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yDirected by Bill Morrison, 视频播放量 2167、弹幕量 1、点赞数 148、投硬币枚数 15、收藏人数 376、转发人数 21, 视频作者 芥川輓羹亭, 作者简介 意识的绵延。，相关视频：【美国录像艺术】齿间 The Space Between the Teeth (1976)，【法国纯电影】反射与速度游戏 Jeux des reflets et de la vitesse (1925)，【美国结构电影】红色程序 Process Red (1966)，【美国城市交响短片】黎明印象 Daybreak Express (1953)，【加拿大实验短片】165708 (2017)，【德国绝对电影 | 先锋动画】一部视觉诗歌 An Optical Poem (1938)，【匈牙利纯电影】浅黑和白灰的戏剧 Ein Lichtspiel schwarz weiss grau (1930)，库尔斯克俄罗斯人的尸体山，拍摄到一队敌军车辆被烧毁的镜头。烧焦的卡察普从卡车里伸出来。预定已到。大约 13 辆载有人员的卡车被毁。库尔斯克地区雷尔斯克地区十月镇，【美国实验短片】献给肯尼斯·安格的阿拉伯花纹 Arabesque for Kenneth Anger (1961)，【美国动画短片】Rooty Toot Toot (1952)

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raising flags is a long-term project by museum in progress, that has been realised at various locations since 2023, including virtual exhibition spaces online ( www.mip.at/en/digital-mip/about) and media spaces in newspapers and magazines. In 2024, the project can be experienced on Vienna's Stubenbrücke, in Ladakh (India) at an altitude of 3600 meters as part of the sā festival (June 2024), and in Bad Gastein at sommer.frische.kunst (since 12 July 2024).

Many works of the project were realised as editions by museum in progress, see: www.mip.at/en/shop/raising-flags-editions.

The first project phase of raising flags, which began on 1 May 2023, was titled "Nation flags of Ideas" and dealt with questions of social coexistence in challenging times. museum in progress has reclaimed a place for art, the Stubenbrücke, which for many years was characterised by the lemur heads of Franz West. Along the Vienna River to Oskar Kokoschka-Platz, the public space was made visible as an art zone.

(Video: Roman Hansi, Tobias Gstaltner, Lukas Radosztics)

The second part of the ﬂag project started in August 2024 and questioned "The essence of wind and the wind of change". raising flags will gradually be on display also at numerous other locations. Institutions, companies, but also private individuals who have the means to display a flag in a publicly visible way are invited to participate in the project. Even after the removal of the flags along the Wien River, approximately three to four artists annually present their flag creations on the Stubenbrücke in Vienna. Furthermore, there are plans to extend "raising flags" to other locations beyond Vienna, Ladakh (India) and Bad Gastein.

raising flags is a project by museum in progress, curated by Alois Herrmann and Kaspar Mühlemann Hartl. Cooperation partner: University of Applied Arts Vienna. The project was made possible by the Art Section of the Federal Ministry of Arts, Culture, Civil Service and Sport (BMKÖS) with the support of Blue Mountain Contemporary Art (BMCA), Culture Vienna Inner City, Culture Vienna 3rd district and Fahnen-Gärtner. Further support: Barta & Partner Managing Art Insurance, Bildrecht, Swiss Embassy in Austria and Zugkraft. Hotel partner: Hotel Altstadt. Media partners: DATUM, DIE FURCHE and wienlive.

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The art projects of museum in progress in public, media and virtual spaces

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Wah Yen (2024) is a new moving image work by artist Wei Zhang. Set in 1970s Glasgow, the film explores the rich, inner world of a young, queer, and neurodivergent Chinese immigrant, Chen, who works in the city's first Chinese restaurant, through their emerging kinship with Scottish shipbuilder, James

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Vinyl 12" + Digital Download

Record/Vinyl + Digital Album

12" vinyl includes a postcard with lyrics

Includes digital pre-order of Kickin' In (2024 Remaster). You get 1 track now (streaming via the free Bandcamp app and also available as a high-quality download in MP3, FLAC and more), plus the complete album the moment it's released.

shipping out on or around August 23, 2024

Purchasable with gift card

Pre-order Record/Vinyl $15 USD or more

Send as Gift

Digital Album

Pre-order of Kickin' In (2024 Remaster). You get 1 track now (streaming via the free Bandcamp app and also available as a high-quality download in MP3, FLAC and more), plus the complete album the moment it's released.

Purchasable with gift card

Pre-order Digital Album $4 USD or more

Send as Gift

about

Dark Entries again shines a spotlight on bathhouse disco don Patrick Cowley with a newly remastered release of Kickin' In. Although Cowley tragically passed from AIDS-related illness in 1982, he left an extensive archive of unreleased tapes, many of which Dark Entries has had the honor of releasing. While working as a lighting technician at The City, SF's disco cabaret, Cowley saw rising star Frank Loverde perform. Cowley asked Loverde to contribute vocals to some material in progress, and Frank, Linda Imperial, and Peggy Gibbons joined Cowley in the studio. The resulting songs included "Kickin' In," a 9-minute cybernetic disco stormer that taps into the essence of Cowley's hi-NRG sound: equal parts spaced out and zoned in on the dancefloor. In May 1978 Cowley joined Loverde on stage at The City to perform "Kickin' In" as they opened for disco diva Sylvester.
"Kickin' In" was initially released in 2015 via Honey Soundsystem who found the tapes in the basement of Megatone Records owner John Hedges. This newly remastered version was made possible due to the discovery of the original multi-track recordings of "Kickin' In," allowing for a fresh mixdown by Jim Hopkins as well as the creation of a new instrumental version. Also included are two impeccably sleazy Cowley jams recorded in 1980, "Thief of Love" and "Make It Come Loose." Cowley narrates excerpts from his erotic journals on these raunchy slow-burners, capturing the vibe of SF's leather bars and backrooms. "Thief of Love" features Cowley collaborator Paul Parker on background vocals. This reissue of Kickin' In includes features an illustration by Gwenaël Rattke that originally appeared Cowley's erotic journal, Mechanical Fantasy Box, as well as a postcard with lyrics. "Patrick parted the veil and entered a dark world of forbidden vices, wondrous musical panoramas and bold, strident, hopeful possibilities. Patrick brought the future to us and laid it at our feet." - David Diebold, Tribal Rites

credits

releases August 23, 2024

© 2024 DARK ENTRIES RECORDS
Written, Composed, Recorded and Produced by Patrick Cowley, 1979 -1980 Vocals on "Kickin In" by Frank Loverde, Linda Imperial and Timmy
Backing vocals by "Thief of Love" by Paul Parker
"Kickin' In" mixed by Jim Hopkins, 2022
Mastered by Anne-Marie Suenram, 2024
Illustrations by Gwenaël Rattke
Designed by Eloise Leigh
Thank you: John Hedges, Maurice Tani, Paul Parker, Linda Imperial,
Joe Tarantino, Gwenaël Rattke, Eloise Leigh.
Dedicated to the memory of Patrick Cowley (October 19, 1950 - November 12, 1982)

license

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Kickin' In (2024 Remaster), by Patrick Cowley

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Kickin' In (2024 Remaster) by Patrick Cowley, releases 23 August 2024 1. Kickin' In featuring Loverde 2. Thief Of Love 3. Kickin' In (Instrumental) 4. Make It Come Loose Dark Entries again shines a spotlight on bathhouse disco don Patrick Cowley with a newly remastered release of Kickin' In.

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yDirected by Gregory GodhardIn my mind I am free to travel where and how I desire. The laws of physics do not apply to my mind's eye. I can create new worlds and new laws of motion within my mind , 视频播放量 295、弹幕量 0、点赞数 10、投硬币枚数 0、收藏人数 31、转发人数 1, 视频作者 芥川輓羹亭, 作者简介 意识的绵延。，相关视频：【英国实验短片】机器人回忆录 Robot Memoir (2018)，【日本实验纪录片】天、見たけ (1995)，【德国实验短片】寰宇外的颜色 The Colour Out of Space (2017)，【波兰实验短片】停！禁止进入 Stop!!

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Rural vixen female fox screaming - with sounds

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Tawny owls - food passes, calling & mating (March 2022)

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AI sounds generator from text [Melobytes.com]

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Each residency will have its own selection committee.
We welcome applications from candidates of all backgrounds and encourage those from under-represented communities - across race, ethnicity, gender, low-income backgrounds, and applicants who are D/deaf, disabled and neurodivergent - to apply.

Please note that different access guidance applies to each residency host; our website offers a summary of each venue's facilities and existing access arrangements. We are open to discussing any specific requirements; if you require access support at any stage of the application process, please let us know.
fabio.altamura@artscouncil.org.uk

21 mai - 15 juillet : appel à candidatures

Deuxième quinzaine de septembre : les artistes préselectionné.e.s s'entretiennent avec le comité de sélection par Zoom

Début octobre : annonce officielle des lauréat.e.s de Magnetic 3

A partir de novembre : début des résidences

Composition du comité de sélection :

La directrice ou le directeur du lieu de résidence

Une personnalité qualifiée du monde culturel de la région du lieu de résidence

La directrice ou le directeur du lieu tandem

Un·e membre du comité artistique de Fluxus Art Projects

L'Institut français du Royaume-Uni

Un·e représentant·e des partenaires financiers du Royaume-Uni

Il y aura dix comités de sélection, un par résidence.

Nous encourageons les candidatures d'artistes reflétant la diversité de la société dans toutes ses dimensions - origines, genre, géographie, situation de handicap, etc. Critères de sélection : All applications must be submitted in English.

Ambition artistique au sein d'une pratique professionnelle ancrée dans les arts visuels contemporains

Pertinence du projet dans le contexte et avec le focus de la résidence

Motivation pour une résidence internationale à ce stade de la carrière de l'artiste

L'accessibilité des structures dépend de chaque lieu d'accueil et de ses spécificités ; le site présente les dispositifs d'accès et leurs possibilités d'aménagement. Nous sommes à votre écoute pour évoquer tout besoin spécifique et vous pouvez nous contacter à tout stade de la procédure de candidature.

Each project submitted should generate a confirmation email.

In addition to your Fluxus Art Projects application, please send a confirmation email to

Vous recevrez un email de confirmation immédiatement après avoir envoyé votre candidature.

Merci de doubler votre candidature sur le site Fluxus Art Projects par un email adressé à

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The call for applications is aimed at professional artists working in the field of visual arts who have already presented their work in several professional venues identified by contemporary art networks. Now in their second year, the Magnetic...

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© 2024 Somerset House Trust Registered Charity No. 1063640 Registered Company Number: 03388137 Registered Office Address: Somerset House, Strand, London, WC2R 1LA Registered in England & Wales

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Griffin’s antidisciplinary practice includes electronic noise, one-to-one performances, objects (found and made) and drawings.

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MACBA Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona

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Eye / Machine II, 2002 | Harun Farocki | MACBA

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In the Eye / Machine trilogy, Farocki deals with the technology of war and how that visual technology has penetrated civilian life. In his films he brings out the fact that the human eye is losing the capacity to distinguish between real and fictional images. In Eye / Machine the lens of the camera is placed on the so-called ‘smart bombs’, replacing the human eye as the supreme witness of war.---The manipulation of images in times of conflict is nothing new, since countless documentary testimonies over history have shown that they have become one more weapon against the enemy. Counterinformation, which in other times was done from pulpits, in leaflets or over the radio waves, is now handled by image control, although no-one talks about war propaganda any more and it is the big communications groups that have control of information. The latest danger for official propaganda has been online publications and the dizzying speed with which users of blogs all over the world can ‘upload’ their version of events. Taking into consideration the level of development of technology today, Farocki wonders to what extent we can distinguish between man and machine. In modern military technology the intelligence deployed can no longer be reduced to human intelligence; we have to add the intelligence of machines. The ‘man-machine’ combination takes the shape, according to him, of the ‘eye-machine’ combination when he analyses the functioning of smart machines and what they ‘see’ when they are working on the basis of recognition programmes and image processing. The thrust provided by the 1991 Gulf War for electronic surveillance devices —an intricate system of survival, detection and warning which can act on a potential enemy— made them known as C3I: Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence. Farocki establishes parallels between the military and technology industries, while bringing out the growing overlap of these new advances and their application in everyday life. The Eye / Machine trilogy consists of three pieces, 25, 15 and 25 minutes in length. It reflects the instruments of work, war and control, the new techniques in robotics and video surveillance, which have made huge strides since the Gulf War. Images are projected simultaneously on three screens. Eye/Machine II In the second part of Eye / Machine, Farocki looks more deeply into the relationship between production and war. The cameras are implanted in the machines, the replacement of the human eye by the machine eye. Once again he uses the images broadcast on television during the Gulf War with images for industrial use taken on an assembly line (which he had already used in the first episode) and combines them with others taken from flight or tank driving simulators. All these images have more to do with science fiction than with reality itself. He also shows the images taken by the first bomb with a television camera which was launched from Germany in 1942, during the Second World War. As at that time electronic technology was still rudimentary, a film camera recorded the images offered by the monitor. Unlike in more recent wars, at that time images of that kind had no commercial appeal. - Other works of Harum Farocki at the MACBA Collection: Eye / Machine I, 2001 Eye / Machine III, 2003

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Edinburgh Art Festival, French Institute For Scotland / Institut français d'Ecosse, West Parliament Square, Edinburgh, EH1 1RF, 0131 226 6558, info@edinburghartfestival.com

Registered charity no. SC038360, Company registration no. SC314596

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Homepage - Edinburgh Art Festival | 28 July - 28 August 2022

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Edinburgh Art Festival, French Institute For Scotland / Institut français d'Ecosse, West Parliament Square, Edinburgh, EH1 1RF, 0131 226 6558, info@edinburghartfestival.com Registered charity no. SC038360, Company registration no. SC314596

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Stills - centre for photography based in the heart of Edinburgh.

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Established in 1977, we have a long history of supporting the advancement, enjoyment, exploration and understanding of photography in Scotland.

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Street Level Photoworks - Street Level Photoworks

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Street Level provides inspiring encounters in art photography locally and internationally; a creative setting to exhibit, produce, participate, and buy photography.

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by OSE
Circulating Energies

A cross-border educational initiative that brings together students from École Supérieure d'Art, Dunkirk and Open School East's Associate cohort 23-24.

Deadline: Sunday 30 July, 5PM (GMT)
Open Call for OSE Associate Artists 2023-24!

The Open Call for the next cohort of OSE Associate Artists has now closed!

-
Associate Exhibition 2023: We Danced Until There Was Nothing Left

Join us for the OSE Associate Exhibition 22-23! Over a long weekend in June we invite you to see the show & participate in a wider programme of events.

Exhibition

Performance

Public event

Screenings

Workshops

-
OSE Public Programme 2022-23

This years Associate-led Public Programme, in partnership with Turner Contemporary, responds to themes of social & ecological hybridity, and features 15 public workshops, talks & participatory events.

Short Course

Talks

Workshops

ACME x OSE Fellowship

We are delighted to be partnering with ACME to launch the ACME x OSE Fellowship

Exhibition

Fellowship

Residencies

by OSE
Counter Editions x OSE x Anthea Hamilton - 10 year anniversary fundraiser edition!

As part of our 10 year anniversary we have launched a new print edition with Anthea Hamilton & Counter Editions!

Deadline: Sunday 30 July, 5PM (GMT)
Open Call for OSE Associate Artists 2023-24!

The Open Call for the next cohort of OSE Associate Artists has now closed!

, 5:30-8pm
It's A Myth: World building workshop with Abigail Hampsey

Join OSE Associate Samuel Vilanova and artist Abigail Hampsey for a participatory workshop that explores contemporary myth-making and world building.

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Open School East - A free, independent art school and community space

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Open School East is a free, independent art school and community space that focuses on collective learning through the arts. Featured About Established in 2013 and located in Margate, Open School East is a free, independent art school and community space that focuses on collective learning through the arts.

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Citric Signals is now accepting submissions for the first of many quarterly, prompt-based open calls. Selected submissions will be screened virtually this Spring.

Open Call #1: "Colors"
Deadline: March 15, 2021 @ 11:59 PM. Send us any experimental films you have (new or old) responding to the prompt "Colors". Only three submissions per artist and works must be SHORTER than 5 minutes. Other than that we're open to all weird, wild, and avant-Garde work you want to send our way.

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Citric Signals is now accepting submissions for the first of many quarterly, prompt-based open calls. Selected submissions will be screened virtually this Spring. Open Call #1: "Colors" Deadline: March 15, 2021 @ 11:59 PM. Send us any experimental films you have (new or old) responding to the prompt "Colors".

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds.

Video Art and Experimental Film Festival

NEW YORK INDIE SHORTS AWARDS. View Listing.

HOLLYWOOD SHORTSFEST. View Listing.

VENEZIA SHORTS ITALY. View Listing.

Sundance Film Festival. View Listing.

Slamdance Film Festival. View Listing.

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Video Art and Experimental Film Festival

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Contemporary visual art has the power to transform lives and open minds, and we need it now more than ever
More about us

Don't miss out

What's on in Scotland

Upright Gallery

Microscope Gallery

Royal Scottish Academy

All events & exhibitions

Meet our members

The network is our core

SCAN's membership represents the many and diverse aspects of contemporary art in Scotland from the grassroots to national institutions.

Together, our voice is stronger.
Join us

Keep updated

Latest news

All news

Our work

Projects

Our projects champion the contribution that art and artists make to society and develop the knowledge and skills of those working in the contemporary visual arts in Scotland. We support innovation, equality, best practice and critical thinking.
All projects

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Contemporary visual art has the power to transform lives and open minds, and we need it now more than ever

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Funding applications are forms you complete and submit to funding bodies, organisations or trusts in the hopes of gaining money to support something you would like to do. In the arts, funding covers all sorts: a gallery's running costs and programming, artist fees, staff payment, materials, money for research and development, marketing, printing, production, archiving, organisational development, travel... everything really. The arts relies on it. Artists and groups apply for themselves and if they're lucky, they'll get something; and big galleries apply to lots of different private and public funders in order to make up their big budgets. But knowing where to start when writing an application can be difficult; knowing who to apply to can be tricky as well.

This library is a resource of successful funding applications that you can learn from. Personally, I found writing them really confusing until I spent time reading some and then I could finally get a handle on the language used and the way budgets are put together. Take a look below, see if anything is relevant to what you're hoping to do, or learn from other applications' writing and shape. Look at what is being applied to and where, and check out the funders these are addressed to see to if they are appropriate for your project. The library will grow and we'll try to furnish this page with even more information so that everyone can hopefully secure themselves some £££.

If you want to share a successful application, please click this form for more info; and if you cannot submitclick this link instead for submissions directly to our email

Some words have been redacted by choice of the people sharing the apps

We recently made a podcast called 'Everything you need to know about funding.' Search The White Pube on Spotify or Apple Podcasts or listen to it on our website where you can also find the transcription. Hope between this podcast and the examples below, you can find some help!

LIBRARY

Filter by grant for specific grant!

⭐️ SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS ⭐️

MORE INCOMING

HOLD TIGHTTTTTTT

WAITING FOR APPLICATIONS TO ROLL INNNNN...

1. Easier to read Top 10 Tips for funding applications from DASH Arts
2. PDF from 'Writing Applications for Funding: Workshop' by Sophie Chapman, for Into The Wild Artist Development Programme, August 2020
3. We recently made a podcast called 'Everything you need to know about funding.' Search The White Pube on Spotify or Apple Podcasts or listen to it on our website where you can also find the transcription.
4. Web link for Arts Council England's access support for help in completing applications
5. Grant for the Oppenheim Downes Trust for aged 30+ applicants

6a. Arts Council England's Developing Your Creative Practice fund. Grant range is £2k-£10k and it is aimed at individual practitioners for research and development.

6b. Arts Council England's Developing Your Creative Practice list of recent grants given.

7. PDF for Access Support information from Arts Council England (helpful for everyone imo)

8. Templates for Arts Council Applications on the Uncultured's website, including the new Under 30K Project Grant

9. Artist Commissioning Contract Crib Sheet - ie. an Easy Read Artist contract template for use between artists and galleries/organisations they are working with

10. Introduction to the Easy Read Artist Contract from Jack Tan and FACT ^ ie. info on the link above this one

...

...

...

MORE COMING SOOOOON... IF ANYONE U KNO HAS AN APP OR GOOD LINK, SEND EM TO THIS PAGE!

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successful funding applications you can learn from

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Res Artis acknowledges the Wurundjeri First Peoples of the Kulin Nations as the Traditional Custodians on whose unceded lands we conduct the business of our international headquarters. We give respect to their Ancestors and Elders, past and present, and to all Indigenous peoples globally.

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INTRODUCTION: "The Offline World of the Printed Photo"

This new article/directory is all about looking at great photographic prints, the ones you can hang on the wall in the real world. It's a guide to galleries where you can see -- and possibly buy -- classic and contemporary photography: in Europe, the United States, Canada, Australia, Asia and elsewhere.

I guess it's the polar opposite of my previous article/directory, the guide to online sources of free, high-res photos with a Creative Commons Zero license. By contrast, some of the images you'll encounter in the dedicated museums and galleries listed below can be absurdly expensive.

Whether you're a collector or "just looking," you'll find much to enjoy on the sites I've listed -- and plenty more if you take the trouble to visit the galleries in person.

Chalk and Cheese
I'm aware that these galleries differ hugely from each other, despite all of them being mainly concerned with exhibiting works of fine art photography. Here are some of the categories into which they fall:

1. Major Institutions
These are the "must-visit" destinations if you happen to be traveling to cities where they're located. There are quite a lot of them, a fact which is very heartening to anyone who loves photography.

Examples in the USA include: The International Center of Photography in New York, the Annenberg Space for Photography in Los Angeles, and the Florida Museum of Photographic Arts in Tampa.

Over in London, the Photographers' Gallery has multiple concurrent exhibitions on several floors, along with print sales, multimedia displays and a good bookshop.

In Europe, La Maison Européenne de la Photographie ("The MEP") has the support of Paris City Hall and an ambitious program focused on contemporary photography. FOAM, of Amsterdam, operates internationally, as does Stockholm's Fotografiska which has a presence in both New York and London.

Elsewhere, the institutions tend to be smaller, although the Tokyo Photographic Art Museum (TOP) is definitely in the top league.

What can you expect to find at a major photographic gallery? The answer is: a substantial range of facilities, such as multiple galleries showing inspirational exhibitions, a decent bookstore and/or a research library, multimedia facilities, print sales, and -- last but not least -- a coffee shop or restaurant where you can chat with friends and recharge your batteries (literally or figuratively).

Large institutions have the advantage of being able to stage more than one exhibition at a time, thereby elimating the gap when the show needs to be changed.

2. Educational Non-Profits
Non-profit organizations in the photography field usually spring from activist movements in local communities. They start small and grow...and grow...until they get substantial funding to support their educational function. In addition to galleries they often have studios, lecture halls and lab facilities for the use of members.

Examples: the Photographic Resource Center, in Cambridge, MA; Lightwork, in Syracuse, NY; and the Center for Photography at Woodstock, NY.

3. Private Dealers
Photography owes a lot to private dealers who have made a market in photo prints by established artists. These dealers often struggle to maintain walk-in galleries in the best part of town, some of them moving out to the provinces or even further: into cyberspace. A few of those who have made the change are understandably reluctant to admit they no longer have a real-world gallery. In a couple of instances I've forgiven them and included an entry for their online gallery, usually on the understanding that they are "seeking new premises."

Examples: Prominent dealers with great galleries in their respective cities include Howard Greenberg, perhaps the most famous name in this sector. (I wish more dealers would follow his example in taking street photography seriously.) Likewise, London's Michael Hoppen Gallery acknowledges classic fashion photography as an art form with collectable value.

4. Personal Galleries
Most photographers find it quite a challenge to curate a personal website and put it online, but others go further: they find premises, print their images, frame, display and sell them from their own personal gallery.

Examples: Karen Cooper's gallery in Vancouver displays her magnificent landscapes; but Clyde Butcher has gone even further by opening no fewer than three galleries, exclusively selling his photos of Florida's Everglades and National Parks.

5. Print Stores
You'll normally find print stores attached to the larger institutions, but there are also independent stores which I've not listed because I'd rather not classify them as galleries. However, in this intro I shall mention Yellow Korner, the chain of photographic print stores ("gallery franchises") which spans the world. We're talking strictly home decor rather than collectability, but these stores certainly have great prints and maybe there's one near you.

All the Galleries
I'm always on the lookout for new photography galleries, especially those showing contemporary work. Hence, this list will change from time to time. I don't plan always to retain a listing for a gallery that closes its doors, even if it maintains a great archive online, as is the case with Gallery 916 in Tokyo which closed recently.

