they were granted political asylum by the U.S.

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Cruel oppression of Afghan woman reverting society to a lesser state?

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Cruel oppression of Afghan woman reverting society to a lesser state?

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classic western gender roles are contrasted by afghan religious beliefs about male superiority with male gender roles including providing and protecting with majority of afghan men being expected to financially support the family as well as represent the family in public and community affairs, contrasting the high gender equality being conducted in modern australia. many afghan woman advocate for rights and equality, often facing immense risk many places began to adapt and change to these wants before the lead of the taliban in 2021 which then reverted afghan to a heavily male dominated society once again.

TE HC

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DESCRIBE TRADITIONAL MASCULINITY VALUES IN AFGHANISTAN? HOW HAVE THEY CHANGED OVER OUR TIMELINE PERIOD?

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DESCRIBE TRADITIONAL MASCULINITY VALUES IN AFGHANISTAN? HOW HAVE THEY CHANGED OVER OUR TIMELINE PERIOD?

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afghanistans values of masculinity have always been tied to honour, strength, control and religion. men were expected to protect and serve for their families, similar to western beliefs, men were meant to uphold islamic values, controlling women as well.

during the 1960s-70s, king zahirs rule began to shift some masculine ideals in cities men started valuing education, professional success, and tolerance but people in rural areas masculinity stayed rigid and traditional.

During the soviet and afghan war masculinity became more militant. The ideal man was now brave, religious, and ready to fight. War turned boys into soldiers, and heroism meant resistance.

In the 90s the Taliban enforced an extreme version of masculinity strict religious obedience, control over women, and zero tolerance for Western influence. A man’s worth was tied to dominance and faithfulness to sharia law.

After 2001, masculinity began to split. In cities, a more modern version emerged. men supported education and shared responsibilities. But in rural areas, traditional values remained strong. Overall, masculinity shifted between tradition, war, religion, and modern influence over this period.

BA KH. ♦︎

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Western stereotypes on Afghanistan and its people

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Western stereotypes on Afghanistan and its people

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Western stereotypes about Afghanistan often depict it as a land defined solely by war, violence, and anarchy, overlooking the country's rich cultural heritage.

Afghans are frequently seen as fiercely independent, ungovernable people resistant to progress, and Afghan women are commonly portrayed only as passive victims of oppression.

SS + JL