Please, before visiting any gallery in person, check its website to make sure of the opening hours. It will most likely (but not always) be closed on Mondays.

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200 Photography Galleries in USA, Europe, UK and Other Countries | PhotoStartSheet.com

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A directory of real-world photography galleries -- in cities rather than in cyberspace -- organised for easy browsing.

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Join over 80,773 Photographers and get Photo Contest Updates Delivered Weekly. The world's largest collection of photo contests and photography competitions - ...

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Faculties and programmes

Architecture | Fine Arts: Sculpture - Transmedial Space; Experimental Art; Painting & Graphic Art; Applied Studies of Culture and Art | Graphic Design and Photography; Artistic Photography | Visual Communication | Fashion & Technology | Industrial Design | Interface Cultures | Media Culture and Art Theory | Sculptural Conceptions / Ceramics | space&designstrategies | Teacher Training: Postdigital Lutherie | Cultural Studies | Art Education | Design: Tech.Tex | Media Design | textile·art·design | Time-based Media |Time-based and Interactive Media Arts | PhD Programme

Specials

At the University of Arts Linz students can choose between 12 bachelor's, 14 master's, one diploma and one PhD programme at four institutes: fine arts and cultural studies, art and education (teacher training), media, space and design.

The University has always had a strong connection to the people, culture and business in its surroundings: Ars Electronica, a large number of art institutions and a lively independent scene, plus a refreshing number of creative companies and a strong industrial sector.

Interactivity, digitalization, sustainability and interdisciplinary, practice-oriented work are the main focus of both research and teaching. The university's offer ranges from architecture, fashion & technology, fine arts, art education, industrial design, interface cultures, time-based and interactive media to art and media theory, cultural studies and design studies.

Four of the five locations of the University of Arts Linz are located right in the heart of Linz. With the Ars Electronica Center, Lentos Art Museum, graffiti gallery Mural Harbor, numerous festivals and countless locations for adventurous students and explorers interested in art and culture the third-largest city in Austria and UNESCO City of Media Arts is the perfect place to be. The city and business hub with its eventful history has a great character, is sometimes avant-garde, sometimes withdrawn, but always cosmopolitan and ready to look ahead.

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Architecture | Fine Arts: Sculpture - Transmedial Space; Experimental Art; Painting & Graphic Art; Applied Studies of Culture and Art | Graphic Design and Photography; Artistic Photography | Visual Communication | Fashion & Technology | Industrial Design | Interface Cultures | Media Culture and Art Theory | Sculptural Conceptions /

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Unbound Variable, by UAAD x Not Yet Arts

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Exhibition in New Art City, Virtual Art Space.

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Multiplayer Exhibition Space for New Media Art

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The Piet Zwart Institute houses the international Master programs of the Willem de Kooning Academy at Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences (RUAS). Since 1999 it has been dedicated to promoting study and research in the fields of art, design and art education.

The Piet Zwart Institute is part of the Willem de Kooning Academy (WdKA), an art school that can be found right at the heart of the design city of Rotterdam. The Academy's origin dates back to 1753, and now - with over 2,000 students - it is one of the largest art academies in the Netherlands, offering both Bachelor's and Master's programs in Fine Art and Design. The Academy is part of the multi-sectoral Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences (RUAS), a dynamic knowledge institute for higher professional education with a variety of programs across all educational sectors and closely connected to developments in the metropolitan region of Rotterdam. Although part of the RUAS, Willem de Kooning Academy is autonomous in realising its goals and positioning its national and international profile.

WdKA's Master's programs are positioned within the Piet Zwart Institute (PZI), which currently hosts a little over 120 students. Named after the pioneering Dutch designer Piet Zwart, who worked experimentally across different media and contexts, the Institute offers a rich combination of in-depth specialisation and interdisciplinary exchange within an intimate learning environment. The programs of the Piet Zwart Institute are located in Rotterdam's city centre, at Karel Doormanhof 45 and Wijnhaven 61. Students and staff come from around the globe and bring with them a variety of cultural influences and international connections. In addition to these international ties, the program maintains strong local connections to the city of Rotterdam, its history and ever-changing urban environment.

The Piet Zwart Institute houses four full-time Master programs, Interior Architecture: Research + Design (MIARD); Master of Arts in Fine Art and Design, which encompasses Fine Art (MFA) Lens-Based Media (LB) and Experimental Publishing (XPUB) and two part-time Master programs, Education in Arts (MeiA) and Master Design. Through uniquely tailored curricula combining collective learning, individual tutorials, practice-based research and theoretical inquiry, the programs educate professionals who have a critically reflective, innovative, questioning and imaginative approach to their work. Our graduates go on to not only establish themselves in their field, but also challenge and creatively define the parameters of their profession.

As an educational institute and cultural centre, the notion of 'making public' is core to the activities of PZI. Exhibitions, programming, conferences and publications on a national and international level are a means of sharing and expanding our research beyond the confines of academia. At the same time, the program provides the very necessary speculative space for reflection and knowledge-building that is only made possible through an academic framework like the Piet Zwart Institute.

Courses

News

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The Piet Zwart Institute houses the international Master programs of the Willem de Kooning Academy at Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences (RUAS). Since 1999 it has been dedicated to promoting study and research in the fields of art, design and art education.

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Artist page for Hans-Peter Feldmann (1941 - 2023)

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BOOK FORMAT
Hardcover, 9.5 x 11.25 in. / 168 pgs / 140 color.

PUBLISHING STATUS
Pub Date 10/31/2009
Out of print

DISTRIBUTION
D.A.P. Exclusive
Catalog: FALL 2009 p. 104

PRODUCT DETAILS
ISBN 9788862080903 TRADE
List Price: $45.00 CAD $55.00

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TERRITORY
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THE FALL 2024 ARTBOOK | D.A.P. CATALOG

Preview our FALL 2024 catalog, featuring more than 500 new books on art, photography, design, architecture, film, music and visual culture.

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Edited by Eleonora Battiston, Primo Marella. Introduction by Simon Soon.

It seems that the destiny of South East Asia, at least as far as art is concerned, is inversely proportional to that of the international economic situation and to the consequent ability to react when faced with catastrophe. In 2004, at the height of a flourishing global economy, Southeast Asia--including Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines--suffered one of the deadliest catastrophes in the history of humankind, the Asian Tsunami. It began with an under-ocean earthquake which sparked a series of devastating tsunamis that eventually killed more than 225,000 people in 11 countries. Emerging from this post-tsunami era is a generation of artists who are hitting their collective stride and attracting the interest of international collectors and institutions as artists of this region never have before--as if their energy might prove a source of renewal for the rest of the world. This volume documents an exhibition of 18 such artists--Yee I-Lann, Entang Wiharso, Agus Suwage, Haris Purnomo, Wayan Suja, Gede Mahendra Yasa, Ketut Moniarta, Ristyo Eko (R.E.) Hartanto, Davy Linggar, Ronald Ventura, Yasmin Sison, Geraldine Javier, Nona Garcia, Annie Cabigting, Wire Tuazon, Alfredo Esquillo, Lyra Garcellano and Emmanuel Santos--held at Milan's Primo Marella Gallery.

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It seems that the destiny of South East Asia, at least as far as art is concerned, is inversely proportional to that of the international economic situation and to the consequent ability to react when faced with catastrophe.

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BUREAU, NYC
STUDIO AT SOMERSET HOUSE

Slugg, Leipzig, 2023
IMRAM, Féile Litríochta Gaeilge, feat. in Úna Monaghan's performance, 2023
Montez Press Radio, 2023 + 2024
Northern Lights, Belfast and Derry, 2023
Assembly, Somerset House, 2024
Open Tabs, with Cian McConn, Berlin 2024

Associate Lecturer at The Royal College of Art

2023 Critical Listening, workshop, Coventry, UK

2023 Kings Festival of Ai, screening and exhibition

2023 Quantum Listening, Camden Arts Center, event

2023 Pembury Synth Project, funded by Arts Council England and Chelsea Arts Trust

2023 Transmediale, Berlin, M E R C Y screening

2023 With Flora Yin Wong, The Jazz Café, screening

2022 Echo, Cologne, drawings

2022 Somerset House and Kings Culture Collaboration, R + D funding

2022 M E R C Y, Somerset House and Kings Culture, talk

2022 IKLECTIKA, The Oram Awards Panel

2022 Latent Joy, with Paul Purgas and invited guests

2021 The Fake Haven, text published in Roehampton Roundtable journal

2021 The Fake Haven, Manchester International Festival, exhibition

2020 I LEAF, Somerset House, London, screening

2020 Until Tomorrow, Bureau, NYC, exhibition

2020 I should be doing something else right now, Gallery 31, Somerset House, London, exhibition

2020 THE UNNOW, Somerset House, London

2020 The Crisis of Now, South Kiosk, London, exhibition

2019 OSMOSCOSMOS, photographie triennale 50JPG, The Centre de la Photographie Genève (CPG),

2019 Awarded studio space at Somerset House Studios

2018 The Agony, Montez Press Radio, New York City

2018 Here Now, SPACE Art and Tech residency and show, London

2018 Condo, showing with Bureau at Southard Reid, London

2018 How to get out of your head, Café Oto, workshop, London

2017 Grand Army Collective in Brooklyn

2017 I As In Us, Museum of Contemporary Art, Romania

2016 Survival Kit, Performance art festival, Latvia

2016 I As In Us, Drop Everything, Ireland

2016 Mono, Performance and Video Screening

2015 Artists Voices, exhibition and vinyl record, Center D'Edition Contemporaine, Genève

2015 EXIT, STUTTERING & NEBULA, KIM?, Center for Contemporary art, Latvia

2015 Pangrammer, P!, New York NY2015 She Said, Bureau, New York

2014 The Nostalgia of an Object and the Pain of Glass, Vilnius, Lithuania

2013 Like Nature But Not, Four to Seven, Riga, Latvia2013 The Me Song For Now Here, Bureau, New York, NY

2014 Lina Lapelyte's Hunky Bluff (feat. costumes by Vivienne Griffin & Cian McConn), Serpentine Galleries, London, UK

2014 Tin Type, with Cian McConn, EC1&WC1 Galleries, London, UK

2014 Drop Everything, with Cian McConn, Inish Oirr, Ireland

2013 An Annotated Exhibition, Hilary Crisp, London, UK

2013 No Sorries in the Circle, Coleman Projects, London, UK2013

2013 Bureau at LISTE 18, Basel, Switzerland

2013 Desire, Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, NY

2013 Performance with Cian McConn & Kaspars Groshevs, Tintype Gallery, London, UK

2013 Monsalvat, Bureau, New York, NY

2012 Performance with Cian McConn, Cafe Oto, London, UK

2012 Performance with Cian McConn & Kaspars Groshevs, Chisenhale Studios, London, UK

2012 The Show House, The Show House (temporary project space), London, UK

2012 Bureau at NADA, Miami, FL

2012 Day of the Dead, The Old Vic Tunnels, London, UK

2012 Drop everything, Inish Oirr, Ireland

2012 A Performance with Cian McConn The Sculpture Building, RCA, London, UK

2012 Open Book, cur. Nigel Rolfe, Testbed, Battersea, London, UK

2011 Tropical Heat, cur. Mette Kjaergaard Praest, Henry Moore Gallery, RCA, London, UK

2010 Solid State, Bureau, New York, NY

2009 Everything Must Go, Century Plaza Shopping Mall, Birmingham, AL

2008 Altered States, Francis Lewis Gallery, New York, NY

2007 House Projects, Atlantic Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, NY

2007 Chashama, With Art Collective Dos Pestaneos, New York, NY

2007 Group Show with Dos Pestaneos, Go Go Gallery, Miami, FL

2006 X-MASS the spot, Draíocht Arts Centre, Blanchardstown, Dublin, Ireland

2006 The Vaults, The Fenton Gallery, Cork, Ireland

2005 The Concourse, Dun Laoghaire/Rathdown Civic Office, Dublin, Ireland

2005 Passing Through, Glucksman Gallery, UCC, Cork, Ireland

AWARDS & GRANTS

2021 The Oram Award
2014 Artist in Residence, SIM, Iceland
2011 Artist in Residence, Summer Academy, Žagarė, Lithuania
2009 Fulbright Scholarship
Artist in Residence, Virginia Center for the Creative Arts, Amherst, VA
2008Travel and Mobility Award, Virginia Center for the Creative Arts, Amherst, VA
2006 Artist in Residence, Carlow Arts Festival, Eigse, Ireland
2006 Irish Arts Council Professional Development and Training Award
2005 Irish Arts Council Award Travel Award
2005 Bank of Ireland Arts Centre Millennium Scholars Award
2005 Artist in Residence, Artconnexion, Lille, France

.

vivienne.griffin at gmail dot com

︎

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Armand Hammer - Doves ft. Benjamin Booker (Official Video)

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Ретро-кинотеатр

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Ностальгия 1983. Андрей Тарковский

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现象学：我们的体验就是真实的世界 | 机核 GCORES

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作者简介： 倪梁康，浙江大学哲学系现象学与心性思想研究中心(杭州 310058)。

原发信息 ：《南京大学学报：哲学·人文科学·社会科学》第20221期

内容提要 ：受布伦塔诺影响，胡塞尔在《逻辑研究》第一版时期将现象学规定为描述心理学，但由于描述方法既可用于本质研究，也可用于经验心理学，因而无助于区分本质现象学和心理学。静态描述与发生说明的现象学方法在很大程度上是对狄尔泰提出的精神科学的心理学理解和说明的方法的批判性继承，但狄尔泰的心理学仍然具有经验性质，它不仅缺乏本质的观点，而且也缺乏对作为纵意向性的历史性的直观与理解，以及对同感或交互主体性问题的思考和研究。胡塞尔分别在横向和纵向维度接受了布伦塔诺和狄尔泰，进而将这两种考察方式提炼为横向和纵向的本质直观方法。现象学的心理学既要在横向上对意识体验的结构进行本质描述，也要在纵向上对意识体验的发生进行本质解释，它的对象是作为在世界中的实在事实的心理现象，而超越论心理学的研究对象则是纯粹的意识现象。

关键词 ：描述心理学/本质现象学/本质直观/超越论心理学

标题注释：国家社会科学基金重大项目(12&ZD124)

1925年夏季学期，胡塞尔在弗莱堡大学做了题为"现象学的心理学引论"的讲座。他在其中对现象学与心理学的关系问题进行了全面详细的讨论，给这一已经延续了1/4个世纪的问题以一个当时看来是了断、现在看来是小结的回答。之所以如此，是因为胡塞尔在这里既非第一次处理这个问题，也非最后一次阐述这个问题。他从起初的任教资格论文《论数的概念》(1887年)开始，直至最后期的《欧洲科学的危机与超越论的现象学》(1936/37年)期间，都需要一再面对和处理这个问题。但无论如何，在"现象学的心理学引论"讲座中的讨论与阐述仍然是胡塞尔本人给出的对此关系最为详尽、最为系统的说明。只是胡塞尔在他生前并没有发表这个讲座稿。直至1968年，该讲座稿才由比利时鲁汶大学胡塞尔文库组织，经瓦尔特·比梅尔(Walter Biemel)编辑，连同胡塞尔于1925-1928年期间为《不列颠百科全书》撰写的"现象学"条目以及1928年以"现象学的心理学"为题的阿姆斯特丹讲演等几个内容相关的文本一起，作为《胡塞尔全集》的第九卷出版①。

事实上，不仅在胡塞尔那里，而且在他去世之后，直至今日，现象学与心理学的关系都是某种意义上的老生常谈，而且还是一种不得不一谈再谈的老生常谈。之所以如此，主要是因为在现象学和现代心理学产生以来的100多年时间里，它们各自都处在不断的发展之中，而它们之间的关系也随着这些发展而处在不断变化之中，从而一再以新的面目出现，一再受到重新理解和解释。无论是在胡塞尔所处的时代，还是在当下的人工智能时代，它们都一再地被提出并一再地被思考，无论是在现象学这一边，还是在心理学的另一边②。

一、现象学与出自经验立场的意向心理学

胡塞尔本人是在现代心理学形成的初期进入哲学领域的，并从一开始便受到几位重要的心理学家的影响。他的两位哲学老师布伦塔诺和施通普夫都是现代心理学的主要奠基人，对胡塞尔的影响要远甚于他的另外两位数学老师：魏尔斯特拉斯和科尼西贝格。这在一定程度上引导了胡塞尔在其哲学思考的初期，即《算术哲学》时期，试图用心理学来为数学-逻辑学奠基的做法。但理论上的困难迫使胡塞尔在此后的《逻辑研究》第一卷中开始检讨和批判自己原先的所谓"心理主义"的观点，并转向其对立面"反心理主义"的立场，这个立场被冯特误解为某种意义的"逻辑主义"。不过《逻辑研究》第二卷对意识体验的大量讨论以及描述心理学与意识现象学观念的提出，又使得胡塞尔看起来仍然无法摆脱与心理学的纠缠，利普斯甚至认为有必要再讨论一下《逻辑研究》中"胡塞尔的心理主义"问题③。

这两方面的误解都与现象学在心理学和逻辑学之间的特殊位置有关。这也涉及学科划界的问题。胡塞尔本人在《逻辑研究》第一版中对现象学与心理学和逻辑学的关系理解可以在如下概括表述中找到：

纯粹现象学展示了一个中立性研究的领域，在这个领域中有着各门科学的根。一方面，纯粹现象学为作为经验科学的心理学做准备。它分析和描述(特别是作为思维和认识的现象学)表象的、判断的和认识的体验，心理学应当对这些体验进行发生上的说明，应当对它们的经验规律关系进行研究。另一方面，现象学打开了"涌现出"纯粹逻辑学的基本概念和观念规律的"泉源"，只有在把握住这些基本概念和观念规律的来历的情况下，我们才能赋予它们以"明晰性"，这是认识批判地理解纯粹逻辑学的前提。④

后来在《逻辑研究》1913年的第二版中，胡塞尔的这个理解也未发生根本的变化。这一提出于1901年的说法实际上已经包含了胡塞尔在1905年提出现象学还原并完成超越论转向之后的某些因素：相对于自然科学的经验心理学，现象学借助于本质直观或本质还原从而是本质科学、先天科学，是本质心理学，也是反思的心理学。由于意向性是意识的最普遍本质，因而本质心理学也可以被称作意向性心理学。而相对于作为本质科学、先天科学的逻辑学(形式逻辑)，现象学借助超越论还原从而可以是反思的逻辑学、主观的逻辑学，也是超越论的逻辑学。

现象学在此意义上可以为心理学和逻辑学做两方面的奠基。一方面是先天的奠基：事关经验心理学如何可能，如何奠基于本质心理学之中的问题。另一方面是超越论的奠基：事关形式逻辑如何可能，如何奠基于超越论逻辑学中的问题。

然而，现象学与心理学的关系问题与其说是随《逻辑研究》的发表而得到了回答，还不如说这个问题随《逻辑研究》中现象学观念的倡导而刚刚被提出来。因为在现象学与心理学的关系问题上依然存在诸多不确定的因素。

尤其是在前一个奠基方向上，胡塞尔在《逻辑研究》第一版发表之后很快就做了一些自我批评和自我修正。例如在1900年的第一版中他将现象学等同于"描述心理学"，但在1913年第二版中则收回了将现象学标示为描述心理学的"误导做法"⑤。他承认对现象学运作的阐述没有能够正确地评价"现实地被进行的这些研究的本质意义和方法"⑥。潘策尔在《逻辑研究》第二卷的《编者引论》中指出：早在1902/03年冬季学期关于"认识论"的讲座中，胡塞尔就已经对描述心理学和现象学的关系做了重新反思，而且还在其研究手稿中明确表明："心理学-客体化的兴趣将现象学转变为描述心理学......但现象学可以并且应当被视作纯粹本质学。从观念来看，它不是心理学，也不是描述心理学。"⑦

胡塞尔究竟是基于哪些在此期间新获得的明见性才发现了这里的问题并做出这个修正，目前还不得而知。不过可以确定的是这个转变一方面与他对描述方法的新理解有关，另一方面也与他对作为描述方法之对立面的发生方法的新理解有关。这意味着，在现象学与心理学的关系问题上，胡塞尔从一开始，甚至在《逻辑研究》前的《算术哲学》时期，就强调现象学不同于心理学的关键在于本质直观、范畴直观、观念直观、先天直观或形式直观，无论是以意识现象学的名义，还是以直观逻辑的名义，或是以直观数学的名义⑧，只是在对本质直观方法的具体展开解释上，他的观点才有所变化。

首先就现象学的描述方法来看，胡塞尔在《逻辑研究》第一版发表之后不久就不再将现象学称作"描述心理学"，并在这点上偏离了他的老师布伦塔诺，也偏离了他后来结识的狄尔泰。

胡塞尔不再使用"描述心理学"的原因是他在此期间注意到，描述的方法也可以被经验心理学运用，因而它无法将本质现象学区别于心理学。在此之前，布伦塔诺于1874年发表他的代表作《出自经验立场的心理学》，强调心理学的方法是建立在经验基础上的方法⑨，而后他首次在1887/88年讲座中阐释"描述心理学"，即"一门对我们的现象进行分析描述的心理学"；他在1888/89年的讲座中还将"描述(deskriptive)心理学"等同于"描述(beschreibende)现象学"⑩。因而在布伦塔诺那里，正如他的另一位学生，也是胡塞尔的激烈批评者奥斯卡·克劳斯(Oskar Kraus)所说：

描述心理学的方法也可以称之为"经验的"，因为它建基于内经验之上；唯有描述心理学才需要对心理进程的经验与统觉，其目的也在于借助包含在这种经验中的直观而上升为更普遍的表象，完全类似于数学的情况，它要想获得对它的公理而言最基本的概念也不能缺少直观。......在如此获得的普遍概念的基础上，描述心理学直接地达到普遍认识，而且是"在无须任何归纳的情况下一举获得"。(11)

对于这里表述的布伦塔诺心理学基本立场，胡塞尔是完全可以接受的，而且在《逻辑研究》期间也的确这样做了，不论是以"描述心理学"的名义，还是以"本质现象学"的名义。但这恰恰与克劳斯对他的两位师兄胡塞尔与迈农(Alexius Meinong)的一个批评有关，即布伦塔诺的描述心理学以"复归"(wiederkehrt)的方式出现在胡塞尔的现象学与迈农的对象理论中；他以此暗示这两种学说并未提供比布伦塔诺心理学更多的新东西。但克劳斯同时又不无矛盾地指出：布伦塔诺与胡塞尔之间是有区别的，这个区别在于，布伦塔诺并不承认"观念的、无时间的、普遍的对象"是真实的存在；胡塞尔的"本质直观"对于布伦塔诺来说只是一种"臆想"(Fiktion)。至于胡塞尔与迈农都承认的先天对象的"先天性"或"本质性"，在克劳斯看来都仅仅涉及一种特殊的认识方式，而不涉及一个特殊的认识领域(12)。

就此而论，布伦塔诺意义上的"描述心理学"是经验心理学。这对于克劳斯来说，而且对于胡塞尔来说也意味着：如果胡塞尔接受这个概念，他就继承了布伦塔诺的经验心理学；而如果他将现象学理解为本质心理学，那么他实际上就背叛了布伦塔诺，因而不应该再使用这个概念。胡塞尔显然在《逻辑研究》第一版出版后就已经意识到了这一点，而克劳斯是在20多年后(1924年)编辑出版布伦塔诺的《出自经验立场的心理学》第一卷时才在《编者引论》中表达了这个观点。由此看来，胡塞尔不应当是因为受到克劳斯批评的影响才中止使用"描述心理学"概念，而更可能是出于自己思考而得出的结论和做出的决定。

然而，由于这个概念的使用与布伦塔诺及其学派有关，因此可以确定一点，在概念使用上的校正与胡塞尔对自己以及对布伦塔诺及其学派的重新理解有关。他在1901年7月7日致师兄马尔梯(Anton Marty)的信中还将"现象学的"等同于"纯粹描述心理学的"；但在1902年5月11日写给他的老师兼师兄施通普夫的信中就已经对自己刚出版的《逻辑研究》自我批判地写道："在表述中令人感到有所干扰和有所不足的地方在于，在各种'普遍性意识的形式'的关系上没有做出最终的澄清，而为了区分这些形式所需进行的描述分析则可以说是完全缺失。"(13)

由此看来，胡塞尔在《逻辑研究》第一版发表之后自己就立即注意到，从布伦塔诺那里接受过来的"描述的方法"没有被或不能被有效地运用在对意识体验的本质把握或观念抽象上。在这里讨论的于1/4个世纪之后的"现象学的心理学引论"讲座中，胡塞尔更明确地表达了他对布伦塔诺及其学派的成熟看法：

虽然几世纪以来心理学已经是奠定在内经验基础上，并且有时候也意图成为一门关乎纯粹意识给予性的描述心理学。在此，我甚至不能把布伦塔诺及其学派排除在外，虽然他具有划时代的贡献，引进意向性以作为心理之物的描述性根本特质。于此，他呼吁将经验心理学的构成奠定在一个系统而首先是纯粹描述的意识研究之上。但纯粹意识分析的真正的意义及方法却始终对他隐而不显。(14)

当然，除此之外，在这里也可以考虑霍伦斯坦提到的影响因素，即与布伦塔诺及其学派无关，但与纳托尔普的新康德主义学派有关的影响因素。他认为胡塞尔的这个自我校正与他的超越论现象学还原有关：

胡塞尔在1903年就已经不再同意用描述心理学来标识他的认识体验的现象学分析。这个做法的原因在于，传统的描述心理学将它所研究的体验和体验类理解为人的体验和体验类，即是说，理解为在客观-时间上可规定的自然事实，而胡塞尔的纯粹现象学分析则将任何关于心理体验的心理物理的和物理的依赖性的假设连同对物理自然的实存设定都悬置起来。(15)

不过，即使承认这个将胡塞尔潜在的超越论转向提前了几年的观点有其一定的道理，它也只能是导致胡塞尔放弃"描述心理学"概念与方法的一个次要原因：对实在设定的排除要求。而对经验事实的排除要求是导致胡塞尔放弃描述心理学概念的主要原因。不过这并不意味着他放弃描述方法，而仅仅意味着他放弃经验的描述方法。他仍然会使用本质描述的方法，并在此意义上使用"描述现象学"的名称(16)。

二、现象学与精神科学的理解心理学

在现象学与心理学关系问题上，1905年与狄尔泰的结识是另一个影响胡塞尔思想发展的重要事件。虽然狄尔泰与布伦塔诺一样，都倡导描述心理学的观念与方法，但他们之间看起来并没有相互影响。这主要是因为，虽然他们都使用"描述心理学"的概念，但他们对描述的方法与描述的对象的理解都不尽相同。

胡塞尔的"现象学的心理学引论"讲座的历史回顾部分是从狄尔泰开始的，而后才在讨论《逻辑研究》时涉及布伦塔诺及其学派。这也说明狄尔泰在此问题上对胡塞尔的影响有多么大。

比梅尔在"编者引论"中已经对此开端做出说明：

讲座开始于对狄尔泰的讨论。这件事之所以合理，原因不在于胡塞尔是透过狄尔泰找到了通向心理学的途径，在这方面布伦塔诺和施通普夫更有贡献。当我们看到胡塞尔将《逻辑研究》一书献给卡尔·施通普夫时，它并不只是表面功夫而已。从本册的讲稿我们甚至得知，胡塞尔原本是未曾阅读过狄尔泰的著作的，这是受到艾宾浩斯的负面批评的结果。但狄尔泰本人却架起桥梁，与胡塞尔建立起联系(17)，因为在狄尔泰看来，胡塞尔同样在他所追求的精神科学奠基工作方面下了功夫。从历史的回顾来看，该重视的是狄尔泰，而非施通普夫，因为胡塞尔总结说，狄尔泰曾在对抗实证论上面做出巨大贡献，尤其是就将心理学视作精神科学这点来看，贡献更是显著。(18)

比梅尔在这段话中集中概括了胡塞尔在讲座中就自己所受的两方面影响的回顾阐述：狄尔泰的精神科学心理学与布伦塔诺的出自经验立场的意向心理学。但这里还有几个要点需要得到进一步的展开说明。

首先，狄尔泰对胡塞尔的影响是在独立于布伦塔诺的情况下发生的。他在1894年发表的《关于一门描述的和分析的心理学的观念》长文中，提出并论证了他的精神科学的心理学奠基的任务以及这门心理学的方法基础(19)。他在这里并没有也无法去诉诸布伦塔诺或马赫的描述心理学的观念，而是自己在这种描述和分析的方法中看到了划分精神科学的心理学与自然科学的心理学的关键所在。由于自然科学连同各种将心理当作"自然"来研究的心理学学科，如物理心理学、生理心理学、化学心理学、神经心理学等，其所诉诸的无一不是因果解释的方法，例如通过外部的物理刺激或内部的生理反应来解释特定的心理活动和意识行为；而精神科学的心理学则将精神视作不同于自然的现象，强调需要通过自己特有的方法，如在反思、理解、"自身思义"(Selbstbesinnung)中"描述和分析"心理现象和精神现象，因而自然科学与精神科学由于各自研究对象的不同而需要在基本方法上各行其道。因此，胡塞尔对狄尔泰的这篇长文评价说，它是"针对自然主义心理学的首次抨击；是一项天才的，即使尚未完全成熟的工作，是在心理学的历史中始终不会被忘却的工作"(20)。在胡塞尔这里所做的有所保留的评价中，包含了多重的含义。它们主要涉及精神科学心理学的描述方法和经验性质。

首先要提到的是，海尔曼?艾宾浩斯(Hermann Ebbinghaus)在狄尔泰的长篇论文发表两年后，从自然科学的实验心理学方面对狄尔泰进行反驳回应，他在自己主编的《心理学与感官生理学杂志》上发表了对狄尔泰的批评长文《论解释的和描述的心理学》(21)。这里最主要的批评在于，狄尔泰将描述的方法视作精神科学特有的方法，但这种方法在自然科学的心理学中，在经验心理学和实验心理学中早已得到了有效的使用。艾宾浩斯本人便同样使用描述的方法创立了记忆心理学。他以自己为主试者和受试者进行的记忆力实验以及借此而确立的"遗忘曲线"使他成为著名的实验心理学家。自然科学的心理学因而并非如狄尔泰所说的那样仅仅依据因果解释的方法，而是同样也使用描述和分析的方法。如果从今天的视角来审查这场争论，那么一方面当然可以说，艾宾浩斯在记忆心理学案例中实施的实验方法，并不能算是自然科学的客观心理学的实验方法，而更多是一种精神科学的主观心理学的实验方法；这里姑且对此置而不论(22)。而另一方面也应当承认，"描述"概念本身的定义在狄尔泰那里始终模糊而不确定，故而难以成为他倡导的精神科学心理学的方法基础。总的说来，描述的方法既可以是经验的和实证的，也可以是反思的和实验的，甚至可以说，描述的方法既可以运用于"主观心理学"，也可以运用于"客观心理学"。这可能是狄尔泰后来放弃对艾宾浩斯进行反驳和回应的打算，从公共讨论中归隐，回到对自己的精神科学的观念与方法的专注思考与研究中的原因之一。因而这场争论给世人留下的印象可以说是"艾宾浩斯曾严厉批判过《描述的与分类的心理学》，而狄尔泰不知道如何应对他的批判"(23)。

因此，可以想象狄尔泰在读到胡塞尔的《逻辑研究》时的兴奋之情。应当说，他在其中看到了他主张的"描述心理学"的理想在胡塞尔的现象学意义上的"描述心理学"中的实现。用胡塞尔在1925年讲座中的话来说，"尽管《逻辑研究》是在与他(狄尔泰)自己的著作极不相关的情况下产生的，他却看到了他自己的'关于描述的与分析的心理学的观念'首度具体地展示在《逻辑研究》中"(24)。

然而如前所述，胡塞尔于此期间(1901-1905年)已经发现用"描述心理学"来标示"现象学"带来的问题，并计划对它做出修正。胡塞尔必定于1905年在柏林拜访狄尔泰时已经向他透露了自己的想法，因而按照胡塞尔太太马尔维娜的回忆，狄尔泰在随后于哥廷根回访胡塞尔时曾对她说："仁慈的太太，《逻辑研究》是哲学的一个新时代的引导。这部著作还会经历很多次再版，您要运用您的全部影响，使它不被修改，它是一个时代的纪念碑，必须始终将它如其在被创造时的那样保存下来。"(25)

事实上，在与狄尔泰初识的这段时间里，胡塞尔不仅将狄尔泰的"描述心理学"的观念，而且也已经将自己《逻辑研究》中的"描述心理学"的观念视作"尚未完全成熟的"了。因而即使有狄尔泰的忠告在前，他对《逻辑研究》的修改也仍然势在必行。

不过胡塞尔从狄尔泰那里的确获益良多，不仅是在狄尔泰的"精神科学的心理学"的观念和方法的总体构想方面，而且也在狄尔泰的"描述心理学"以及"理解心理学"概念对发生现象学与历史现象学的推进方面。

胡塞尔在1925年的讲座中指出：狄尔泰所设想的精神科学可以分为历史的和系统的两个部分。构成系统的精神科学的方法主要是"描述的分析的方法"，而历史的精神科学所使用的方法则被称作"理解的和说明的方法"，它涉及在精神生活中展现出的个体性与历史性。与此相对应，为精神科学奠基的心理学也可以分为两种：描述心理学和"理解心理学"(verstehende Psychologie)。这里的"理解"，也是在狄尔泰与约克(Paul Yorck von Wartenburg)的通信中一再讨论的"理解历史性"(Geschichtlichkeit verstehen)意义上的"理解"，而且它也构成海德格尔的"存在理解"(Seinsverst ndnis)思想的主要来源。胡塞尔在1925年讲座中对此予以充分肯定："狄尔泰的阐述的重大意义首先在于，他针对作为一个体验整体的心灵生命之整体提出正面说明，并在于提出一个纯粹直观创造的描述心理学之相关的要求：也就是一种尽管只是'单纯'描述的，却仍然能够完成一种特有的最高说明成就的心理学，即狄尔泰用理解一词来表达的那种说明成就。"(26)

狄尔泰在"理解和说明"的心理学方法上对胡塞尔的影响是无法估量的，它推动了胡塞尔后期在发生现象学和历史现象学方向上的思考和研究。值得留意的是，这个推动早在1905年就已经发生。到1910年胡塞尔撰写《哲学作为严格的科学》长文时，狄尔泰的精神科学的心理学的历史理解方向和方法已经在胡塞尔思想中有了相当成熟的结果，他在这里对狄尔泰在此思考方向上的功绩做了总结性的阐释：

如果我们通过"内心直观"(innerliche Intuition)而生活到一个精神生活的统一中去，那么我们就可以"追复感受"(nachfühlen)到那些制约着精神生活的动机，并且因此也可以"理解"各种精神构形的本质和发展，理解这些构形对精神的统一动机和发展动机的依赖关系。以此方式，所有历史的东西对我们来说都是在其"存在"特性中"可理解的""可说明的"，这种存在就是"精神的存在"，就是一个意义所具有的各个内部自身要求的因素的统一，并且在此同时也是那些根据内部动机而合乎意义的自身构形和自身发展的统一。即是说，以此方式也可以对艺术、宗教、道德等进行直观的研究。同样也可以对那个与它们相近并在它们之中同时得到表达的世界观进行直观的研究，一旦这种世界观获得科学的形式并以科学的方式提出对客观有效性的要求，它便常常被称作形而上学，或者也被称作哲学。因此，在这些哲学方面便产生出这样一个重大的任务：透彻地研究(精神生活的)形态结构、它们的类别，以及它们的发展联系，并且通过最内在的"追复生活"(Nachleben)而使那些规定着它们本质的精神动机得到历史的理解。狄尔泰的著述，尤其是最新发表的关于世界观类型的论文表明，在这方面有多少极为重要的事情，并且事实上也是值得赞叹的事情有待完成。(27)

尤其是胡塞尔在这段引文中所说的最后一句话值得注意，它是胡塞尔的由衷之言，也涉及胡塞尔在随后几十年里一再去努力完成的工作。十多年后，他在1927年12月26日致曼科的信中甚至说："但从这一部分(《观念》第一卷)就可以看出，对我来说，现象学无非就是这门普全的'绝对的'精神科学。"(28)进一步看，胡塞尔在这里尚未说出的是他已请埃迪·施泰因编辑完成但还无意出版的《纯粹现象学与现象学哲学的观念》(以下简称《观念》)第二卷和第三卷，它们更应当被视作现象学哲学作为精神科学的自身宣示。

应当说，《纯粹现象学与现象学哲学的观念》三卷本标题中的"纯粹现象学"与狄尔泰的"描述心理学"和"理解心理学"的功能相似，而"现象学哲学"则与狄尔泰的"精神科学"并行不悖。

比梅尔曾指出，对于"现象学与心理学"这个论题而言，胡塞尔的"哲学作为严格的科学"具有重要的意义(29)，后面笔者会阐释他为此给出的具体理由。但这里先要对此说法给出一个其他的理由：如果说胡塞尔在狄尔泰的"描述和分析的心理学"中看到的是系统的(静态结构的)精神科学的基础，那么他在狄尔泰的"理解的和说明的心理学"中看到的便是历史的(变动发生的)精神科学的基础。现象学与心理学在心理结构与心理发生两个方向上平行而行。这里要预先说明：这两个方向原则上都属于某种意义上的"二阶系统"，与它们相对的一阶系统是"自身反思"或"自身思义"的总方向。

就狄尔泰所说的精神科学心理学的"理解和说明"方法而言，它与对动机的追复理解与动机引发线索的追踪说明有关。胡塞尔后来在《欧洲科学的危机与超越论的现象学》中提出的静态现象学的描述方法与发生现象学的说明方法，在很大程度上是对狄尔泰的精神科学的心理学的批判性继承(30)。在这里，心理学的认识方法的差异导致心理学类型的差异；而且在相同的意义上也可以说，现象学的认识方法的差异导致现象学类型的差异。

在结束这一节之前还有必要做两方面的简要说明：其一，描述与理解作为精神科学心理学的两种方法并非各行其是，互不干涉。无论在狄尔泰那里还是胡塞尔那里，它们都可以互补地既运用在意识结构或精神系统的研究上，也可以运用在意识发生或精神历史的研究上(31)。如胡塞尔所说，描述也可以是"对在每一个被发展的人类心灵生活中，那个以相同形式出现的组成部分与脉络的描述"。他借用狄尔泰的话说："我们解释自然，但却理解心灵和精神生命：进行理解乃是所有历史与系统精神科学之任务，这些精神科学因此正是可回溯到那个描述的，即分析的心理学去而作为理解的基本科学。"(32)

其二，狄尔泰与胡塞尔所说的"理解与说明"方法中的"说明"(Erkl ren)，也可以译作"解释"，但它不是艾宾浩斯在其批评论文中所说的"解释"(Erkl ren)，即不是自然科学心理学意义上的"因果解释"，而是历史的精神科学与发生现象学意义上的"动机解释"。前者意味着通过因果法则来解释一个心理现象产生的物理的、化学的、生理的外部原因，例如荷尔蒙的分泌对人的情感意识所产生的影响，或解释一个心理现象会引起或导致的各种生理物理数值的变化，例如撒谎的意识行为所导致的脸红和心跳加速等。后者则是在纯粹的直觉的内心经验中、在普遍有规律的心灵生活与精神发展脉络中被追踪和被解释，例如一个表象如何会引发一个审美享受，对他人痛苦的同感如何会引发自己的怜悯意识，如此等等。

三、现象学的特质：相对于布伦塔诺和狄尔泰的心理学

这里需要回到前引比梅尔的说法上，即《哲学作为严格的科学》一文对于理解现象学与心理学的关系具有重要意义。这个说法在他那里得到了补充说明："诚然，我们还必须补充一点：胡塞尔在现象学的构造阶段特别重视将他自己的工作与其他人的工作划清界限，而且恰恰是与他看来非常接近的人的工作。《哲学作为严格的科学》这篇'逻各斯'论文就是胡塞尔的一篇论战文章，是这位哲学家在找到自己的道路之后将别人的道路揭示为歧途的论战文章。"(33)所谓"别人的道路"，主要是指胡塞尔在文章中批评的狄尔泰的精神科学心理学的"历史主义"道路。正是通过胡塞尔对自己与他人的差异的标明，他的现象学与他人的心理学的差异也随之得到了揭示。

如果前一节揭示的是胡塞尔如何在狄尔泰影响下转向历史的精神科学的方向，或者说，转向发生现象学和历史现象学的方向，那么这一节要阐述的就是胡塞尔如何在这个方向上发现狄尔泰的不足以及如何用自己的方式来加以弥补的过程。以此方式，现象学与心理学一般以及与特定类型的心理学的关系也会在一定程度上得到彰显。这个情况在第一节讨论胡塞尔现象学与布伦塔诺的意向心理学时已经出现过。

不过在展开胡塞尔对狄尔泰的批评分析之前还需要说明一点，这里要讨论的现象学与心理学的差异已经不再是狄尔泰曾经面对的精神科学的意识理论与自然科学的实验心理学之间的差异了。这个界限的划分很快便被胡塞尔抛诸脑后。因此，当赫尔穆特·普莱斯纳(Helmuth Plessner)于1914年来到哥廷根随胡塞尔学习时，他已经注意到一些明显表露出来的状况：首先，胡塞尔在此期间不再为如何说明现象学与心理学的关系而烦恼。按照普莱斯纳的回忆和理解："诚然，与心理学的亲近当时已经不再使他感到不安。由于心理学采纳的实验-因果程序，混淆已不再可能发生，而当时并不存在描述心理学。即使有描述心理学，通过'悬搁'( ποχ )，即通过对体验状况在命名它的语词的观念含义统一方面所做的示范处理，现象学的实践也可以与描述心理学毫无混淆地区分开来。"(34)普莱斯纳在这里的对实验心理学状况的理解是确切的，但对描述心理学状况的理解则有失偏颇。不但各种形式的描述心理学依然存在，而且它与现象学的关系仍然谈不上已被毫无混淆地区分开来。例如，胡塞尔自己在1917年曾为了澄清现象学与心理学和认识论的关系而撰写了两篇后来未发表的文章《现象学与心理学》和《现象学与认识论》，以回应心理学对他的现象学的心理学的误解。不仅如此，胡塞尔在《观念》第一卷中将现象学标示为"纯粹体验的描述性本质学说"(35)，并且说明：现象学的"描述"是一种"本质直观的描述分析"、一种"本质描述"(Wesensbeschreibung)(36)。

因此毫不奇怪，在《现象学心理学(及阿姆斯特丹讲稿)》(1928年)中，他直截了当地将现象学称作"描述现象学"，它的第一阶段是本我论的描述现象学(37)，而在此之前于1923/24年所做的"第一哲学：现象学还原理论"的讲座中，他已经说明，这门"本我论(egologisch)的描述现象学"，或"超越论的本我论"，或"唯我论(solipsistisch)的现象学"，接下来会过渡到第二阶段的交互主体的描述现象学领域中(38)。可以看出，胡塞尔在此期间一直致力于对同样以描述为方法的现象学与其他心理学之间的关系的梳理辨析。在1925年讲座中，胡塞尔的一个主要意图就是理清他自己的描述现象学与狄尔泰和布伦塔诺的描述心理学的关系。在划清了它们之间界限的情况下，胡塞尔可以说，"经过几个部分的说明之后，我所引入的并非带着狄尔泰印记的心理学，而是，如同我已经宣告的那般，一门现象学的心理学"(39)。

胡塞尔对狄尔泰的批评从《哲学作为严格的科学》文章开始，到1925年的讲座为止，它们大致可以归纳为以下三个方面的缺失：

其一，狄尔泰的精神科学心理学的经验科学性质及其在本质观点方面的缺失。

与对布伦塔诺的经验心理学立场的批评相似，胡塞尔对狄尔泰的批评也在于后者的精神科学的经验立场。

狄尔泰对胡塞尔的《逻辑研究》的赞赏，是因为他看到的是作为描述心理学的现象学的成就，但他并没有看到作为本质科学的现象学的成就，而后者"谈论的是感知、判断、感受等本身，谈论它们先天地、在无条件的普遍性中作为纯粹种类的纯粹个别性所拥有的东西，谈论那些只有在对'本质'......的纯粹直观把握的基础上才能明察到的东西"(40)。因此，胡塞尔在1925年的讲座中将本质观点的缺失视作"狄尔泰的描述心理学所包含的极大缺陷"，因为"他仍未见到基于直观、但也是本质直观的理由而来的一般本质描述之类的存在，犹如他也还没看到底下的事实，那个构成心理生活的极端本质──与意识对象的关系──乃是系统性的心灵分析由其作为本质的分析之本有而无尽丰富的主题"(41)。

早在1910年的《哲学作为严格的科学》一文中，胡塞尔在批评了自然主义哲学之后进一步转向对包括狄尔泰在内的"历史主义与世界观哲学"的批评。他在一个脚注中说明，从狄尔泰的精神科学的经验立场出发无法把握历史发展的本质规律性和客观有效性，而且最终只会导向历史主义的怀疑论，因为"一门还是经验的精神科学既不能对某个提出客观有效性要求的东西提出反对的论证，也不能对它提出赞成的论证"(42)。而他在正文中的说法更为直白和激烈："从历史根据中只能产生出历史的结论。从事实出发来论证或反驳观念，这是悖谬--用康德所引用的一句话来说就是：从石中取水(ex pumice aquam)。"对于胡塞尔来说，一方面是历史学家在历史事实中发现的"流动的起效用"过程以及建基于其中的文化现象的经验科学，另一方面是哲学家在历史发展脉络中把握到的"本质和客观的有效性"以及建基于其中的有效理论体系的科学(43)，前者必须以后者为理论基础，否则它的归宿只能是历史主义的相对论和怀疑论。

而从狄尔泰这方面来看，胡塞尔的这个批评带有过于浓厚的柏拉图观念论与康德的先天论的烙印。他在此之前就强调："康德的先天是僵死的，但我理解的意识的现实条件是活的历史过程，它们具有其历史，而这个历史的进程是它们对越来越精准地以归纳的方式被认识到的经验的杂多性的调整适应。"(44)而在读到胡塞尔的《哲学作为严格的科学》后，他的反应可以在他于胡塞尔这篇文章页边所做的批注上看出："真正的柏拉图!先是将变化流动的事物固定在概念中，然后再把流动这个概念补充地安插在旁边。"(45)

在胡塞尔这方面，他在前引脚注中继续写道："如果将这种旨在经验理解的经验观点换成现象学的本质观点，那么事情自然就会是两样的，而这似乎正是他思想的内部活动。"(46)现在看来，这个对狄尔泰"思想的内部活动"的想象只能算是胡塞尔带有良好愿望的揣测。狄尔泰持有的一个明显的成见在于，他对观念、先天、本质的理解始终是柏拉图式的或康德式的，即将它们理解为僵死的和固定不变的，而历史、发生、精神是活的，流动不息的，因而与本质、观念、先天等无关，仅仅与杂多经验的丰富性和鲜活性有关。狄尔泰没有读到胡塞尔1905年便已讲授过的，但于1928年才由海德格尔编辑发表的《内时间意识现象学讲座》，也没有读到胡塞尔1929年出版的《形式逻辑与超越论逻辑》，胡塞尔在这两部著述中都在尝试对在纵向本质直观中展现出来的历史发生之"本质和客观的有效性"进行本质描述：或者是对时间意识的三位一体形式的本质有效性，或者是对普遍意识结构与意识发生之超越论逻辑的本质有效性。

其二，狄尔泰缺乏对意向性的本质认识，更确切地说，缺乏对作为纵意向性的历史性的直观与理解。

狄尔泰的这个缺失与前一个缺失是密切相关的：正是因为狄尔泰在本质观点方面的缺失，他才无法看到意识最基本的本质特征：意向性。胡塞尔自己说："狄尔泰似乎并未被布伦塔诺影响。他毋宁完全被他自己，特别是自己的精神科学兴趣领域支配而来到对于纯粹描述的要求。意向性的核心意义在他身上完全起不了任何作用。"(47)

事实上，狄尔泰没有注意到布伦塔诺的意向性理论是可以理解的，他在其著述中虽然对布伦塔诺有所提及，但并无特别的关注。布伦塔诺对他的影响更多地是通过胡塞尔来完成的。不过令人不解的是，他的好友约克一再要求的"理解历史性"也没有在狄尔泰那里产生特别的效应。至少可以说，狄尔泰在"理解历史性"的方法思考与实施方面始终没有获得充分的自觉与自信。

不过，显然狄尔泰最终还是在胡塞尔那里看到了描述心理学的成就，即胡塞尔在布伦塔诺的描述的意向心理学影响下取得的成就。但他并未将此理解为对意向性的本质描述的成就，也不会将它与他和约克的意义上的"理解历史性"联系在一起，发展出在纵意向性方面的本质描述心理学的成就。这一成就是在胡塞尔那里才得到了一定程度的实现。所谓的"历史性"，无非是指贯穿在历史进程中的规律性与意义的有效性，无论这里的历史是精神史还是自然史。在精神科学的历史现象学中，它是指胡塞尔自1905年起就开始关注的历史意识中的纵意向性，也是胡塞尔在后期《欧洲科学的危机与超越论的现象学》中所说的"超越论的历史性"(48)。"理解历史性"在现象学中可以改写为：对历史意识中的纵意向性的纵向本质直观以及理解的本质描述。

其三，狄尔泰的精神科学心理学在"同感"或"交互主体性"问题的思考与研究方面的缺失。

胡塞尔在1925年讲座中所确定的狄尔泰的第三个缺失在于："狄尔泰没有提出这个问题：一个个体的心灵关系如何进入到其他的心灵关系之中，它们如何能够联结成一个结构关系。"(49)他以此来批评在狄尔泰那里一门同感心理学的缺失。

狄尔泰并非没有思考和讨论过同感问题，并非没有考虑过个体的历史意识与集体的历史意识的关系问题，例如他在《精神科学中的历史世界之建构》中便有"对其他各人及其生命表述之理解"的论述，讨论"理解"的各种类型--"设身处地"(Hineinversetzen)、"模仿"(Nachbilden)、"追复体验"(Nacherleben)，等等(50)。不过这些思考大都只是以手稿的方式记录下来，且在胡塞尔的时代还难以为他所知悉和了解。因此胡塞尔会认为："狄尔泰在这一方面却缺乏一个令人满意的说法。究竟在只是内经验或者只是对他人精神生命及群体生命的阐明的基础上如何能够产生一个比个人的理解更多的描述?"(51)

胡塞尔在1905年，即在结识狄尔泰的这一年，已经开始在特奥多尔·利普斯的影响下思考和研究同感问题，后来同感问题被改称为交互主体性问题。这个问题是横意向性研究和横向本质直观的一个分支。到1925年"现象学的心理学引论"讲座时，胡塞尔对这个问题已经有20年的思考，并且已经培养了以《论同感问题》为题完成博士论文的埃迪·施泰因；而且在1925年期间，按耿宁的说法，在胡塞尔那里，"交互主体性理论第一次获得一种自成一体的、在内容上得到透彻加工整理的形态"(52)。因此可以理解，他在这个问题上对狄尔泰的发难和批评在当时有他自己的特别理由。他将自己的意识现象学的第一阶段称作"超越论的本我论"或"唯我论的现象学"，这也是狄尔泰的心理学所处的阶段，即他讨论内感知、内经验、自身思义等时所处的阶段。而胡塞尔的交互主体性现象学还原则为"交互主体性现象学"打开了通道，在这里，对其他个人的"同感"就意味着"对他们的动机的理解"(53)，这是狄尔泰的历史主义的心理学尚未到达的阶段(54)。

如果在狄尔泰那里，系统的精神科学采用的是"静态理解"(55)的方法，并且如前所述，在施普朗格那里是所谓"理解地描述"(verstehend beschreiben)的方法，而历史的精神科学则采用"历史理解"的方法，那么狄尔泰意义上的交互主体的精神历史、精神社会历史的方法就应当是"理解地同感"(verstehend einfühlen)的方法(56)。

四、现象学与经验论心理学、自然科学心理学、精神科学心理学的差异

通过与自然科学心理学、精神科学心理学以及布伦塔诺经验心理学划清界限，胡塞尔便对自己的现象学与种种心理学的关系做出了理清和说明。尤其是在现象学与心理学的相同性与差异性的各个层次方面，胡塞尔也表达了明确的态度和立场。

现象学与自然科学心理学、实证的和实验的心理学的差异已经十分了然，就像普莱斯纳在1914年便已经确定的那样。无论是在研究方法上，还是在研究对象上，现代心理学都已经放弃了那些如今由现象学来坚守的东西：对意识体验和意识权能在结构与发生两个方向上的反思和本质直观。早期现象学家如普凡德尔曾将他所理解的现象学与心理学的区别等同于"主观心理学"与"客观心理学"的区别(57)，并与他的现象学同道如胡塞尔和盖格尔等人一起为在客观心理学面前维护主观心理学的权利而耗费心力。此前十多年，在冯特、施通普夫、艾宾浩斯、詹姆斯等现代心理学的开创者那里，这两种心理学都还以互助互补的方式共处于一室。而此后十多年，各种类型的主观心理学与各种类型的客观心理学已经彼此分离、另立门户，既不再为彼此间的合作而费神，也不再为相互间的混淆而担心。

然而，现象学与各种主观心理学之间的关系在此期间反倒成为这个特殊心理学群体内部需要思考的问题。

首先，胡塞尔需要面对的是他的现象学与布伦塔诺心理学的关系问题。后者的意向的和经验描述的心理学一方面脱离了与哲学心理学有关的思辨哲学，另一方面也脱离了与生理心理学或心理物理学有关的发生心理学。在这两个方面，胡塞尔都无条件地予以接受。除此之外，他也采纳了布伦塔诺经验心理学的本质内核，即意识的最普遍的本质特征--意向性，但同时排斥布伦塔诺的经验主义以及由此导致的自然主义立场。胡塞尔在1925年讲座中对此有清晰的表述："布伦塔诺对意向性的指明突破了在意向性方面的普遍盲目状态；但尚未克服自然主义，现在可以说自然主义是强占了意向体验并阻断了通往意向研究之真正任务的道路。"(58)

胡塞尔不再将"描述"仅仅视作经验描述。他赋予现象学的描述以本质刻画的性质，从而可以谈论一门本质学说意义上的"描述现象学"。这个意义上的现象学实际上就是胡塞尔谈论得更多的、意义也更为宽泛的"本质现象学"或"现象学的心理学"。因为按照胡塞尔和盖格尔的理解，描述的基础是直观；本质描述的基础是本质直观。在直观与描述之间的关系与在意识现象学和语言现象学之间的关系都是平行的。而"本质描述的现象学"最终必须以"本质直观的现象学"为前提条件，因而这里存在着一种奠基关系。

除此之外，布伦塔诺指明的作为意识本质特征的意向性最终只是"横意向性"，即意向活动与意向相关项的关系。但胡塞尔通过时间意识分析和意识发生分析而将意识的本质特征的概念扩展到纵向的维度：发生的和历史的维度。因而在胡塞尔这里，"发生"不再像他在《逻辑研究》第一版时期那样，意味着原初布伦塔诺意义上的生理心理的因果发生，而是指内在的心理发生、意识发生。通过纵向本质直观来把握在意识发生中的纵意向性和超越论逻辑，这是胡塞尔的发生现象学不同于其他各种形式的发生心理学(包括皮亚杰的发生认识论(59))的地方。

其次，胡塞尔现象学与狄尔泰精神科学的关联是在纵意向性方面。胡塞尔应当是从狄尔泰那里接受了历史意识的向度，并且将它与此前从布伦塔诺那里获得的时间向度结合在一起。

然而，现象学在纵意向性的认识和把握方式本质上有别于狄尔泰的精神科学的描述心理学和布伦塔诺的经验心理学的描述方法。可以作如下概括：如果说胡塞尔现象学与布伦塔诺经验心理学相同的地方在于，他们都是用描述的方式来揭示意识的一个基本特征：意向性或构造性(横意向性)，那么胡塞尔现象学与狄尔泰的精神科学心理学相同的地方就在于，他们都在尝试用理解的方式来解释意识的另一个基本特征：流动性或历史性(纵意向性)。而后可以进一步说，胡塞尔的现象学要求用横向本质直观和静态理解的方式把握横意向性，因此有别于布伦塔诺的心理学；同时要求用纵向本质直观或追复理解的方式来把握纵意向性，因而有别于狄尔泰的心理学。胡塞尔始终认为：狄尔泰与布伦塔诺在纵横意向性方向上的思考没有脱出经验论的巢穴，因而最终会在这两个方向上导向自然主义和历史主义。

因此，无论是横向上的意向性描述，还是纵向上的历史性理解，现象学都必须--正如胡塞尔在1913年的《观念》第一卷中已经确定的那样--是"一门意识体验的描述本质学"(eine deskriptive Eidetik)，即一门"现象学的本质学"(60)。而在这里讨论的1925年"现象学的心理学引论"讲座中，胡塞尔更是明确地指出，现象学与心理学的关系最终还会涉及现象学与逻辑学的关系以及现象学与认识论的关系。即是说，这个意义上的本质学与数学、几何、逻辑意义上的先天科学相似，它是心理学领域中的本质学，必须实施一种"新型的、先天运行的心理学分析"，并构成"一门从纯粹内向直观中汲取的心灵科学"(61)。

这里提到几何、数学等并非偶然。它们与现象学(现象学的心理学或纯粹心理学)一样，都是观念科学。这里可以看到胡塞尔的数学背景始终在起作用，看到莱布尼茨的普遍数理模式的潜在影响。无论是在《观念》第一卷中，还是在"现象学的心理学引论"讲座中，他都一再指出，现象学的心理学与经验心理学和精神科学的关系应当类似于几何学、运动学、年代学、力学等与自然科学物理学的关系。尽管他认为，现象学的本质论不同于作为形式的本质科学的数学、算术等，而更应当像几何学、运动学等一样是质料的本质科学或质料的数理模式，因而或有可能讨论是否可以或必须"将现象学构造为一门意识体验的'几何学'"，但现象学与几何学仍然在方法和对象上彼此有别，例如现象学诉诸本质描述，而几何学则主要以演绎的方式进行；现象学讨论体验的本质，而几何学揭示的是空间的本质，如此等等。无论如何，现象学与几何学在这一点上是一致的：它们探讨和处理的都是可能性问题，而非实在的事实。在此意义上，"现象学本身不是心理学，就像几何学不是自然科学一样"(62)。这里的"现象学"，当然不是经验现象学或经验心理学，而是"现象学的心理学"或"纯粹心理学"。它们不依赖关于心灵生活的经验事实科学，但可以为后者提供理论基础。

现象学为心理学提供理论解释与论证的观点还可以在胡塞尔于1903年为埃尔森汉斯《关于逻辑学与心理学的关系》(63)撰写的相关德国逻辑学著作报告中发现，他写道："显然，被排除的心理学统觉随时可以插进来，让现象学和认识批判的结果可以为心理学所用。因此，现象学分析获得了描述心理学分析的特征；它充当了对心理学这门关于精神显现的自然科学进行理论解释的基础。"(64)此后他在1917年又写道："每个现象学的确定作为关于意识和被意识之物的本质确定都可以被重新评价为心理学的确定。......纯粹现象学的每个结果都可以被转释为先天心理学或理性心理学的一个结果。"(65)

而由于心灵生活的流动性和历史性，因而现象学在这里面临双重的任务：不仅要在横向上对意识体验的结构进行本质描述，而且要在纵向上对意识体验的发生进行本质解释，即"建立起一门先天纯粹心理学，它具有类似于几何学等对于经验物理学所具有的那种功能。在其中包含的一个重大任务就在于对历史的以及对在它的独一性中包含的普全'意义'的现象学诠释"(66)。从这段出自1927年《不列颠百科全书》条目草稿的文字中可以看到，胡塞尔在这一年便已经有了一门关于历史意识的本质现象学的构想。在这里可以看到胡塞尔与狄尔泰的同行和分离的大致轨迹。

最后，胡塞尔的现象学首先是认知现象学和理性现象学，而非心理学一般。这是由布伦塔诺和胡塞尔理解的意识最基本特征决定的，他们的心理学的最原本形式必定是意向心理学或表象理论和对象理论。用胡塞尔的话来说："情感生活与意愿生活的现象学连同其特有的意向性是奠基在自然经验和认识的现象学之中的，它涵盖了在其必然的和可能的本质构形方面的全部文化以及属于社会性的本质形式的相关先天。"(67)因而现象学在这点上也有别于一般心理学。即是说，现象学承载的首先是认识论奠基的使命，而后在进一步的发展中才会朝向对情感行为、意愿活动等与文化社会相关的意识生活的描述分析。

在前引普莱斯纳的回忆录中，他记载说当他于1914年来到哥廷根时曾注意到，胡塞尔现象学始终还持守在认知现象学或理性现象学的范围内，尽管他的现象学同道已经各自在情感、意欲等领域展开工作。他回忆说：

讨论题目被紧缩在认知行为范围上，尽管莱纳赫、普凡德尔、舍勒、莫里茨·盖格尔已经突破了它，但胡塞尔却还并不懂得如何去摆脱它，因为他是在七十、八十年代的心理学与认识论上成熟起来的，而且不得不为了与逻辑学中的心理主义作战而付出其半生的心血。伦理学的、美学的、法哲学的问题离他甚远。感觉、感知(他向我特别推荐沙普和黑德维希·康拉德-马悌乌斯的典范研究)、错觉、抽象、判断和事态主宰着整个课程，尤其是讨论课，而且--如《观念》所表明的那样--还不仅仅是课程。(68)

普莱斯纳的这个回忆虽然基于表浅的印象，但的确是对哥廷根当时现象学阵营活动状况的写实描述。而如今随着大量胡塞尔遗稿的编辑出版，人们已经可以了解胡塞尔本人在现象学各个领域(尤其是在情感现象学、意愿现象学、生活世界现象学等领域(69))中长期耕耘的状况以及业已收获和尚待收获的丰富成果。在这点上，现象学与心理学在研究对象上并无原则性差异，只是视角和方法不同而已。

五、现象学的各个分科之间的关系

胡塞尔在1925年讲座中主要讨论的是"现象学的心理学"，而在1927年为《不列颠百科全书》撰写的"现象学"条目草稿中则首先论述作为"纯粹现象学"的"心理学的现象学"，而后论述与"心理学的现象学"相对应的"超越论的现象学"。最后，在1928年的阿姆斯特丹讲演中，胡塞尔开宗明义地标示了"现象学的双重意义"：心理学的现象学与超越论的现象学。

就第一个标示而言，"现象学的心理学"的主语是"心理学"，指一种关于心灵生活的科学，而前面的定语"现象学的"则与这门心理学采用的方法有关，即现象学的本质直观方法，它们在两个方向上进行：对横意向性的横向本质直观与结构把握，以及对纵意向性的纵向本质直观与发生理解。"现象学的"在这里意味着运用本质直观和分析方法。现象学的心理学意味着一种描述的和理解的心理本质学。如前所述，现象学的心理学具有对心理学的理论奠基作用，"现象学的心理学既对心理的自然研究而言是奠基性的，也对人格科学和相应的科学而言是奠基性的"(70)。现代心理学是在两端之间活动：现象学的心理学的一端，生理学的心理学的另一端。前者为心理学提供意识的理论基础，后者为心理学提供生理物理基础。

此外，"现象学的心理学"的标示在当下的语境中还有另一重含义。"现象学的"在这里是指它的原初含义："意识显现的"，即"有意识的"。"现象学的心理学"随之也就意味着"关于有意识的心灵生活的科学"。由于心灵生活分为有意识的(被意识到的)和无意识的(未被意识到的)两个部分，因而各种形式的"有意识的"或"现象学的"心理学，包括上述胡塞尔使用的意义上的"现象学的心理学"，就构成关于前一部分的心灵科学，而各种形式的"无意识心理学"则构成关于第二部分的心灵科学。目前在意识哲学方面影响较大的心智哲学家大卫·查尔默斯的著作《有意识的心灵》(71)以及现象学哲学家伽拉戈尔(S.Gallagher)与扎哈维(D.Zahavi)的著作《现象学的心灵》(72)都属于前一部分的心灵科学。关于后一部分的心灵科学在胡塞尔那里(在他的许多手稿中)相当于不显现的、未意识到的意识权能意义上的现象学，而在现代心理学中也被涵盖在机能心理学或功能心理学的范畴下(73)。

接下来，就后面提到的两种现象学标示而言，它们的主语都是"现象学"，在这里主要涉及关于意识现象的研究对象与研究领域。而它们的定语"心理学的"和"超越论的"则是对这里的对象和领域之性质的进一步刻画。

按胡塞尔的说法，"必须以最清晰的方式将超越论的现象学与心理学的现象学分离开来，它们在其基本意义上是各不相同的。不过，即使通过观点的改变，这一个可以过渡到另一个之中，因而在两方面会出现'相同的'现象与本质明察，但可以说是伴随着原则上改变它们的意义的不同符号"(74)。胡塞尔自己在为《不列颠百科全书》撰写的"现象学"条目和"阿姆斯特丹讲演"中曾尝试以最清晰的方式区分这两者，即指明这两种现象学是对两种相互平行的现象的探讨：超越论现象学的对象是纯粹意识现象，现象学心理学的对象是人的心理现象。在它们之间隔着一个超越论的还原。通过对这个还原的实施和放弃，这两种现象以及两种现象学彼此可以相互过渡。同时，对这两种现象学的关系的澄清也会附带地解释：为什么带有深刻的康德烙印的"transzendental"在胡塞尔这里不能被译作"先验"，而应当选择"超越论"这一更为确切也更不易造成误解的译名。对此笔者会另文专述。

这里的思考和阐释还是集中在这一卷的书名所标示的"现象学的心理学"上。它与众多"主观心理学"或"内省心理学"的差别也在于一个还原的施行和放弃：本质现象学的还原。它在胡塞尔那里更多被称作"本质直观"或"观念直观"。

除此之外，关于胡塞尔的《现象学的心理学》这一卷的内容还需要强调说明一点：从1925年的"现象学的心理学引论"讲座，到1928年的"现象学的心理学"阿姆斯特丹讲演，在胡塞尔这几年的思想道路旁既可以安放精神科学的路碑，也可以安放历史哲学的路碑。在这些路碑上不仅应当刻有胡塞尔的名字，也应当刻有胡塞尔的两位前辈狄尔泰与约克的名字，最后还可以刻有胡塞尔的两位弟子的名字：弗里茨?考夫曼和路德维希·兰德格雷贝。他们两人于1928年在胡塞尔主编的《哲学与现象学研究年刊》第九辑上同时发表了他们各自的历史哲学论著，即考夫曼的任教资格论文《瓦尔腾堡的约克伯爵的哲学》和兰德格雷贝的博士论文《威廉·狄尔泰的精神科学》。由于这两部论著与胡塞尔的《内时间意识现象学讲座》刊登在同一辑，因而这个第九辑完全可以说是专门献给历史哲学的一辑，而这一年也顺理成章地成为现象学的历史哲学年，它在1925年随胡塞尔在"现象学的心理学引论"讲座中向狄尔泰的回溯就已经默默地开始了。

在本文引论中已经提到，胡塞尔从起初的任教资格论文《论数的概念》(1887年)开始，直至最后期的《欧洲科学的危机与超越论的现象学》(1936/37年)期间，都需要一再面对和处理现象学和心理学的关系问题。笔者在这里对此问题的讨论，主要是依据"现象学的心理学"(1925年)的讲座稿。但因胡塞尔的思想变化，不仅需要涉及最初的《逻辑研究》(1900/01年)，也需要涉及《哲学作为严格的科学》(1910年)和《纯粹现象学与现象学哲学的观念》第一卷(1913年)；即使在集中讨论这个关系的《胡塞尔全集》第九卷中，胡塞尔对这个问题的思考和表述也有略微的变化，它们主要体现在1927-1928年期间为《不列颠百科全书》撰写的"现象学"条目以及1928年的"阿姆斯特丹讲演"中。

如果回到《逻辑研究》最初的意向上去，那么对于胡塞尔来说，对现象学与心理学的关系以及与逻辑学的关系的思考与讨论自始至终都服务于一个目的：寻找、发现并把握意识的静态的和发生的逻辑，即寻找、发现并把握主观性中的"客观性"：心的逻辑或心的秩序，或者说，心智本身、"对思想的思想"(ν ησ ζ νο σεωζ)的逻辑与秩序。

在术语上可以作如下总结：胡塞尔所说的"纯粹心理学""本质心理学""先天心理学""现象学的心理学"，其含义基本上是相同的。但如果它们仍然想要"普全地研究作为在世界中的实在事实而生活在世界中的人的心理学"，它们就不是真正意义上的纯粹科学。这个意义上的纯粹心理学必定是"超越论的心理学"，它与"超越论哲学"无异："只有一门超越论的心理学，而它与超越论的哲学是一回事。"(75)一言以蔽之，经过双重纯化的纯粹的超越论的意识学。

这里最后还要引述胡塞尔在1908年12月23日致纳托尔普的信中的一段与本文论题密切相关的话：

我在1903年的逻辑学年度报告(参见：贝格曼、贡佩尔茨、耶路撒冷等)中就已经放弃了现象学作为"描述心理学"的偏斜的标示，尽管我在这些年里--在讲座中--已经能够做出更好的阐释。我寄希望于今后几年的更大的著述发表。我还要说明一点，我的--以任何方式都不是心理学的--问题与马堡学派的问题并不相合。而我的超越论现象学的方法(不是心理学的方法--既非发生心理学的也非描述心理学的方法)在目标与本质上都是一种不同于您的意义上的超越论逻辑学的方法。(76)

不言而喻，这段引文的前半部分尚未超出这里讨论的现象学与心理学关系的论题范围，但其后半部分则已经过渡到另一个论题上去，它已经属于胡塞尔所做的将自己的现象学与各种超越论哲学划清界限之努力的另一章节了。因此，对胡塞尔与康德各自的"transzendental"概念的不同意义的澄清已经迫在眉睫。

注释：

①Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie.Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,Den Haag:Martinus Nijhoff,1968.中译本见埃德蒙德·胡塞尔：《现象学的心理学：1925年夏季学期讲稿》，北京：商务印书馆，2017年。下面对该书的引述参考了这个译本，偶尔有一些修改，不再一一标明。

②这里所说的现象学与心理学之间关系的讨论，首先是指一种为了向起源回溯而进行的关于胡塞尔本人在这两者关系理解上的思想发展之讨论，例如：Elisabeth Str ker,"Ph nomenologie und Psychologie.Die Frage ihrer Beziehung bei Husserl," Zeitschrift für Philosophische Forschung,37(1),1983,SS.3-19。其次，这个讨论也会涉及一些可称作现象学的心理学家或一些可称作心理学的现象学家的工作，这些工作会在现象学与心理学之间的间域进行，并为它们的相互关系添加新的内容并为新的讨论提供素材，例如：Aron Gurwitsch,The Collected Works of Aron Gurwitsch(1901-1973),Volume Ⅱ:Studies in Phenomenology and Psychology,Dordrecht/Heidelberg/London/New York:Springer,2009.最后还会包括对在现象学界和心理学界各自就此关系所做的不断延续和不断更新的讨论，例如：Carl Friedrich Graumann,Grundlagen einer Ph nomenologie und Psychologie der Perspektivit t,Berlin:Walter de Gruyter,1960; Herbert Spiegelberg,Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry.A Historical Introduction,Evanston:Northwestern University Press,1972; Peter D.Ashworth,Man Cheung Chung,Phenomenology and Psychological Science.Historical and Philosophical Perspectives,New York:Springer,2006; Ian Rory Owen,Phenomenology in Action in Psychotherapy:On Pure Psychology and its Applications in Psychotherapy and Mental Health Care,Heidelberg/New York/Dordrecht/London:Springer,2015，等等。

③Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅱ,The Hague,Netherlands:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1994,S.121.

④Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen Ⅱ/1,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1984,A 4.

⑤Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen Ⅱ/1,A 18、B ⅩⅢ.

⑥Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen Ⅰ,The Hague,Netherlands:Martinus Nijhoff,1975,B ⅩⅢ.

⑦胡塞尔文库手稿编码：Ms.F I 26/12a.

⑧E.Holenstein,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen.Erster Teil.Prolegomena zur reinen Logik,SS.ⅩⅩⅩ-ⅩⅩⅩⅠ.这里需要一再强调，胡塞尔所说的作为现象学"一切原则之原则"的"直观"概念是"Anschauung"，它原则上有别于"直觉"(Intuition)，无论是在直觉逻辑的意义上，还是在直觉数学的意义上。尽管胡塞尔偶尔也将两者等同使用，但它们在德文和中文中所表达的根本不同的含义是需要随时留意的。详见笔者的文章：《关于几个西方心理哲学核心概念的含义及其中译问题的思考(一)》，《西北师大学报(社会科学版)》2021年第3期。

⑨Franz Brentano,Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt I,Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1955,S.39 ff.

⑩Franz Brentano,Deskriptive Psychologie,Hamburg:Felix Meiner,1982.

(11)Oskar Kraus,"Vorwort des Herausgebers," Franz Brentano,Deskriptive Psychologie,S.ⅩⅦ f.

(12)Oskar Kraus,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Franz Brentano,Deskriptive Psychologie,S.ⅩⅨ ff.

(13)Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅰ,SS.78、169.

(14)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.309.

(15)E.Holenstein,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen,Erster Teil,Prolegomena zur reinen Logik,S.ⅩⅥ.

(16)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.320.

(17)比梅尔的这个说法现在需要得到修正，并非是狄尔泰与胡塞尔建立起联系，而是他开设了《逻辑研究》的讨论课，胡塞尔得知此事后去柏林拜访狄尔泰并随即建立起两人之间的联系。

(18)Walter Biemel," Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.ⅩⅥ.

(19)Wilhelm Dilthey,"Ideen über eine beschreibende und zergliedernde Psychologie," Sitzungsberichte der K niglich Preuβischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,vorgetragen am 22.Februar und am 7.Juni 1894,Berlin.

(20)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.6.

(21)Hermann Ebbinghaus," ber erkl rende und beschreibende Psychologie," Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane,9,1896,SS.161-205.

(22)笔者在《意识问题的现象学与心理学视角》一文中对这场争论有较为详细的说明。倪梁康：《意识问题的现象学与心理学视角》，《河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2020年第2期。

(23)鲍伊斯·吉布森：《从胡塞尔到海德格尔--1928年弗莱堡日记节选》，倪梁康编：《回忆埃德蒙德·胡塞尔》，北京：商务印书馆，2018年，第325页。

(24)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.34.

(25)马尔维娜·胡塞尔：《埃德蒙德·胡塞尔生平素描》，倪梁康编：《回忆埃德蒙德·胡塞尔》，第22页。

(26)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie,Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.10.

(27)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Vortr ge,1911-1921,The Hague & Netherlands:Martinus Nijhoff,1986,S.42.

(28)Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅲ,S.460.

(29)W.Biemel,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.ⅩⅦ.

(30)Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅺ,S.340.

(31)胡塞尔在哥廷根和弗莱堡的学生、后来博士论文以《约克的历史哲学》为题的弗里茨·考夫曼在跟随胡塞尔学习之前曾在莱比锡学习，他回忆说："在莱比锡，由于狄尔泰的学生施普朗格的引导，我是按照'理解的描述'(verstehendes Beschreiben)的视角来熟悉现象学的。"考夫曼：《回忆胡塞尔》，倪梁康编：《回忆埃德蒙德·胡塞尔》，第44页。

(32)Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅸ,S.14.

(33)W.Biemel,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.ⅩⅥ.

(34)普莱斯纳：《于哥廷根时期在胡塞尔身边》，倪梁康编：《回忆埃德蒙德·胡塞尔》，第54页。

(35)Edmund Husserl,Ideen zu einer reinen Ph nomenlogie und ph nomenlogischen Philosophie,Bd.1,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1950,§ 75.

(36)Edmund Husserl,Ideen zu einer reinen Ph nomenlogie und ph nomenlogischen Philosophie,Bd.1 § 79.

(37)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.320.

(38)Edmund Husserl,Erste Philosophie(1923/4),Zweiter Teil:Theorie der ph nomenologischen Reduktion,The Hague,Netherlands:Martinus Nijhoff,1956,S.173 ff.

(39)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.35.

(40)Edmund Husserl,Logische Untersuchungen Ⅱ/1,B118.

(41)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.13.

(42)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Vortr ge.1911-1921,S.45,Anm.1.

(43)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Vortr ge.1911-1921,SS.45、44.

(44)Wilhelm Dilthey,Grundlegung der Wissenschaften vom Menschen,der Gesellschaft und der Geschichte,G ttingen:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,1997,S.51.关于心理学是经验科学的观点和主张尤其可以参见他的全集第21卷中收集出版的讲座"作为经验科学的心理学"第一部分"心理学与人类学讲座"。

(45)Gerog Misch,"Vorbericht des Herausgebers," Wilhelm Dilthey,Die geistige Welt:Einleitung in die Philosophie des Lebens; H lfte 1,Abhandlungen zur Grundlegung der Geisteswissenschaften,G ttingen:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,1990,S.CXII.

(46)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Vortr ge.1911-1921,S.44.

(47)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.33.

(48)Edmund Husserl,Die Krisis der europ ischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Ph nomenologie,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1976,S.213.

(49)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.548.

(50)Wilhelm Dilthey,Der Aufbau der geschichtlichen Welt in den Geisteswissenschaften,Stuttgart:B.G.Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft,1958,S.205 ff.

(51)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.13.

(52)Iso Kern,"Einleitung des Herausgebers," Edmund Husserl,Zur Ph nomenologie der Intersubjektivit t.Texte aus dem Nachlass.Dritter Teil.1929-35,The Hague,Netherlands:Martinus Nijhoff,1973,S.ⅩⅩⅩⅣ.

(53)Edmund Husserl,Ideen zur einer reinen Ph nomenologie und ph nomenologischen Philosophie,Bd.Ⅱ,Ph nomenologische Untersuchungen zur Konstitution,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1952,S.226.

(54)不过，在狄尔泰和雅斯贝尔斯的"理解心理学"的具体实施者戈鲁勒那里，动机理解意义上的"同感"已经出现。Hans W.Gruhle,Verstehen und Einfühlen,Berlin/G ttingen/Heidelberg:Springer-Verlag,1953,S.283.

(55)这是戈鲁勒引述的雅斯贝尔斯的说法，Hans W.Gruhle,Verstehen und Einfühlen,S.283.

(56)陈寅恪在为冯友兰《中国哲学史》上册所写审核报告中提到："对于古人之学说，应具了解之同情，方可下笔。"这里的"了解之同情"若翻译为德语，基本上就是"理解的同感"的意思。这是否是陈寅恪在他两次留学德国期间(1910-1914年，1921-1925年)所受狄尔泰及其后学"理解心理学"影响的表露，目前尚不得而知，还有待进一步查究。

(57)Alexander Pf nder,Ph nomenologie des Wollens.Motive und Motivation,Leipzig:J.A.Barth,1900,S.6 f.

(58)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.310.

(59)Eduard Marbach,"Two Directions of Epistemology:Husserl and Piaget," Revue Internationale de Philosophie,Vol.36,No.142/143(4),1982,pp.435-469.

(60)Edmund Husserl,Ideen zu einer reinen Ph nomenlogie und ph nomenlogischen Philosophie,Bd.1,S.148 f.

(61)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.41.

(62)Edmund Husserl,Ideen zu einer reinen Ph nomenlogie und ph nomenlogischen Philosophie,Bd.1,SS.149 f、5.

(63)Theodor Elsenhans,"Das Verh ltnis der Logik zur Psychologie," Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik,(109),1897,SS.195-212.

(64)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Rezensionen (1890-1910),The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff,1979,S.207.

(65)Edmund Husserl,Aufs tze und Rezensionen (1911-1921),S.117.

(66)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.252.

(67)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.252 f.

(68)普莱斯纳：《于哥廷根时期在胡塞尔身边》，倪梁康编：《回忆埃德蒙德·胡塞尔》，第54页。

(69)对此尤其可以参见新近出版的《胡塞尔全集》第43卷，其中第1卷讨论知性与对象，选自1909-1927年的手稿，第2卷讨论情感与价值，选自1896-1925年的手稿，第3卷讨论意欲与行动，选自1902-1934年的手稿。

(70)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.217.

(71)David John Chalmers,The Conscious Mind:In Search of a Fundamental Theory,New York:Oxford University Press,1996.

(72)Shaun Gallagher and Dan Zahavi,The Phenomenological Mind,London:Routledge,2008.

(73)对此可以参见笔者的论文：《意识现象学与无意识研究的可能性》，《中国社会科学》2021年第3期；《意识分析的两种基本形态--兼论通向超越论-发生现象学的莱布尼茨道路》，《学术月刊》2021年第8期。

(74)Edmund Husserl,Ph nomenologische Psychologie:Vorlesungen Sommersemester 1925,S.247 f.

(75)Edmund Husserl,Die Krisis der europ ischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Ph nomenologie,S.261.

(76)Edmund Husserl,Briefwechsel,Bd.Ⅴ,S.103.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
現象學 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书

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现象学（英語：phenomenology，源自希腊语phainómenon，意为“显现的东西”；以及lógos，意为“研究”）是20世纪最重要的哲学流派之一，由德国哲学家胡塞尔正式创立。胡塞尔深受弗朗兹·布伦塔诺和伯纳德·波尔查诺两人的影响，认为每一表象都是某物的表象，意识也是某物的意识；同时也主张「真理自身」——即超越時空與個人之絕對、又普遍的客觀存在者——的理念之存在，而提出對意識本質的研究，或描述先驗的、絕對的認識之根本與法則；他稱之為「现象学」。

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Stan Brakhage - A Child's Garden and the Serious Sea (1991)

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I liked your Room Film very much. It is very good...I felt as if my father had made it, as if it was made by a blind man. I liked the tentativeness...sometimes the repeating shots would be clear, other times one couldnt tell if it was continuous. One had to work at it.

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Film catalogue - The Film-Makers' Cooperative

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The Film-Makers' Cooperative is an artist-run, non-profit organization founded in 1962 in New York City by Jonas Mekas, Shirley Clarke, Stan Brakhage and other filmmakers to distribute avant-garde films.

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Room Film 1973 - Peter Gidal - The Film-Makers’ Cooperative

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“One of the best works that come out of the London school.” –Jonas Mekas, Village Voice, October, 1973 “It is very good; I felt as if my father made it, as if it were made by a blind…

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Room Film 1973 - Information, Clips and Stills | Luxonline

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In Warhol's Thirteen Most Beautiful Women (1965) and Gidal's Heads (1969), which extend the device, the limits are those, classic, of the frame, the fixed or semi-fixed shot, the portrait, the close-up or very close-up, and especially the series; Each prison plane does not end up being dug from within by the strangeness that any encounter with any face causes, this proximity so powerfully affirmed, this over-presence, fronts us back to the experience of the unknown in the self. With ROOM FILM 73 by Gidal, a film that explores an infinite number of rooms and from which all human presence seems absent, we are sent back to another limit, the most decisive, that of the non-visible, the unreadable. Room Film 73 is a very important film because it exhausts the forbidden ways of filming in classical cinema: the blurred, the obscure, the repetitive, the insistent, the moving, the trembling, the chopped... the visual means of working on the unidentifiable in the description form a real experience of the limits: what encloses us most are our perceptive habits, as such Room Film 73 is the general opposite of cinema." Nicole Brenez.

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Images (1) Links (0) Agenda (0) In Warhol's Thirteen Most Beautiful Women (1965) and Gidal's Heads (1969), which extend the device, the limits are those, classic, of the frame, the fixed or semi-fixed shot, the portrait, the close-up or very close-up, and especially the series; Each prison plane does not end up being dug from within by the strangeness that any encounter with any face causes, this proximity so powerfully affirmed, this over-presence, fronts us back to the experience of the unknown in the self.

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Peter Gidal - Condition of Illusion (trailer)

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Zorn's lemma, also known as the Kuratowski-Zorn lemma, is a proposition of set theory. It states that a partially ordered set containing upper bounds for every chain necessarily contains at least one maximal element. The lemma was proved by... Wikipedia

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. Zorn's lemma, also known as the Kuratowski-Zorn lemma, is a proposition of set theory. It states that a partially ordered set containing upper bounds for every chain necessarily contains at least one maximal element. The lemma was proved by...

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Forthcoming

Lange, Christian, Björn Franke, and Sarah Owens, eds. Danke Martin. Zurich: VC Edition, (forthcomming).

2024

Franke, Björn, and Sarah Owens, eds. Seeing, vol. 2. Zurich: VC Edition, 2024.

Franke, Björn. "Falling Upright." In Seeing, vol. 2., ed. Björn Franke, and Sarah Owens. Zurich: VC Edition, 2024.

2023

Franke, Björn, Sarah Owens and Annamaria Vasvari, eds. Seeing, vol. 1. Zurich: VC Edition, 2023.

Franke, Björn, Sarah Owens and Annamaria Vasvari, eds. Hyperimages. Zurich: VC Edition, 2023.

2022

Franke, Björn. "Undesign and Understanding." In Critical by Design? Cultures, Epistemologies, Practices, ed. Claudia Mareis, Michael Renner, and Moritz Greiner-Petter. Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, 2022.

Lange, Christian, Björn Franke, and Sarah Owens, eds. Trainspots. Zurich: VC Edition, 2022.

2020

Franke, Björn and Hansuli Matter, eds. Not at Your Service: Manifestos for Design. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2020.

Franke, Björn. "Introduction." In Not at Your Service: Manifestos for Design, ed. Björn Franke and Hansuli Matter. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2020.

2018

Franke, Björn and Sarah Owens, eds. A Ghost Story for Grown-Ups: 94 Strange Sensations - A Dictionary of the Unseen. Zurich: VC Edition, 2018.

2016

Franke, Björn. "Design as Inquiry: Prospects for a Material Philosophy." PhD diss., Royal College of Art, 2016.

2012

Franke, Björn. "Mind Hygiene." In The Design of the (In)Human, ed. Julia Warmers. Stuttgart: Merz & Solitude, 2013.

2010

Franke, Björn, "Design Fiction is Not Necessarily About the Future." Sixth Swiss Design Network Conference, Negotiating Futures - Design Fiction (2010): 80-90.

Franke, Björn. Violent Machines for Troubled Times. Bad Ems: Künstlerhaus Schloss Balmoral, 2010.

Franke, Björn. Design as Ethical and Moral Inquiry." CEPHAD 2010: The Borderland between Philosophy and Design Research. Copenhagen Working Papers on Design No. 1 (2010): 71-72.

Franke, Björn. "Violent Machines for Troubled Times." In Things Beyond Control: Like Love and Art, ed. Jean-Baptiste Joly, 88-89. Stuttgart: Merz & Solitude, 2010.

2009

Franke, Björn. "Design as a Medium for Inquiry." Fifth Swiss Design Network Symposium, Multiple Ways to Design Research - Research Cases that Reshape the Design Discipline (2009): 225-232.

Franke, Björn. "Traces of an Imaginary Affair." In Fetisch + Konsum/Fetish + Consumption, edited by Jean-Baptiste Joly, Catherine Perret, and Julia Warmers. Stuttgart: Merz & Solitude, 2009.

2005

Franke, Björn. "Apocalyptic Architecture." MA thesis, Royal College of Art, 2005.

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Forthcoming Lange, Christian, Björn Franke, and Sarah Owens, eds. Danke Martin. Zurich: VC Edition, (forthcomming). 2024 Franke, Björn, and Sarah Owens, eds. Seeing, vol. 2. Zurich: VC Edition, 2024. Franke, Björn. "Falling Upright." In Seeing, vol. 2., ed. Björn Franke, and Sarah Owens. Zurich: VC Edition, 2024.

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Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrote a single work, only fragments of which have survived. Most of the ancient stories about him are thought to be later fabrications based on interpretations of the preserved fragments. His paradoxical philosophy and appreciation for wordplay and cryptic, oracular epigrams has earned him the epithets "the dark" and "the obscure" since antiquity. He was considered arrogant and depressed, a misanthrope who was subject to melancholia. Consequently, he became known as "the weeping philosopher" in contrast to the ancient philosopher Democritus, who was known as "the laughing philosopher".

The central idea of Heraclitus' philosophy is the unity of opposites and the concept of change. He also saw harmony and justice in strife. He viewed the world as constantly in flux, always "becoming" but never "being". He expressed this in sayings like panta rhei ("Everything flows") and "No man ever steps in the same river twice". This changing aspect of his philosophy is contrasted with that of the ancient philosopher Parmenides, who believed in " being" and in the static nature of reality.

Like the Milesians before him - Thales with water, Anaximander with , and Anaximenes with air - Heraclitus chose fire as the , the fundamental element that gave rise to the other elements. He also saw the as giving structure to the world.

Theater in Ephesus on the coast of Asia Minor, birthplace of Heraclitus

Heraclitus, the son of Blyson, was from the Ionian city of Ephesus, a port on the Kayster River, on the western coast of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). In the 6th century BC, Ephesus, like other cities in Ionia, lived under the effects of both the rise of Lydia under Croesus and his overthrow by Cyrus the Great c. 547 BC. Ephesus appears to have subsequently cultivated a close relationship with the Persian Empire; during the suppression of the Ionian revolt by Darius the Great in 494 BC, Ephesus was spared and emerged as the dominant Greek city in Ionia. Miletus, the home to the previous philosophers, was sacked and captured.

The main source for the life of Heraclitus is the doxographer Diogenes Laërtius. Although most of the information provided by Laertius is unreliable, the anecdote that Heraclitus relinquished the hereditary title of "king" to his younger brother may at least imply that Heraclitus was from an aristocratic family in Ephesus. Heraclitus appears to have had little sympathy for democracy or the masses. However, it is unclear whether he was "an unconditional partisan of the rich," or if, like the sage Solon, he was "withdrawn from competing factions".

Since antiquity, Heraclitus has been labeled an arrogant misanthrope. The skeptic Timon of Phlius called Heraclitus a "mob-abuser" ( ochloloidoros). Heraclitus considered himself self-taught. He did not consider others incapable, but unwilling: "And though reason is common, most people live as though they had an understanding peculiar to themselves." Heraclitus did not seem to like the prevailing religion of the time, criticizing the popular mystery cults. He also criticized Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, and Hecataeus. He endorsed the sage Bias of Priene, who is quoted as saying "Most men are bad". He praised one Hermodorus as the best among the Ephesians, who he says should all kill themselves for exiling him.

Heraclitus is traditionally considered to have flourished in the 69th Olympiad (504-501 BC), but this date may simply be based on a prior account synchronizing his life with the reign of Darius the Great. However, this date can be considered "roughly accurate" based on a fragment that references Pythagoras, Xenophanes, and Hecataeus as older contemporaries, placing him near the end of the sixth century BC.

According to Diogenes Laertius, Heraclitus died covered in dung after failing to cure himself from dropsy. This may be to parody his doctrine that for souls it is death to become water, and that a dry soul is best.

Heraclitus is said to have produced a single work on papyrus, which has not survived; however, over 100 fragments of this work survive in quotations by other authors. The title is unknown, but many later writers refer to this work, and works by other pre-Socratics, as On Nature.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Heraclitus deposited the book in the Artemision - one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World - as a dedication. Classicist Charles Kahn states: "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Yet, by the time of Simplicius of Cilicia, a 6th century neoplatonic philosopher, who mentions Heraclitus 32 times but never quotes from him, Heraclitus' work was so rare that it was unavailable even to Simplicius and the other scholars at the Platonic Academy in Athens.

Diogenes Laertius wrote that the book was divided into three parts: the universe, politics, and theology, but, classicists have challenged that division. John Burnet has argued that "it is not to be supposed that this division is due to [Heraclitus] himself; all we can infer is that the work fell naturally into these parts when the Stoic commentators took their editions of it in hand". The Stoics divided their own philosophy into three parts: ethics, logic, and physics. Philologist Karl Deichgräber has argued that the Stoic Cleanthes divided philosophy into dialectics, rhetoric, ethics, politics, physics, and theology, with the last three the same as the alleged division of Heraclitus. The philosopher Paul Schuster has argued that the division came from the .

Scholar Martin Litchfield West claims that while the existing fragments do not give much of an idea of the overall structure, the beginning of the discourse can probably be determined, starting with the opening lines, which are quoted by Sextus Empiricus:

Of the logos being forever do men prove to be uncomprehending, both before they hear and once they have heard it. For although all things happen according to this Word they are like the unexperienced experiencing words and deeds such as I explain when I distinguish each thing according to its nature and declare how it is. Other men are unaware of what they do when they are awake just as they are forgetful of what they do when they are asleep.

Heraclitus's style has been compared to a Sibyl, who "with raving lips uttering things mirthless, unbedizened, and unperfumed, reaches over a thousand years with her voice, thanks to the god in her". Kahn characterized the main features of Heraclitus's writing as "linguistic density", meaning that single words and phrases have multiple meanings, and "resonance", meaning that expressions evoke one another. Heraclitus used literary devices like alliteration and chiasmus. Aristotle quotes part of the opening line in the to outline the difficulty in punctuating Heraclitus without ambiguity; he debated whether "forever" applied to "being" or to "prove". Theophrastus says that "some parts of his work [are] half-finished, while other parts [made] a strange medley". Theophrastus thought an inability to finish the work showed Heraclitus was melancholic.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Timon of Phlius called Heraclitus "the Riddler" (; ainiktēs) a likely reference to an alleged similarity to Pythagorean riddles. Timon said Heraclitus wrote his book "rather unclearly" ( asaphesteron); according to Timon, this was intended to allow only the "capable" to attempt it. By the time of Cicero, this epithet became "The Dark" (ὁ Σκοτεινός ; ho Skoteinós) or "The Obscure" as he had spoken nimis obscurē ("too obscurely") concerning nature and had done so deliberately in order to be misunderstood.

Heraclitus has been the subject of numerous interpretations. According to the entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Heraclitus has been seen as a " material monist or a process philosopher; a scientific cosmologist, a metaphysician and a religious thinker; an empiricist, a rationalist, a mystic; a conventional thinker and a revolutionary; a developer of logic - one who denied the law of non-contradiction; the first genuine philosopher and an anti-intellectual obscurantist".

The hallmarks of Heraclitus' philosophy are the unity of opposites and change, or flux. Diogenes Laërtius summarizes Heraclitus's philosophy as follows: "All things come into being by conflict of opposites, and the sum of things ( ta hola ('the whole')) flows like a stream." According to Aristotle, Heraclitus was a dialetheist, or one who denies the law of noncontradiction.

Several fragments seem to relate to these two concepts. For example, on the unity of opposites: "The straight and the crooked path of the fuller's comb is one and the same"; "The way up is the way down"; "Beginning and end, on a circle's circumference, are common"; and "Thou shouldst unite things whole and things not whole, that which tends to unite and that which tends to separate, the harmonious and the discordant; from all things arises the one, and from the one all things."

Over time, the opposites change into each other: "Mortals are immortals and immortals are mortals, the one living the others' death and dying the others' life"; "As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old. For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these"; and "Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet."

It also seems they change into each other depending on one's point of view, a case of relativism or perspectivism. Heraclitus states: "Disease makes health sweet and good; hunger, satiety; toil, rest." While men drink and wash with water, fish prefer to drink saltwater, pigs prefer to wash in mud, and fowls prefer to wash in dust. " Oxen are happy when they find bitter vetches to eat" and " asses would rather have refuse than gold."

Jonathan Barnes states that "Panta rhei, 'everything flows' is probably the most familiar of Heraclitus' sayings, yet few modern scholars think he said it". Barnes observes that although the exact phrase was not ascribed to Heraclitus until the 6th century by Simplicius, a similar saying expressing the same idea, panta chorei, or "everything moves" is ascribed to Heraclitus by Plato in the .

Since Plato, Heraclitus's theory of flux has been associated with the metaphor of a flowing river, which cannot be stepped into twice. This fragment from Heraclitus's writings has survived in three different forms:

"On those who step into the same rivers, different and different waters flow" - Arius Didymus, quoted in Stobaeus
"We both step and do not step into the same, we both are and are not" - Heraclitus Homericus, Homeric Allegories
"It is not possible to step into the same river twice" - Plutarch, On the E at Delphi

Heraclitus illustrated the same point using the Sun: "the Sun is new each day." The river fragments (especially the second "we both are and are not") seem to suggest not only is the river constantly changing, but we do as well, perhaps commenting on existential questions about humanity and personhood.

The classicist Karl Reinhardt identified the first river quote as the genuine one. Scholars such as Reinhardt also interpreted the metaphor as illustrating what is stable, rather than the usual interpretation of illustrating change. Classicist Karl-Martin Dietz has said: "You will not find anything, in which the river remains constant ... Just the fact, that there is a particular river bed, that there is a source and an estuary etc. is something, that stays identical. And this is ... the concept of a river."

Attempting to follow Aristotle, Guthrie interprets flux versus stability as a question of matter versus form. Thus, Heraclitus is a flux theorist because he is a materialist. Since there are no unchanging forms like Plato, but only the material world, then everything changes. According to American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, the river parable illustrates that the river is a process through time. One cannot step twice into the same river-stage.

Professor M. M. McCabe has argued that the three statements on rivers should all be read as fragments from a discourse. McCabe suggests reading them as though they arose in succession. The three fragments "could be retained, and arranged in an argumentative sequence". In McCabe's reading of the fragments, Heraclitus can be read as a philosopher capable of sustained argument, rather than just aphorism.

Dike depicted on the Vermont state house. Heraclitus considered strife fundamental to a just world.

Heraclitus said "strife is justice" and "all things take place by strife". He called the opposites in conflict ( eris), " strife", and theorized that the apparently unitary state, ( dikê), " justice", results in "the most beautiful harmony", in contrast to Anaximander, who described the same as injustice.

Aristotle said Heraclitus disagreed with Homer because Homer wished that strife would leave the world, which according to Heraclitus would destroy the world; "there would be no harmony without high and low notes, and no animals without male and female, which are opposites". It may also explain why he disagreed with the Pythagorean emphasis on harmony, but not on strife.

Heraclitus suggests that the world and its various parts are kept together through the tension produced by the unity of opposites, like the string of a bow or a lyre. On one account, this is the earliest use of the concept of force. A quote about the bow shows his appreciation for wordplay: "The bow's name is life, but its work is death." Each substance contains its opposite, making for a continual circular exchange of generation, destruction, and motion that results in the stability of the world. This can be illustrated by the quote "Even the barley-drink separates if it is not stirred."

According to Abraham Schoener: "War is the central principle in Heraclitus' thought." Another of Heraclitus' famous sayings highlights the idea that the unity of opposites is also a conflict of opposites: "War is father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free"; war is a creative tension that brings things into existence. Heraclitus says further "Gods and men honour those slain in war"; "Greater deaths gain greater portions"; and "Every beast is tended by blows."

Heraclitus may also have been the first advocate of natural law: "People ought to fight to keep their law as to defend the city walls. For all human laws get nourishment from the one divine law."

Heraclitus (named outlined in red) in a fragment of Oxyrhynchus Papyri discusses the Moon.

While considered an ancient cosmologist, Heraclitus did not seem as interested in astronomy, meteorology, or mathematics as his predecessors. It is surmised Heraclitus believed that the earth was flat and extended infinitely in all directions. He also believed that the Sun is as large as it looks, and that if it "exceeds the due times of the year" ( the seasons), then " Erinyes, the ministers of Justice, will find him out". On one account, he believed the Sun and Moon were bowls containing fire, with lunar phases explained by the turning of the bowl. His study of the moon near the end of the month is contained in one of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the best evidence of Heraclitean astronomy.

Like the Milesians before him - Thales with water, Anaximander with apeiron, and Anaximenes with air - Aristotle concluded that Heraclitus believed that fire was the arche, the fundamental element that gave rise to the other elements. Pre-Socratic scholar Eduard Zeller has argued that Heraclitus believed that heat in general and dry exhalation in particular, rather than visible fire, was the arche.

In one fragment, Heraclitus writes:

" This world-order [Kosmos], the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: ever-living fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures."

This is the oldest extant quote using kosmos, or order, to mean the world. Fire is the one thing eternal in the universe. From fire all things originate and all things return again in a process of never-ending cycles. He describes the transformations:

" Fire lives the death of earth, and air lives the death of fire; water lives the death of air, and earth that of water." and " The turnings of fire: first sea, and of sea half is earth, half fireburst. [Earth] is liquefied as sea and measured into the same proportion as it had before it became earth."

On one interpretation, rejecting both the flux and stability interpretation, Heraclitus is not a material monist, but a revolutionary process philosopher who chooses fire in an attempt to say there is no arche. Fire is a symbol or metaphor for change, rather than the basic stuff which changes the most. Perspectives of this sort emphasize his statements on change such as "The way up is the way down", as well as the quote "All things are an exchange for Fire, and Fire for all things, even as wares for gold and gold for wares", which has been understood as stating that while all can be transformed into fire, not everything comes from fire, just as not everything comes from gold.

Heraclitus' description of a doctrine of purification of fire has also been investigated for influence from the Zoroastrian concept of . Many of the doctrines of Zoroastrian fire do not match exactly with those of Heraclitus, such as the relation of fire to earth, but he may have taken some inspiration from them. Zoroastrian parallels to Heraclitus are often difficult to identify specifically due to a lack of surviving Zoroastrian literature from the period and mutual influence with Greek philosophy.

The interchange of other elements with fire also has parallels in Vedic literature from the same time period, such as the Kaushitaki Upanishad and Taittiriya Upanishad. West stresses that these doctrines of the interchange of elements were common throughout written works on philosophy that have survived from that period, so Heraclitus' doctrine of fire can not be definitively be said to have been influenced by any other particular Iranian or Indian influence, but may have been part of a mutual interchange of influence over time across the Ancient Near East.

Philosopher Gustav Teichmüller sought to prove Heraclitus was influenced by the Egyptians, either directly, by reading the Book of the Dead, or indirectly through the Greek mystery cults. "As the sun of Heraclitus was daily generated from water, so Horus, as Ra of the sun, daily proceeded from Lotus the water." Paul Tannery took up Teichmüller's interpretation. They thought Heraclitus's book was an offering rather than deposited, and only for initiates. Edmund Pfleiderer argued that Heraclitus was influenced by the mystery cults. He interprets Heraclitus seeming condemning of the mysteries as the condemning of abuses rather than the idea itself.[clarification needed ]

Zeus hurls a thunderbolt.

Heraclitus said that the " thunderbolt steers all things", a rare comment on meteorology and likely a reference to Zeus as the supreme being. "Wisdom is one thing: [to understand the intelligence by which all things are steered through all things]; it is willing and it is unwilling to be called by the name Zeus." He invokes relativism with the divine too: God sees man the same way man sees children and apes; and he seems to give a theodicy, "for god all things are fair and good and just, but men suppose that some are unjust and others just".

Heraclitus regarded the soul ( psyche) as a mixture of fire and water, and believed that fire was the noble part of the soul and water the ignoble part. He considered mastery of one's worldly desires to be a noble pursuit that purified the soul's fire, while drunkenness damages the soul by causing it to be moist.

Heraclitus also compares the soul to a spider and the body to the web. Heraclitus believed the soul is also what unifies the body and grants linguistic understanding, departing from Homer's conception of it as merely the breath of life. Heraclitus ridicules Homer's conception of the soul leaving the body out of the nose to become a shade by saying "Souls smell in Hades" and "If all things should become smoke, then perception would be by the nostrils". His own views on the afterlife remain unclear, but he did state: "There await men after they are dead things which they do not expect or imagine."

An Eternal flame from a Zoroastrian fire temple in Yazd, Iran. The role of fire in Heraclitean philosophy has been compared with fire worship in Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Achaemenid Empire during Heraclitus' life.

Greek spelling of logos

A fundamental concept for Heraclitus is , an ancient Greek word literally meaning "word, speech, discourse, or meaning", but with a wide variety of other uses, such that Heraclitus might have a different meaning of the word for each usage in his book. Kahn has argued that Heraclitus used the word in multiple senses, whereas Guthrie has argued that there is no evidence Heraclitus used it in a way that was significantly different from that in which it was used by contemporaneous speakers of Greek.

For Heraclitus, the logos provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure. Logos was like a universal law that unites the cosmos, according to one fragment: "Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one." Another fragment reads: "[ hoi polloi] ... do not know how to listen [to Logos] or how to speak [the truth]."

Professor Michael Stokes interprets Heraclitus' use of logos as a public fact like a proposition or formula; like Guthrie, he views Heraclitus as a materialist, and he grants Heraclitus would not have considered these as abstract objects or immaterial things. Another possibility is the logos referred to the truth or the book itself. Classicist Walther Kranz translated it as " sense".

The phrase Ethos anthropoi daimon ("man's character is [his] fate"), attributed to Heraclitus, has led to numerous interpretations, and might mean one's luck is related to one's character. The translation of daimon in this context to mean "fate" is disputed. Another translation on offer is supported by Charles Kahn and Philip Wheelwright: "a man's character is his guardian divinity." Rather than being followed around by a guardian angel, one's character is his fate.

Heraclitus said "Time () is a child playing draughts, the kingly power is a child's." It is disputed whether this means time and life is determined by rules like a game, by conflict like a game, or by arbitrary whims of the gods like a child plays.

Heraclitus' writings have exerted a wide influence on Western philosophy, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, who interpreted him in terms of their own doctrines. Heraclitus is also considered a potential source for understanding the Ancient Greek religion since the discovery of the Derveni papyrus. His influence also extends into art, literature, and medicine, as writings in the Hippocratic corpus show signs of Heraclitean themes.

It is unknown whether or not Heraclitus had any students in his lifetime. In his dialogue , Plato presented Cratylus as a Heraclitean and as a linguistic naturalist who believed that names must apply naturally to their objects. According to Aristotle, Cratylus went a step beyond his master's doctrine and said that one cannot step into the same river once. He took the view that nothing can be said about the ever-changing world and "ended by thinking that one need not say anything, and only moved his finger". To explain both characterizations by Plato and Aristotle, Cratylus may have thought continuous change warrants skepticism because one cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature. Diogenes Laertius lists an otherwise historically obscure Antisthenes who wrote a commentary on Heraclitus. According to one author, "there were no doubt other Heracliteans whose names are now lost to us".

Parmenides of Elea, a philosopher and near-contemporary, proposed a doctrine of changelessness, in contrast to the doctrine of flux put forth by Heraclitus. He is generally agreed to either have influenced or been influenced by Heraclitus. Different philosophers have argued that either one of them may have substantially influenced each other, some taking Heraclitus to be responding to Parmenides, but more often Parmenides is seen as responding to Heraclitus. Some also argue that any direct chain of influence between the two is impossible to determine. Although Heraclitus refers to older figures such as Pythagoras, neither Parmenides or Heraclitus refer to each other by name in any surviving fragments, so any speculation on influence must be based on interpretation.

The surviving fragments of several other pre-Socratic philosophers show Heraclitean themes. Diogenes of Apollonia thought the action of one thing on another meant they were made of one substance. The pluralists may have been influenced by Heraclitus. The philosopher Anaxagoras refuses to separate the opposites in the "one cosmos". Empedocles has forces (arguably the first since Heraclitus's tension) which are in opposition, known as Love and Hate, or more accurately, Harmony and Strife. Democritus and the atomists were also influenced by Heraclitus. The atomists and Heraclitus both believed that everything was in motion. On one interpretation: "Essentially what the atomists did was try to find a middle-way between the contradictory philosophical schemes of Heraclitus and Parmenides."

The sophists, inclusing as Protagoras of Abdera and Gorgias of Leontini, may also have been influenced by Heraclitus. One tradition associated their concern with politics and preventing party strife with Heraclitus. Gorgias seems to have been influenced by the Heraclitean idea of the logos, when he argued in his work On Non-Being, possibly parodying the Eleatics, that being cannot exist or be communicated. According to one author, Gorgias "in a sense ... completes Heraclitus."

Plato knew of the teachings of Heraclitus through the Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus. Plato held that for Heraclitus knowledge is made impossible by the flux of sensible objects, and thus the need for the imperceptible Forms as objects of knowledge. Aristotle accused Heraclitus of denying the law of noncontradiction, and that he thereby failed in his reasoning. However, Aristotle's material monist and world conflagration interpretation of Heraclitus also influenced the Stoics.

The Stoic Cleanthes wrote a lost, four-volume Interpretation of Heraclitus. (1605 engraving)

The Stoics believed major tenets of their philosophy derived from the thought of Heraclitus; especially the logos, used to support their belief that rational law governs the universe. A four-volume work titled Interpretation of Heraclitus was written by the Stoic philosopher Cleanthes, but has not survived. In surviving stoic writings, this is most evident in the writings of Marcus Aurelius. According to one author, "Heraclitus of Ephesus was the father of Stoic physics." Many of the later Stoics interpreted the logos as the arche, as a creative fire that ran through all things; Marcus Aurelius understood the Logos as "the account which governs everything." Heraclitus also states, "We should not act and speak like children of our parents", which Marcus Aurelius interpreted to mean one should not simply accept what others believe. West observes that Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Sextus Empiricus all make no mention of this doctrine, and concludes that the language and thought are "obviously Stoic" and not attributable to Heraclitus. Long concludes the earliest Stoic fragments are also "modifications of Heraclitus". Burnet cautions that these Stoic modifications of Heraclitus make it harder to interpret Heraclitus himself, as the Stoics ascribed their own interpretations of terms like logos and ekpyrosis to Heraclitus.

Coin from c. 230 CE depicting Heraclitus as a Cynic, with club and raised hand.

The Cynics were influenced by Heraclitus, such as by his condemnation of the mystery cults. The Cynics attributed several of the later Cynic epistles to his authorship. Heraclitus wrote: "Dogs bark at every one they do not know." Similarly, Diogenes the Cynic, when asked by Alexander why he considered himself a dog, responded that he "barks at those who give me nothing".

The Pyrrhonists were influenced by Heraclitus. He may be the predecessor to Pyrrho's doctrine "No More This than That". Aenesidemus, one of the major ancient Pyrrhonist philosophers, claimed in a now-lost work that Pyrrhonism was a way to Heraclitean philosophy because Pyrrhonist practice helps one to see how opposites appear to be the case about the same thing. Once one sees this, it leads to understanding the Heraclitean view of opposites being the case about the same thing. A later Pyrrhonist philosopher, Sextus Empiricus, disagreed, arguing opposites appearing to be the case about the same thing is not a dogma of the Pyrrhonists but a matter occurring to the Pyrrhonists, to the other philosophers, and to all of humanity.

Heraclitus was often read by early Christian philosophers, who following the Stoics, interpreted the logos as meaning the Christian "Word of God", such as in John 1:1: "In the beginning was the Word ( logos) and the Word was God." Hippolytus of Rome, one of the early Church Fathers of the Christian Church, identified Heraclitus along with the other Pre-Socratics and Academics as a source of heresy, in Heraclitus's case namely the heresy of Noetus. The Christian apologist Justin Martyr took a more positive view of Heraclitus. In his First Apology, he said both Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians before Christ: "those who lived reasonably are Christians, even though they have been thought atheists; as, among the Greeks, Socrates and Heraclitus, and men like them."Modern scholars such as John Burnet have viewed the relationship between Heraclitean logos and Johannine logos as fallacious, saying; "the Johannine doctrine of the logos has nothing to do with Herakleitos or with anything at all in Greek philosophy, but comes from the Hebrew Wisdom literature". When Heraclitus speaks of "God" he does not mean a single deity as an omnipotent and omniscient or God as Creator, the universe being eternal; he meant the divine as opposed to human, the immortal as opposed to the mortal, and the cyclical as opposed to the transient. Thus, it is arguably more accurate to speak of "the Divine" and not of "God".

Heraclitus's influence also extends outside of philosophy. A motif found in art and literature is Heraclitus as the "weeping philosopher" and Democritus as the "laughing philosopher," which may have originated with the Cynic philosopher Menippus, generally references their reactions to the folly of mankind.

For example, in Lucian of Samosata's "Philosophies for Sale", Heraclitus is auctioned off as the "weeping philosopher" and Democritus as the "laughing philosopher." The Roman poet Juvenal wrote: "Heraclitus, weep at life much more than you did while alive, for now life is more pitiable."

Heraclitus also appears in painter Raphael's School of Athens, in which he is represented by Michelangelo, since they shared a "sour temper and bitter scorn for all rivals".

Modern interest in early Greek philosophy can be traced back to 1573, when French printer Henri Estienne (also known as Henricus Stephanus) collected a number of pre-Socratic fragments, including those of Heraclitus, and published them in Latin in Poesis philosophica. Renaissance skeptic Michel de Montaigne's essay On Democritus and Heraclitus, in which he sided with the laughing philosopher over the weeping philosopher, was probably written soon after. The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare features the melancholic character of Antonio, who some critics contend is modeled after Heraclitus. Additionally, in one scene of the play Portia assesses her potential suitors, and says of one County Palatine: "I fear he will prove the weeping philosopher when he grows old".

According to Bernard Freyberg, "both Parmenides and Heraclitus are direct if distant ancestors of Spinoza", since they both said all is one. David Hume wrote while discussing personal identity: "Thus as the nature of a river consists in the motion and change of parts; tho' in less than four and twenty hours these be totally alter'd; this hinders not the river from continuing the same during several ages."

Since Kant, philosophers have sometimes been divided into rationalists and empiricists. Heraclitus has been considered each by different scholars. For rationalism, philosophers cite fragments like "Poor witnesses for men are the eyes and ears of those who have barbarian souls." For empiricism, they cite fragments like "The things that can be seen, heard, and learned are what I prize the most." Gottlob Mayer has argued that the philosophical pessimism of Arthur Schopenhauer recapitulated the thought of Heraclitus.

The German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher was one of the first to collect the fragments of Heraclitus specifically and write them out in his native tongue, the "pioneer of Heraclitean studies". Schleiermacher was also one of the first to posit Persian influence upon Heraclitus, a question taken up by succeeding scholars Friedrich Creuzer and August Gladisch.

Heraclitus painted as the weeping philosopher by Johannes Moreelse c. 1630

The influence of Heraclitus on German idealist G. W. F. Hegel was so profound that he remarked in his Lectures on the History of Philosophy: "there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in my Logic." Hegel interpreted Heraclitus as a dialetheist and as a process philosopher, seeing the "becoming" in Heraclitus as a natural result of the ontology of "being" and "non-being" in Parmenides. He also doubted the world-conflagaration interpretation, which had been popular since Aristotle. The Young Hegelian and socialist Ferdinand Lassalle wrote a book on Heraclitus. "Lassalle follows Hegel in styling the doctrine of Heraclitus 'the philosophy of the logical law of the identity of contradictories.'" Lassalle also thought Persian theology influenced Heraclitus. Marx compared Lasalle's work to that of "a schoolboy" and Lenin accused him of "sheer plagiarism".

Classical philologist Jakob Bernays also wrote a work on Heraclitus. Inspired by Bernays, the English scholar Ingram Bywater collected all fragments of Heraclitus in a critical edition, Heracliti Ephesii Reliquiae (1877). An English translation was provided by G. T. W. Patrick in 1889. Hermann Diels wrote "Bywater's book has come to be accounted ... as the only reliable collection of the remains of that philosopher." Diels published the first edition of the authoritative Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker ( The Fragments of the Pre-Socratics) in 1903, later revised and expanded three times, and finally revised in two subsequent editions by Walther Kranz. Diels-Kranz is used in academia to cite pre-Socratic philosophers. In Diels-Kranz, each ancient personality and each passage is assigned a number to uniquely identify it; Heraclitus is traditionally catalogued as philosopher number 22.

The existentialist and classical philologist Friedrich Nietzsche preferred Heraclitus above all the other pre-Socratics. The nationalist philosopher of history Oswald Spengler wrote his (failed) dissertation on Heraclitus. Existentialist and phenomenologist Martin Heidegger was also influenced by Heraclitus, as seen in his Introduction to Metaphysics. Heidegger believed that the thinking of Heraclitus and Parmenides was the origin of philosophy and misunderstood by Plato and Aristotle, leading all of Western philosophy astray.

The Irish author Oscar Wilde was influenced by Heraclitus. Wilde is credited with the saying " expect the unexpected", though Heraclitus said "If you do not expect the unexpected, you will not find it; for it is hard to be sought out and difficult."

In the 1950s, a term originating with Heraclitus, "idios kosmos," meaning "private world" as distinguished from the "common world" ( koinos kosmos) was adopted by phenomenological and existential psychologists, such as Ludwig Binswanger and Rollo May, to refer to the experience of people with delusions, or other problems, who have trouble seeing beyond the limits of their own minds, or who confuse this private world with shared reality. It was an important part of novelist Philip K. Dick's views on schizophrenia. Those thinkers have relied on Heraclitus statement that "The waking have one common world, but the sleeping turn aside each into a world of his own."

Presentism is seen as a Heraclitean view.

The British idealist J. M. E. McTaggart is best known for his paper " The Unreality of Time" (1908), in which he argues that time is unreal. His " A series", also known as presentism or "temporal becoming", which conceptualizes of time as tensed ( i.e., having the properties of being past, present, or future), has been described as Heraclitean. By contrast, his " " B-theory", under which time is tenseless ( i.e., earlier than, simultaneous to, or later than), has been associated with Parmenides

The British philosopher A. N. Whitehead has been called a process philosopher in the tradition of Heraclitus. In Bertrand Russell's essay Mysticism and Logic, he contends Heraclitus proves himself a metaphysician by his blending of mystical and scientific impulses. Ludwig Wittgenstein was known to read Plato and in his return to philosophy in 1929 he made several remarks resembling those of Heraclitus: "The fundamental thing expressed grammatically: What about the sentence: One cannot step into the same river twice?" He then seemed to make a dramatic shift by 1931, saying one can step twice into the same river. The philosopher Peter Geach was inspired by Heraclitus's comments on the river to formulate his idea of relative identity, which he also used to solve such issues as the Trinity.

Recent approaches in logic, such as paraconsistent logic, have led to some philosophers advancing logical pluralism and dialetheism, such as Graham Priest and JC Beall. Priest agrees with Hegel's contradictory account of motion, based on Zeno of Elea 's Paradox of the Arrow, which is arguably Heraclitus' account of flux. On this account of motion, to move is to be both here and not here.

1. ^ It may also be an unwarranted interpretation of the fragment from Heraclitus stating "the kingdom is a child's".

2. ^ Two alleged letters between Heraclitus and Darius, quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, are later forgeries.

3. ^ Some classicists and professors of ancient philosophy have disputed which of these fragments can truly be attributed to Heraclitus.

4. ^ West suggests that the beginning may be tentatively ordered as follows: B1; B114; B2; B89; B30; B31; B90; B60

5. ^ Biós with the accent on the O, is the Greek for "bow". Bίοs with the accent on the I, is the Greek for "life."

6. The 9th century CE ^ Dadestan i Denig preserves information on Zoroastrian cosmology, but also shows direct borrowings from Aristotle.

This article uses the Diels-Kranz numbering system for testimony (labeled A), fragments (labeled B), and imitation (labeled C) of Pre-Socratic philosophy.

C1. Hippocrates (1931). On Regimen. Hippocrates Collected Works. Vol. IV. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

C2. Hippocrates (1923). On Nutrition. Hippocrates Collected Works. Vol. I. Translated by W. H. S. Jones. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

C5. Lucian (1905). Philosophies for Sale. The works of Lucian of Samosata. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowler, H. W.; Fowler, F. G.

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Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrote a single work, only fragments of which have survived. Most of the ancient stories about him are thought to be later fabrications based on interpretations of the preserved fragments. His paradoxical philosophy and appreciation for wordplay and cryptic, oracular epigrams has earned him the epithets "the dark" and "the obscure" since antiquity.

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During the “Visual Culture” seminar the MA Visual Communication students explored the concept of hyper in relation to current visual phenomena: the excessive, heightened, multidimensional nature of how images are often produced, consumed or displayed today. Through discussions, readings, museum visits and visual analysis around the idea of the hyperimages, we aimed essentially at touching some of the following questions: can we see something anew about the relationship between us and the visual, between the visual and reality, between reality and us?

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In exhibitions, illustrated art books, and classrooms, artworks or their photographic reproductions are arranged as calculated ensembles that have their own importance. In this volume, Felix Thürlemann develops a theory of this type of image use, arguing that with each new gathering of images, an art object is reinterpreted. These hyperimages have played a major role in the history of art since the seventeenth century, and the main actors of the art world are all hyperimage creators. In part because the hyperimage is not permanently available, this interplay of images has been largely unexplored.

Through case studies organized within three groups of producers-collectors and curators, art historians, and artists-Thürlemann proposes a theory of the hyperimage, explores the semiotic nature of this plural image use, and discusses the arrangement and interpretation of such pictures in order to illuminate the phenomenon of Western image culture from the beginning of the seventeenth century until today. His analysis of the ways in which images are assembled and associated provides a crucial context for the explosive present-day deployment of images on digital devices.

Felix Thürlemann is professor of art history at the University of Konstanz."From triumphal arch to triptych to collector's cabinet to Bilderatlas, Felix Thürlemann's survey of multiple image displays provides an authoritative introduction to a central question in art history: how have collectors, curators, artists, and art historians deployed the array of multiple images to generate meaning? Rich in examples and sensitive to the different potentials of spectatorial experience, this book provides an excellent foundation for further exploration in the way images gather in constellations of genres, styles, and canons of value."

-W. J. T. Mitchell, author of Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology and What Do Pictures Want? The Lives and Loves of Images

240 pages
6 1/4 x 9 1/4 inches
11 color and 96 b/w illustrations
ISBN 978-1-60606-625-6
paperback

Getty Publications
Imprint: Getty Research Institute

2019

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More than One Picture: An Art History of the Hyperimage

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Felix Thürlemann In exhibitions, illustrated art books, and classrooms, artworks or their photographic reproductions are arranged as calculated ensembles that have their own importance. In this volume, Felix Thürlemann develops a theory of this type of image use, arguing that with each new gathering of images, an art object is reinterpreted.

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"Once or twice [Alice] had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?' "
-Lewis Carroll,Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

On this website, I have dedicated a lot of space and time to the question of how the different illustrations of Alice can affect our experience with the text. It is my hope that readers of this site will come to realize just how different John Tenniel's Wonderland is from Ralph Steadman's, or Helen Oxenbury's, or Arthur Rackham's, or Camille Rose Garcia's, etc., and how their different visions of wonderland can invade and shape our own. For, although when scholars or readers use the term "the text" they most often mean only the words, I would argue that in many cases, and especially in the case of Alice, "the text" is a much more complex entity, that must include not only Tenniel's or Carroll's, but any illustration.

Illustrations: Just for Children?

Print culture, for the majority of the twentieth-century, was biased against illustrations, in favor of words. The rise of graphic novel and electronic literature has begun to change this in the twenty-first, but for nearly a century, illustrations belonged firmly in the domain of children's literature. Illustrations, the argument goes, were more important for children, since they could not appreciate fully or understand the beauty of the words alone. Adults did not need pictures to be engaged by a text. Thus a hierarchy emerged with text (i.e. the words), as the complex domain of adults, placed firmly above illustrations, the simple stimulus for children.
And though today we might still hold tight to this notion, the 19th century had a much greater affinity for illustrations in all kinds of books. The "widely-shared hunger for visual stimulation," as Richard Maxwell calls it, was satisfied in books, by illustrations that were often quite as, if not more, revered than the text that accompanied them ( xxv). More than this, illustrations were regarded as a "crucial component of the institution of literature" because of their powerful ability to shape a reader's experience with literature ( Maxwell, xxv). And there can be hardly any doubt that if Alice's Adventures in Wonderland had been published without illustrations, reading it would be a very different experience.

Alice Illustrators

The first illustrator, of course, was Lewis Carroll himself, which as Haskell points out "makes this case of image-text inquiry a particularly intriguing one" (66). It is easy, regarding his original Alice's Adventures Underground, to argue that the illustrations are part of the "Text." After all, as Alice says, "what is the use of a book without pictures?" After Carroll came John Tenniel in the first printed edition, whose portrayal of Wonderland and of such memorable characters as the Mock Turtle, the Queen of Hearts, and the Mad Hatter profoundly impacted the imaginations of the succeeding generations. These images "reigned, almost unquestioned, in the collective imagination of two generations" until the copyright expired, and then were followed by wave after wave of illustrators, over two hundred as of 2005, trying to revisualize Wonderland ( Haskell 66). And the unique position of Alice, being regarded both as "children's" and "classic" literature, has inspired many of the worlds greatest artists, such as Salvador Dali, Arthur Rackham and Ralph Steadman, to participate in the "Aliceomania" ( 65). Each illustrator interacts with the Carroll's words, making choices not only about how to draw the well-known characters, but also about what to represent visually and what to leave out. The question we must face, then is whether or not these images actually become the "text."

Illustrations as Text

In simple terms, there are two ways to approach the question of image and "text": you could either say that illustrations are an artist's response to the words of the text, important but not necessary, or you could argue that there is no dichotomy between image and text, and that illustrations and words work in tandem to create "The Text." The second view, though perhaps widely accepted in cases where the author and illustrator of a work collaborate, is perhaps the less popular view due to the word bias of the twentieth century. However, illustrators in 19th century were more open to this idea. Nicholas Frankel describes the Victorian illustrator Aubrey Beardsley's this way:

In Beardsley's view, the literary text is not something immaterial and timeless that magically escapes its medium. Rather, Beardsley holds the literary text to be a fabricated thing, like a piece of cloth or porcelain, its texture heightened and accentuated by what the illustrator does to it. ( 263)

Beardsley would argue that an illustrated book, like Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, is a "composite form" with the words and illustrations continually giving meaning to each other and to the "text" ( 263). Indeed, the idea that Alice is such a composite form is strongly supported by the fact that Carroll made his own illustrations to accompany the text in the manuscript. And later illustrations also show the inseparability of word and image. For example, consider the way that Tenniel and Alison Jay arrange their illustrations of the Cheshire Cat:

Both of these pages demonstrate the "composite" nature of an illustrated book. In both cases the illustrations "wrap" around the words, interacting and intertwining with them, making them difficult to separate. And indeed, if either the illustrations or text were to be removed the "pagescape" (i.e. the spaces of the page as they are physically laid out) would definitely look incomplete and strange, affecting our experience of reading the text.

Illustrations as Response to Text

However, there is also a strong argument to be made that illustrations are a response to the words of a text, especially in cases where the illustrator is not (nor works with) the author. In those cases the illustrator interacts with the words, envisioning his or her own images of the fictional wo rld, then displaying those images in drawings presented next to the text. Those images may (and often do) affect our response of the text, but in the end they are in themselves a "reader response" and therefore must not be conflated with the "Text." John Vernon Lord, one of the Alice illustrators, is very aware of this separation. He wrote in his preface to Alice, "There is always the problem that illustrators may skew a reader's own imaginative world." Note that he calls this a "problem." It seems that, to him, in an ideal world the reader could come to the words with a completely blank slate to create his or her own "imaginative world" taking or leaving the illustrations. He presents his illustrations as his own response to the text, and a unique one at that. As Eric Haskell points out, "Each artist articulates an Alice onto the pagescape just as each reader projects an Alice onto the mindscape" ( 66). Every illustrator brings some different response to the text, giving us a remarkable opportunity to see into the minds of dozens of illustrators, to visualize Alice as they visualize her. And it would be foolish to argue that these visualizations do not affect us as readers.

It seems to me that, in the end, illustrations live in unique tension, being both part of a text and a response to it, and thus the images of Alice are crucial for us to understand both the "Text" and to understand how Wonderland has evolved over the last 150 years.

As you wander through this site, I encourage you to take a look at the character image galleries. Seeing one-hundred-fifty years worth of representations of, say, the Caterpillar reveals quite a lot of how Wonderland has evolved, not only in the "pagescape," but also in our minds.

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"Once or twice [Alice] had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?'

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Where am I?
Home -> The Evolution of the Images

Illustrations and images of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland are nearly as important as the words that accompany them. Many illustrators and artists have approached the task of representing Alice visually from just as many different angles. We can see in these images reflections of the times in which they were created and get a sense of what Alice has meant to different people over time. This is by no means an exhaustive list of all the images of Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in existance, but rather a chance to take advantage of the internet as a medium and its ability to give us an idea of how our "picture" of Alice has changed over time.

Click here for a list of some of the prominent illustrators of the Alice books from John Tenniel to Camille Rose Garcia and to see a sample of their work.

Click here to compare how various characters and scenes have been rendered by different artists and have evolved over time.

To read more about the interaction between text and image click here.

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Where am I? Home -> The Evolution of the Images Illustrations and images of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland are nearly as important as the words that accompany them. Many illustrators and artists have approached the task of representing Alice visually from just as many different angles.

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"To write about nonsense is like going to sea in a sieve..." - Wim Tiggs

Introduction

Although the Alice books have long been called fine examples of "nonsense," until recently the use of the term merely planted them more firmly in the genre of Children's Literature, the "appropriate" place for nonsense. It was not until the last third of the twentieth century that critics began to take the label seriously, recognizing literary nonsense as a genre of its own. Since then, many critics have begun to look more closely at Carroll's brand of nonsense, exploring the craft and (a bit paradoxically) the "meaning" of the nonsense.

What is Literary Nonsense?

Before exploring the Nonsensical in Alice, I'll attempt to give a working definition of what "literary nonsense" is. It is not merely gibberish, nor parody or satire, but a true and distinct art form, which, in the words of Jean-Jacque Lecercle, "both supports the myth of an informative and communicative language and deeply subverts it" by first whetting then frustrating the reader's "deep-seated need for meaning" ( 3). It was pioneered by British Victorians such as Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll himself and is usually employed for a humorous effect, rather like an elaborate literary practical joke. And indeed, the juxtaposition of "Alice's obstinate good sense and the brilliant nonsense of the creatures she meets" creates most of hilarity of the Alice books ( Dunn 61).

Alice as Nonsense

Although most people can agree that Carroll's works are forms of literary nonsense, not many can agree on the nonsense's intended (or even unintended) effect. Some argue that Carroll's nonsense follows a "Socratic tradition that uses nonsense to help shape a moral personal identity" ( Taliaferro 194) and others find Carroll's nonsense of the kind "that results from the very natural confusions and errors that children might fall into" ( Pitcher 401). Humphrey Carpenter's take on Carroll's nonsense is of a slightly darker variety, calling it an art form in which "a simple idea [is] pursued with a ruthless comic literalness to its very end" which, of course, "if pursued logically to its conclusion, must end in Nothing" ( 46). Who would have thought that Nonsense could mean so much? Probably not Lewis Carroll. I believe he would argue that the point of nonsense is that it has no point at all.

But that really is the beauty of the genre; it dangles a carrot of meaning in front of us, then laughs as we jump to catch it. And Carroll's genius for nonsense lies in the fact that we keep jumping for twelve chapters. There is just enough "tolerable" and "intolerable" nonsense that it keeps us engaged, enthralled, and entertained ( Dunn 67).

The Mad Tea Party

There are two major elements of the Alice books which have become favorites for the Nonsense approach: "Jabberwocky," the famous nonsense poem from Looking Glass and "The Mad Tea Party" chapter from Wonderland. Since this website focuses mainly on chapters 5, 6, and 7 of Wonderland, I'll take a minute to hone in on the Mad Tea Party, in particular, the Mad Hatter's Riddle.

The Riddle:

The Hatter opened his eyes very wide on hearing this; but all he said was "Why is a raven like a writing-desk?"

***********************************

"Have you guessed the riddle yet?" the Hatter said, turning to Alice again.

"No, I give it up," Alice replied. "What's the answer?"

"I haven't the slightest idea," said the Hatter.

"Nor I," said the March Hare.

Alice sighed wearily. "I think you might do something better with the time," she said, "than wasting it in asking riddles that have no answers." ( Chapter 7)

In response to hundreds of Alice fans writing to Carroll to learn the "real" answer to the riddle, Carroll wrote:

" 'Because it can produce a few notes, though they are very flat; and it is nevar put with the wrong end in front!' This, however, is merely an afterthought: the Riddle, as originally invented, had no answer at all." ( Huxley 21)

The "nevar" of course is part of the joke (it's "raven" spelled backwards), but often is miscopied and "corrected" to "never," ruining the joke.

Francis Huxley, in his book The Raven and the Writing Desk, explores this riddle at some length, focusing particularly on the idea that the riddle is NOT meant to have an answer. To have an answer ready would require forethought before the riddle was expressed, which nonsense does not allow. For, in nonsense, "one never knows what one is going to say until one has said it" ( 12). This "riddle," then, is a perfect example of the delicate balance of nonsense, which offers with one hand what it denies with the other, frustrating Alice, but delighting us (most of the time).

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"To write about nonsense is like going to sea in a sieve..." - Wim Tiggs Although the Alice books have long been called fine examples of "nonsense," until recently the use of the term merely planted them more firmly in the genre of Children's Literature, the "appropriate" place for nonsense.

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"Hyperimages", like hypertext, are images that contain hyperlinks, so that a user can click the image to reach another page. The images in my "hyperimage" version are also "roll over" images so that when a user moves the cursor over the image a new one appears. This is another effort to streamline the reading experience, so that while you are reading you can notice how the experience might change when different illustrations are used. This type of formatting also demonstrates the interactive nature of a website and how that aspect of this particular medium can affect our experience of reading. Example to the right: two different renderings of Alice with the Gryphon and the Mock Turtle by Arthur Rackham and Maria Kirk.

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"Hyperimages", like hypertext, are images that contain hyperlinks, so that a user can click the image to reach another page. The images in my "hyperimage" version are also "roll over" images so that when a user moves the cursor over the image a new one appears.

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图像的速度

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网络, 视频播放量 1348、弹幕量 0、点赞数 23、投硬币枚数 3、收藏人数 32、转发人数 13, 视频作者 不知春夏与秋冬, 作者简介 懒，相关视频：1930年代北方中国，加拿大博主：因为不要钱进的博物馆 没有预料到被共产主义所震撼！ | KSquaredVlogs，59下山，但是在1940年的中国！四〇式中型坦克档案【架空抗战】，“他们不是坏人，他们是堂堂正正的中国军人，中国英雄！”，中国免签让老外眼馋了！如何向外国菜鸟介绍中国？，血与火-中国人民抗日战争淞沪会战动画历史，“一寸山河一寸血，十万青年十万兵”，30年代苏州，⭐ 南 京 保 卫 战 ⭐【钢铁雄心2】，【抗战歌曲】虎贲万岁!

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Image inpainting, an image processing technique for restoring missing or damaged image regions, can be utilized by forgers for removing objects in digital images. Since no obviously perceptible artifacts are left after inpainting, it is necessary to ...

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Digital images and human vision: | Guide books | ACM Digital Library

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Image inpainting, an image processing technique for restoring missing or damaged image regions, can be utilized by forgers for removing objects in digital images. Since no obviously perceptible artifacts are left after inpainting, it is necessary to ...

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Highlights

A distribution to model the square root of a normal random variable is developed.

Abstract

The key statistical properties of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) estimators were derived in this study for zero mean symmetric error distributions. A density function, named the Approximate Root ...

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What's wrong with mean-squared error? | Digital images and human vision

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Highlights A distribution to model the square root of a normal random variable is developed. Abstract The key statistical properties of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) estimators were derived in this study for zero mean symmetric error distributions. A density function, named the Approximate Root ...

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27 August 1992 Luminance-model-based DCT quantization for color image compression

A model is developed to approximate visibility thresholds for discrete cosine transform (DCT) coefficient quantization error based on the peak-to-peak luminance of the error image. Experimentally measured visibility thresholds for R, G, and B DCT basis functions can be predicted by a simple luminance-based detection model. This model allows DCT coefficient quantization matrices to be designed for display conditions other than those of the experimental measurements: other display luminances, other veiling luminances, and other spatial frequencies (different pixel spacings, viewing distances, and aspect ratios).

© (1992) COPYRIGHT Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Albert J. Ahumada Jr. and Heidi A. Peterson "Luminance-model-based DCT quantization for color image compression", Proc. SPIE 1666, Human Vision, Visual Processing, and Digital Display III, (27 August 1992); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.135982

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CITATIONS

Cited by 259 scholarly publications and 24 patents.

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Luminance-model-based DCT quantization for color image compression

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A model is developed to approximate visibility thresholds for discrete cosine transform (DCT) coefficient quantization error based on the peak-to-peak luminance of the error image. Experimentally measured visibility thresholds for R, G, and B DCT basis functions can be predicted by a simple luminance-based detection model.

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In this paper, we present a perceptual distortion measure that predicts image integrity far better than mean-squared error. This perceptual distortion measure is based an a model of human visual processing that fits empirical measurements of the psychophysics of spatial pattern detection. The model of human visual processing proposed involves two major components: a steerable pyramid transform and contrast normalization. We also illustrate the usefulness of the model in predicting perceptual distortion in real images.<
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Image quality assessment: from error visibility to structural similarity

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Objective methods for assessing perceptual image quality traditionally attempted to quantify the visibility of errors (differences) between a distorted image and a reference image using a variety of known properties of the human visual system. Under the assumption that human visual perception is highly adapted for extracting structural information from a scene, we introduce an alternative complementary framework for quality assessment based on the degradation of structural information. As a specific example of this concept, we develop a structural similarity index and demonstrate its promise through a set of intuitive examples, as well as comparison to both subjective ratings and state-of-the-art objective methods on a database of images compressed with JPEG and JPEG2000. A MATLAB implementation of the proposed algorithm is available online at http://www.cns.nyu.edu//spl sim/lcv/ssim/.

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Image quality assessment: from error visibility to structural similarity

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Objective methods for assessing perceptual image quality traditionally attempted to quantify the visibility of errors (differences) between a distorted image and a reference image using a variety of known properties of the human visual system. Under the assumption that human visual perception is highly adapted for extracting structural information from a scene, we introduce an alternative complementary framework for quality assessment based on the degradation of structural information. As a specific example of this concept, we develop a structural similarity index and demonstrate its promise through a set of intuitive examples, as well as comparison to both subjective ratings and state-of-the-art objective methods on a database of images compressed with JPEG and JPEG2000. A MATLAB implementation of the proposed algorithm is available online at http://www.cns.nyu.edu//spl sim/lcv/ssim/.

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图像超分辨；图像超分辨应用；退化模型；学习模型；最大后验概率估计(map) image super-resolution; application of image super-resolution; degradation model; learning model; maximum a posteriori (map)

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图像超分辨重建技术及其应用 The Technique and Application of Image Super-Resolution Reconstruction

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1917年奥地利数学家拉东提出了由投影重建图像的理论，奠定了CT图像重建的基础。在如今的AI时代，将热门的深度学习或机器学习和断层成像的结合，不仅有助于图像分析，还有助于图像重建。这篇文章重点探讨机器学习在CT图像重建中的应用，即深度成像。

（CT图像重建的过去，现在和未来。）
深度成像的原理
图像重建是从原始数据（利用断层扫描测量的特征）到底层图像，是下图中从图像到特征的逆操作。深度成像的直接路径可以简单地从原始数据到初始图像，然后通过细化深度网络处理所重建的图像。（与深度学习的重叠）。

（通过非线性多分辨率分析（全连接或局部连接）进行特征提取和分类的深度网络。）
低挂和高挂果实的路线图
对于深度成像，有各种技术可以开发为低挂和高挂果实。让我们先来看看低挂的果实，然后是高挂的果实。但是，这些可以并行进行。
低挂水果
首先，通过用深度学习对应物替换当前图像重建方案的一个或多个机器学习元素，可以收获低悬的果实。将每种类型的重建算法视为有机流程图，并且一些构建块可以由机器学习对应物替换。如下图所示，用于迭代重建的一般流程图，相应的原始模块可以被机器学习模块敲掉。

（在传统的迭代重建流程图中替换机器学习模块来摘取低挂果实。 ）

现有技术的重建算法可用于指导相应的深度网络的构建。通过万有逼近定理，每个计算元素应该具有神经网络对应物。基于深度学习的重建的真正强大之处在于数据驱动的知识增强能力，以便在特定于应用的低维流形内承诺更智能的初始猜测，更相关的中间特征以及最佳正则化的最终图像。
高挂果实
相比之下，高挂果实并不一定涉及经典重建算法的任何关键要素。凭借最先进的深度成像算法，可以涵盖最广泛的图像重建问题，以获得优于现有技术的成像性能。
网络配置
针对典型应用的网络拓扑（和动态）设计是一个突出的目标，这相当于算法设计或计算机体系结构设计。可以大胆推测深度成像网络可能胜过传统的成像算法，因为深度网络的信息处理在激活函数中是非线性的，通过深度分层的结构是全局的，并且是从大数据中获得的综合先验知识的最佳选择。这与线性，局部或临时的 许多传统正则化器形成鲜明对比。目前，网络设计在整体架构和组件特性方面仍然是一个积极探索的领域，并且很少涉及图像重建的目的。

通过模仿神经可塑性 - 大脑在学习，适应和补偿方面的成长和重组能力，可以进一步改善深层神经网络和人工智能。目前，使用试错法获得了深层网络中每层的层数和神经元数量，并且不受任何理论的支配。关于大脑的成长和重组，未来的深度网络可以以相同的方式工作，变得更具适应性，更适合医学成像。
数据生成
高级图像建模和数据生成非常重要。在临床中，存在数量巨大的图像量，但仅标记了有限量的图像，并且患者隐私一直是医学成像研究的障碍。尽管如此，大数据和深度学习的领域已经成熟。首先，研究人员逐渐可以获得大数据。一个很好的例子是全国肺部筛查试验（NLST）。在这种情况下，将成像数据与重建图像配对是非常宝贵的。另一方面，真正逼真的模拟器可以发挥关键作用。例如，高性能模拟器（如用于CT研究的CatSim ）可以将实际图像作为输入，以产生用于训练和测试目的的高质量"原始数据"。更有趣的是，可以构建一个通用的解剖图像模型来生成大数据。例如，使用解剖图谱，例如基于可见人类项目的图像，我们可以产生代表不同对比（例如CT和MRI）的人体的图像体积。利用可变形的变形方法，可以产生大量解剖学上逼真的图像。

（RPI怀孕女性模型的器官和体表分别在3个月，6个月和9个月结束时用于估计放射学检查中的辐射剂量）
深度成像的两个例子
第一个例子是从质量差的正弦图到高质量的正弦图。现在，每个体模包含一个固定的背景盘和圆形背景内的两个随机盘：一个盘代表一个X射线衰减特征，另一个盘代表一个X射线不透明金属部分。图像大小是32 × 32。之后，从90个角度生成正弦图。金属被阻挡的投影与金属被透明物体替换后形成的完整投影相关联。然后，可以训练深度网络以从低质量投影预测大大改善的投影

第二个例子展示了Harvard放射学胸部CT数据集深度学习的潜力。这些数据集以低剂量水平获得。它们使用三种重建技术重建：滤波反投影（FBP），自适应统计迭代重建（ASIR）和基于模型的迭代重建（MBIR）。这些都是在商用CT扫描仪上实现的。遵循与前两个示例相同的深度学习过程，并将FBP图像作为输入，将MBIR图像作为神经网络训练的黄金标准。为了比较，使用块匹配和3D滤波（BM3D）方法和深度神经网络对FBP图像进行图像去噪。与MBIR对应物相比，显示了深度学习的图像去噪效果。可以观察到，通过深度学习实现的图像质量与MBIR非常相似，但深度学习比现有技术的迭代重建快得多。有趣的是，标准的"廉价"FBP之后的计算有效的后处理神经网络实现了与更精细的迭代方案非常相似的结果，然而神经网络解决方案不需要任何明确的物理知识。

深度学习还可以帮助调整或设计特定于不同器官，病变类型和患者特征的成像和阅读协议。此外，基于大数据的深度成像软件可以查询跨机构和医学专业的数据，并通过整合诸如患者年龄，性别，症状，病史，疾病概况，生物化学，病理学，微生物学和基因组等信息来超越现有的决策支持计划。此外，为什么不通过深度学习结合诊断和治疗？监督自主机器人软组织手术就是一个初始的例子。
整理自王革教授的论文《 A Perspective on Deep Imaging https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8359079 》，感谢王革教授和他的学生范凤磊对这篇文章的贡献，转载请注明出处。对于机器学习和医学影像感兴趣的读者可以关注他们所创建的公众号：纯真学者出神入化。
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7733110

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深度成像的直接路径可以简单地从原始数据到初始图像，然后通过细化深度网络处理所重建的图像。 首先，通过用深度学习对应物替换当前图像重建方案的一个或多个机器学习元素，可以收获低悬的果实。在这种情况下，将成像数...

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一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法 Download PDF

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CN111951164B
CN111951164B CN202010804353.2A CN202010804353A CN111951164B CN 111951164 B CN111951164 B CN 111951164B CN 202010804353 A CN202010804353 A CN 202010804353A CN 111951164 B CN111951164 B CN 111951164B
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纪鹏飞

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Abstract

本发明涉及一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法，所述网络结构由应用了改进残差块的特征提取部分和应用了加强上采样模块的上采样部分组成，在减少残差块参数量的同时充分利用了图像的多尺度信息，所述加强上采样模块由四个残差块组成，提高了网络的表示能力；同时以出一种图像重建效果分析，该分析方法表明，上述网络结构在参数量更小的同时重建结果较对比实验中其他残差网络模型有更好的视觉效果、更高的峰值信噪比(PSNR)和结构相似度（SSIM）。

Description

一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法
本发明属于图像处理领域，尤其涉及一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法。

单幅图像超分辨率重建是从单幅低分辨率图像中恢复高分辨率图像的计算机视觉处理基本问题。图像超分辨率重建技术在人脸识别、医学影像处理、卫星遥感成像等方面有广泛应用。一幅低分辨率图像对应着无数个高分辨率图像，因此图像超分辨率重建是个不适定问题。针对这一问题，人们提出了各种基于信号处理的传统超分辨率方法，比如利用低分辨率图像内部信息的方法和利用低分辨率图像与高分辨率图像对的外部信息的方法。近些年，深度卷积神经网络极大地促进了这一领域的进步。Dong等人首先提出了超分辨率卷积神经网络(SRCNN)，用三层卷积神经网络建立低分辨率图像与高分辨率图像之间的映射。Shi等人提出了高效亚像素卷积神经网络(ESPCN)，在低分辨率图像上进行卷积，通过亚像素卷积将特征图重新排列得到高分辨率图像。Kim等人提出了深度卷积神经网络(VDSR)，引入残差学习和自适应梯度裁剪来降低训练深层网络的难度。在深度递归卷积神经网络(DRCN)中，采用了递归网络来减少模型参数，并采用多监督策略来融合中间结果。Lim等人提出加强深度残差网络(EDSR)通过跳跃连接来减轻梯度消失问题，用残差块搭建出了超过160层的多尺度深度卷积神经网络(MDSR)。然而用加深和加宽网络的方法来取得更好的超分辨率重建效果，但即使用3×3的小卷积核，网络也会占用很大内存。

本发明旨在至少解决现有技术或相关技术中存在的技术问题之一。为此，本发明的一个目的在于提供一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法，其特征在于：所述网络结构包含特征提取部分和上采样部分，滤波器数量为64，首先从原始低分辨率输入图像提取特征图的卷积过程表示如下：

式中：W fe1表示一组数量为64，大小为3×3的滤波器，*表示卷积操作，I LR表示输入网络的低分辨率图像，b fe1表示偏移项，M ₀ 表示卷积运算后得到的特征图，所述特征提取部分包含m个改进残差块，第i个残差块的输出表示为：

式中：i＝1,...,m，F i表示第i个改进残差块函数，M i 表示第i个改进残差块输出的特征图，所述上采样部分通过加强上采样模块(EUM)和卷积得到网络的输出，表示如下：

I SR＝W up*F up(W fe2*M m+b fe2+M ₀)+b up

式中：W fe2和W up分别表示大小为1×1和3×3的滤波器，b fe2、b up表示偏移项，F up表示上采样模块函数，I SR 表示网络输出的高分辨图像。

作为优选，所述改进残差块结构采用了分组操作，把64个通道分为每组16通道的4组，对其中一组用3×3卷积提取线性特征，对其他组用3×3卷积加上修正线性单元(ReLU)提取非线性特征，其中的1×1的卷积用于学习通道间相关性，减少分组操作对特征的影响，所述改进残差块使用分组卷积在充分利用了图像的多尺度特征的同时相比于原残差块减少了超过三分之二的参数量。

作为优选，所述上采样模块为由加强上采样模块(EUM)组成，所述加强上采样模块(EUM)用四个残差块组成的具有相同结构的残差模块替换了亚像素卷积中输出特征图是输入四倍的复杂卷积层，所述残差模块中包含了ReLU激活函数，加强上采样模块(EUM)可以进行非线性计算，其非线性表示能力较好，连接多路径特征图之后，加强上采样模块(EUM)与亚像素卷积同样地执行像素重排操作，每个加强上采样模块(EUM)会使分辨率变为原来的2倍，尺度因子为2时的上采样部分由一个EUM构成，尺度因子为4时的上采样部分由两个加强上采样模块(EUM)连接构成。

作为优选，所述网络结构使用L1范式型的损失函数，如下所示：

式中：θ表示网络中各层参数的集合，

表示高分辨率重建图像，/>

表示原始高分辨率图像，n表示训练样本的数目。

一种图像重建效果分析方法，其特征在于：所述方法包括如下步骤

步骤1.1.使用Python在Tensorflow-gpu下搭建网络测试环境。

步骤1.2.使用800张2K分辨率图片的DIV2K作为训练集。

步骤1.3.使用Set5数据集、Set14数据集、BSD100数据集和Urban100这四个基准数据集作为测试集。

步骤2.训练设置，对DIV2K数据集的原始图像进行下采样，以不重叠采样的方式，把低分辨率图像裁剪成大小为32*32的图像块，并将其与相应的原始高分辨率图像块组成训练数据,将每个低分辨率RGB图像块转换到YCbCr色彩空间并将亮度通道Y作为网络的输入，色度通道Cb、Cr使用插值方法进行重建，在网络的最终结构中特征提取部分的改进残差块个数为16，上采样部分的每个残差模块中残差块个数为1，网络的batchsize为32，用He等的方法初始化权重，优化方法选择Adam，为了抑制振荡动量设置为0.9，设置初始学习率为0.0001，每隔20轮学习率减小一半，网络中的3×3卷积层在边界填充0来保证卷积操作不会改变特征图大小，网络经过大概60万次迭代得到最终结果。

步骤3.采用峰值信噪比(PSNR)，和结构相似度(SSIM)作为客观评价指标，PSNR基于图像像素点间误差评价图像相似性，计算公式如下：

式中：X和Y表示两张大小为m×n的图像，PSNR值越大表明图像超分辨率重建效果越好。SSIM评价指标从亮度、对比度和结构三个方面度量图像相似性，其计算公式如下：

SSIM(X,Y)＝l(X,Y)×c(X,Y)×s(X,Y)

式中：μ X 和

分别表示图像X的均值和方差，σ XY表示图像X和Y的协方差，C ₁，C ₂，C ₃ 为常数，SSIM值越接近1说明重建的高分辨率图像与原始高分辨率图像相似度越高，图像重建效果越好。

步骤4.采用图像超分辨率重建领域常用的数据集Set5、Set14、BSD100和Urban100在PSNR和SSIM两个图像质量评价指标上进行实验，并从中取出2张边缘细节丰富的图像放大后进行细节分析。

图2为发明实施例的残差块结构图(a)EDSR中的残差块(b)改进残差块

图3为发明实施例的上采样方法图(a)亚像素卷积(b)加强上采样

图4为发明实施例的BSD100数据集中148089的4倍SR重建效果对比图

图5为发明实施例的Urban100数据集中img_005的4倍SR重建效果对比图

图6为发明实施例的BSD100测试集下4倍SR各网络的参数量与PSNR图

参见图1，所述图像超分辨率重建网络结构包含特征提取部分和上采样部分，并有64滤波器，首先从原始低分辨率输入图像提取特征图的卷积过程表示如下：

式中：W fe1表示一组数量为64，大小为3×3的滤波器，*表示卷积操作，I LR表示输入网络的低分辨率图像，b fe1表示偏移项，M ₀ 表示卷积运算后得到的特征图，所述特征提取部分包含m个改进残差块，第i个残差块的输出表示为：

式中：i＝1,...,m，F i表示第i个改进残差块函数，M i 表示第i个改进残差块输出的特征图，所述上采样部分通过加强上采样模块(EUM)和卷积得到网络的输出，表示如下：

I SR＝W up*F up(W fe2*M m+b fe2+M ₀)+b up

式中：W fe2和W up分别表示大小为1×1和3×3的滤波器，b fe2、b up表示偏移项，F up表示上采样模块函数，I SR 表示网络输出的高分辨图像。

参见图2，改进残差块结构采用了分组操作，把64个通道分为每组16通道的4组，对其中一组用3×3卷积提取线性特征，对其他组用3×3卷积加上修正线性单元(ReLU)提取非线性特征，其中的1×1的卷积用于学习通道间相关性，减少分组操作对特征的影响，所述改进残差块使用分组卷积在充分利用了图像的多尺度特征的同时相比于原残差块减少了超过三分之二的参数量。

参见图3，上采样模块为由加强上采样模块(EUM)组成，所述加强上采样模块(EUM)用四个残差块组成的具有相同结构的残差模块替换了亚像素卷积中输出特征图是输入四倍的复杂卷积层，所述残差模块中包含了ReLU激活函数，加强上采样模块(EUM)可以进行非线性计算，其非线性表示能力较好，连接多路径特征图之后，加强上采样模块(EUM)与亚像素卷积同样地执行像素重排操作，每个加强上采样模块(EUM)会使分辨率变为原来的2倍，尺度因子为2时的上采样部分由一个EUM构成，尺度因子为4时的上采样部分由两个加强上采样模块(EUM)连接构成。

在超分辨率重建任务中，所述网络结构使用L1范式型的损失函数，如下所示：

式中：θ表示网络中各层参数的集合，

表示高分辨率重建图像，/>

表示原始高分辨率图像，n表示训练样本的数目。

运用本发明提出的图像重建效果分析方法证明发明实施例1的优越性，参照步骤1，本发明实施例实验环境为：win10操作系统，Intel Core i7处理器，显卡为NVDIAGeforce 1080Ti，使用Python作为编程语言在Tensorflow-gpu下搭建网络进行测试。为了增加训练样本，本文的训练集没有选用其他超分辨率重建工作通常使用的91张训练集以及包含200张图片的伯克利分割数据集，而选用了有800张2K分辨率图片的DIV2K作为训练集。得益于DIV2K的高分辨率，网络能学习到丰富的图像细节信息。测试集使用了4个广泛使用的基准数据集，分别为Set5数据集、Set14数据集、BSD100数据集和Urban100数据集。

参照步骤2，本发明实施例对DIV2K数据集的原始图像进行下采样，以不重叠采样的方式，把低分辨率图像裁剪成大小为32 32的图像块，并将其与相应的原始高分辨率图像块组成训练数据。由于人眼相较于色差对亮度变化更为敏感，因此本发明实施例将每个低分辨率RGB图像块转换到YCbCr色彩空间并将亮度通道Y作为网络的输入，色度通道Cb、Cr使用插值方法进行重建。

在网络的最终结构中特征提取部分的改进残差块个数为16，上采样部分的每个残差模块中残差块个数为1。网络的batchsize为32，用He等的方法初始化权重，优化方法选择Adam，为了抑制振荡动量设置为0.9，本发明实施例设置初始学习率为0.0001，每隔20轮学习率减小一半。此外，网络中的3×3卷积层在边界填充0来保证卷积操作不会改变特征图大小。网络经过大概60万次迭代得到最终结果。

参照步骤3，本发明实施例采用峰值信噪比(PSNR)，和结构相似度(SSIM)作为客观评价指标，PSNR基于图像像素点间误差评价图像相似性，计算公式如下：

式中：X和Y表示两张大小为m×n的图像，PSNR值越大表明图像超分辨率重建效果越好。SSIM评价指标从亮度、对比度和结构三个方面度量图像相似性，其计算公式如下：

SSIM(X,Y)＝l(X,Y)×c(X,Y)×s(X,Y)

式中：μ X 和

分别表示图像X的均值和方差，σ XY表示图像X和Y的协方差，C ₁，C ₂，C ₃ 为常数，SSIM值越接近1说明重建的高分辨率图像与原始高分辨率图像相似度越高，图像重建效果越好。

参照步骤4，选择Bicubic、VDSR、EDSR以及EUSR与本发明实施例采用图像超分辨率重建领域常用的数据集Set5、Set14、BSD100和Urban100在PSNR和SSIM两个图像质量评价指标上进行对比实验，并从中取出2张边缘细节丰富的图像放大后进行细节比较。

参见图4、5，图中所示为各模型尺度因子为4的重建效果对比图，从主观视觉效果来看，其他重建方法恢复的图像边缘较为模糊，有的出现了严重的畸变。而本发明实施例重建出的图像边缘信息更加完整，细节比较清晰，辨识度更高。可见与其他方法相比，本发明实施例重建的图像结构边缘处理得较好，图像细节更加丰富，视觉效果更好。

参见表1，从客观评价指标来看，表1为Bicubic、VDSR、EDSR、EUSR以及本文方法在测试集Set5、Set14、BSD100和Urban100下的PSNR与SSIM的平均值，通过表中实验数据可以看出本发明实施例的PSNR、SSIM较高，表明本发明实施例恢复的图像更接近原始图像。

表1在测试集Set5、Set14、BSD100和Urban100下不同方法的PSNR(dB)与SSIM的平均值

参见图6，在BSD100测试集下进行尺度因子为4的超分辨率重建，对比了EDSR、EUSR两种残差网络结构算法与本文算法的参数量与PSNR的关系，可见本发明实施例相较于其他实施例在参数量不大的同时取得了较好的超分辨率重建效果。

Claims (2)

1.一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构，其特征在于：所述网络结构包含特征提取部分和上采样部分，滤波器数量为64，首先从原始低分辨率输入图像提取特征图的卷积过程表示如下：

式中：W fe1表示一组数量为64，大小为3×3的滤波器，*表示卷积操作，I LR表示输入网络的低分辨率图像，b fe1表示偏移项，M ₀ 表示卷积运算后得到的特征图，所述特征提取部分包含m个改进残差块，第i个残差块的输出表示为：

式中：i＝1,...,m，F i表示第i个改进残差块函数，M i 表示第i个改进残差块输出的特征图，所述上采样部分通过加强上采样模块(EUM)和卷积得到网络的输出，表示如下：

I SR＝W up*F up(W fe2*M m+b fe2+M ₀)+b up

式中：W fe2和W up分别表示大小为1×1和3×3的滤波器，b fe2、b up表示偏移项，F up表示上采样模块函数，I SR 表示网络输出的高分辨图像；

所述上采样模块为由加强上采样模块(EUM)组成，所述加强上采样模块(EUM)用四个残差块组成的具有相同结构的残差模块替换了亚像素卷积中输出特征图是输入四倍的复杂卷积层，所述残差模块中包含了ReLU激活函数，加强上采样模块(EUM)进行非线性计算，其非线性表示能力好，连接多路径特征图之后，加强上采样模块(EUM)与亚像素卷积同样地执行像素重排操作，每个加强上采样模块(EUM)会使分辨率变为原来的2倍，尺度因子为2时的上采样部分由一个EUM构成，尺度因子为4时的上采样部分由两个加强上采样模块(EUM)连接构成；

在超分辨率重建任务中，所述网络结构使用L1范式型的损失函数，如下所示：

式中：θ表示网络中各层参数的集合，

表示高分辨率重建图像，/>

表示原始高分辨率图像，n表示训练样本的数目。

2.根据权利要求1所述的一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构，所述改进残差块结构采用了分组操作，把64个通道分为每组16通道的4组，对其中一组用3×3卷积提取线性特征，对其他组用3×3卷积加上修正线性单元(ReLU)提取非线性特征，其中的1×1的卷积用于学习通道间相关性，减少分组操作对特征的影响，所述改进残差块使用分组卷积在充分利用了图像的多尺度特征的同时相比于原残差块减少了超过三分之二的参数量。

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CN111951164B - 一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法 - Google Patents

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本发明涉及一种图像超分辨率重建网络结构及图像重建效果分析方法，所述网络结构由应用了改进残差块的特征提取部分和应用了加强上采样模块的上采样部分组成，在减少残差块参数量的同时充分利用了图像的多尺度信息，所述加强上采样模块由四个残差块组成，提高了网络的表示能力；同时以出一种图像重建效果分析，该分析方法表明，上述网络结构在参数量更小的同时重建结果较对比实验中其他残差网络模型有更好的视觉效果、更高的峰...

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本书内容包括概述,数字图像表示及其处理,图像增强,图像编码与压缩,图像复原,图像重建,图像分割技术,图像特征提取与分析,图像匹配与识别,基于MATLAB数字水印系统设计,车辆牌照识别系统设计.

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很重要的文章

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Interaction Design, Digital Art, and the Myth of Transparency

by Jay David Bolter and Diane Gromala

Paperback

$40.00

Paperback

ISBN: 9780262524490

Pub date: September 23, 2005

Publisher: The MIT Press

194 pp., 7 x 9 in, 59 illus.

Hardcover

$34.95

Hardcover

ISBN: 9780262025454

Pub date: October 24, 2003

Publisher: The MIT Press

194 pp., 7 x 9 in, 59 illus.

194 pp., 7 x 9 in, 59 illus.

Paperback

9780262524490

Published: September 2005

Publisher: The MIT Press

$40.00

Hardcover

9780262025454

Published: October 2003

Publisher: The MIT Press

$34.95

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The experience of digital art and how it is relevant to information technology.In Windows and Mirrors: Interaction Design, Digital Art, and the Myth of Trans...

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Hypermediace (hypermediation) je způsob vizuální reprezentace. Spolu s protikladným pojmem " imediace" se jedná o strategii remediace. Pojmy byly představeny v knize Remediation: Understanding new Media (1999) autorů J. D. Boltera a R. Grusina. Tyto pojmy jsou významné zejména pro vizuální studia a studia nových médií.

Hypermediace a imediace jsou různé strategie, jak dosáhnout nezprostředkovaného autentického zážitku. Ačkoli jsou tyto dvě strategie zcela odlišné (kontrastní), obě směřují k nalezení "reálného". Překážkou k objevení onoho reálného je ovšem médium, které zážitek zprostředkovává.

Vysvětlení pojmu

Hypermediace = zvýraznění určitého média. Cílem je upozornit příjemce na dané médium.

Hypermediace vychází z fascinace médiem. Pozornost je zaměřena na zážitek z užívání daného média.

Při hypermediaci bývá používáno více druhů označování, různá hlediska, kombinace textů a obrazů, může být ale užito i pouze jediného média.

Význam pojmu hypermediace lze pochopit při srovnání s protikladným pojmem, jímž je imediace (transparentnost média).

Příklady hypermediace

Počítačová grafika ve filmu, která působí nerealisticky nebo zobrazuje nereálné

News room (přítomnost mnoha obrazovek, další obrazovky v pozadí)

Vizuální efekty na hudebních koncertech

Úskalí hypermediace

Při setkání s hypermediací se často stává, že uživatel zatouží po imediaci, tzn. po opaku - aby bylo médium tak transparentní, že jeho přítomnost uživatel nevnímá.

Ačkoli jsou pojmy hypermediace a imediace protikladné, hranice mezi nimi není vždy ostrá. V některých případech je obtížné určit, o který případ vizuální reprezentace se jedná. Například Google Earth - díky 3D zobrazení je uživatel vnořen do virtuální reality (tj. imediace), ale na obrazovce stále vidí ukazatele směru atd., které ho upozorňují na přítomnost média (tj. hypermediace).

1. BOLTER, Jay David a GRUSIN, Richard. Remediation: Understanding New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.

2. LIESTOL, Gunnar, MORRISON Andrew a RASMUSSEN Terje, eds. Digital Media Revisited: Theoretical and Conceptual Innovations in Digital Domains. Boston: MIT Press, 2004.

Použitá literatura

BOLTER, Jay David a GRUSIN, Richard. Remediation: Understanding New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.

LIESTOL, Gunnar, MORRISON Andrew a RASMUSSEN Terje, eds. Digital Media Revisited: Theoretical and Conceptual Innovations in Digital Domains. Boston: MIT Press, 2004.

Doporučená literatura

BOLTER, Jay David. Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

BOLTER, Jay David. Virtual Reality and the Redefinition of Self. In: Communication and Cyberspace: Social Interaction in an Electronic Environment. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996.

BOLTER, Jay David. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ: 1991.

BOLTER, Jay David a GROMALA, Diane. Windows and Mirrors: Interaction Design, Digital Art and the Myth of Transparency. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2003.

Jay David Bolter: FutureText. Roy Christopher: Interviews. 1.4.2001. [online]. Dostupné z: http://roychristopher.com/jay-david-bolter-futuretext.

Související články

Klíčová slova

Bolter, Grusin, remediace, remediation, imediace, immediacy, hypermediace, hypermediacy, vizuální studia, vizuální kultura, nová média, digitální média

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Hypermediace (hypermediation) je způsob vizuální reprezentace. Spolu s protikladným pojmem " imediace" se jedná o strategii remediace. Pojmy byly představeny v knize Remediation: Understanding new Media (1999) autorů J. D. Boltera a R. Grusina. Tyto pojmy jsou významné zejména pro vizuální studia a studia nových médií.

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During the last episode of season four of True Detective, some cheered and others groaned when Raymond Clark said "time is a flat circle," repeating Reggie Ledoux and Rustin Cohle's line from season one. OG creator and showrunner Nic Pizzolato himself did not appreciate the homage to the original. Allusions as such can go either way.

At their best, allusions add layers of meaning to our stories, connecting them to the larger context of a series, genre, or literature at large. At worst, they're lazy storytelling or fumbling fan service. It feels good to recognize an obscure allusion and feel like a participant in the story. It feels cheap to recognize one and feel manipulated by the writer. They are contrivances after all: legacy characters, echoed dialog, recurring locations or props-all of these can work either way, to cohere or alienate, to enrich the meaning or pull you right out of the story.
[WARNING: Spoilers abound below for all seasons of HBO's True Detective.]
Our experience with a story is always informed by our past experience-lived or mediated-but when that experience is directly referenced with an allusion, we feel closer to the story. Allusions are where we share notes with other fans, and they form associative paths, connecting them to other artifacts. So, if you recognized Ledoux or Cohle's words coming out of Clark's mouth, or if you recognized all of them as Friedrich Nietzsche's eternal recurrence, you probably felt a closer tie to the story. As he wrote in The Gay Science (1882), "Do you want this again and innumerable times again?" For Nietzsche, this is all there was, and to embrace this recurrence was to embrace human life just as it is: the same thing over and over.

Moreover, in season four we got the ghost of Rust Cohle's father, Travis Cohle, a connection to the vast empire of the Tuttle family, and the goofy gag of recurring spirals. Season three had its passing connections to season one as well, as seen in the newspaper article in the image above. Given the pervasive references to it, season one may have been the show's peak, but my favorite is still the beleaguered second season, the only one so far that stands free of allusions to the other seasons of the anthology. Perhaps it is the most hated season of the series because of its refusal to connect to and coexist with the others, yet-riding the word-of-mouth wave from season one-it's also the most watched.

It should be noted that in addition to its lack of allusions to season one and any semblance of interiority, season two also lacks any sense of the spiritual. There is only the world you see and feel in front of you, no inner world, no adjacent beyond, no Carcosa. As Raymond Velcoro says grimly, "My strong suspicion is we get the world we deserve."

Season two continues the gloom of the first season, moving it from the swamps of Louisiana to the sprawl of Los Angeles. Like its suburban setting, season two stretches out in good and bad ways, leaving us by turns enlightened and lost. Though, as Ian Bogost points out, where Cohle got lost in his own head, the characters in season two-Ani Bezzerides, Paul Woodrugh, Frank Semyon, and Velcoro-get lost in their world. The physician and psychoanalyst Dr. John C. Lilly distinguished between what he called insanity and outsanity. Insanity is "your life inside yourself"; outsanity is the chaos of the world, the cruelty of other people. Sometimes we get lost in our heads. Sometimes we get lost in the world.

To be fair, season one isn't without its references to existing texts. Much of the material in Cohle's monologues is straight out of Thomas Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race (Hippocampus Press, 2010), where he quotes the Norwegian philosopher Peter Wessel Zapffe (even using the word "thresher" to describe the pain of human existence), and the dark-hearted philosophy of Nietzsche, of course. The writings of Ambrose Bierce ("An Inhabitant of Carcosa"), H.P. Lovecraft (Cthulhu Mythos), and Robert W. Chambers ("The Yellow King") also make appearances. Daniel Fitzpatrick writes in his essay in the book True Detection (Schism, 2014), "Through these references, engaged viewers are offered a means to unlock the show's secrets, granting a more active involvement, and while these references are often essential and enrich our experience of the show, in its weaker moments they can make it seem like a grab-bag of half thought-through allusions."

"One of the things that I loved most about that first season of True Detective was the cosmic horror angle of it," says season four writer, director, and showrunner Issa López. "It had a Carcosa, and it had a Yellow King, which are references to the Cthulhu Mythos with Lovecraft and the idea of ancient gods that live beyond human perception." The hints of something beyond this world, "the war going on behind things," as Reverend Billy Lee Tuttle put it, pulled us all in. "That sense of something sinister playing behind the scenes, and watching from the shadows," she continues, "is something that I very much loved."

In his book on suicide, The Savage God (1970), Al Álvarez writes, "For the great rationalists, a sense of absurdity-the absurdity of superstition, self-importance, and unreason-was as natural and illuminating as sunlight." By the end of season one, Rustin Cohle seems to embrace the eternal recurrence of his life, the spiral of light and the dark-including his own daughter's death. At the end of Night Country, Evangeline Navarro seems to do the same, walking blindly into extinction, one last midnight, a lone sister, fragile and numinous, opting out of a raw deal, lost both in her head and in the world.

David Benatar, Roy Christopher, Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming Into Existence, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Ambrose Bierce,Ghost and Horror Stories of Ambrose Bierce, New York: Dover, 1964.
Ray Brassier,Nihil Unbound: Enlightenment and Extinction, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Robert W. Chambers,The King in Yellow, Knoxville, TN: Wordsworth Editions, 2010.
True Detection, Schism, 2014.
Jacob Graham & Tom Sparrow (eds.),True Detective and Philosophy: A Deeper Kind of Darkness, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2018.
Escape Philosophy: Journeys Beyond the Human Body, Brooklyn, NY: punctum books, 2021.
Edia Connole, Paul J. Ennis, & Nicola Masciandaro (eds.), Thomas Ligotti,The Conspiracy Against the Human Race, New York: Hippocampus Press, 2010.
Friedrich Nietzsche,The Gay Science, New York: Dover, 1882.
Friedrich Nietzsche,Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, New York: Macmillan. 1896.
Nic Pizzolatto,Between Here and the Yellow Sea, Ann Arbor, MI: Dzanc Books, 2015.
Eugene Thacker,In the Dust of This Planet: Horror of Philosophy, Vol. 1, London: Zer0 Books, 2011.
Eugene Thacker,Infinite Resignation, London: Repeater Books, 2018.

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Almost thirty years ago, W. J. T. Mitchell's Iconology helped launch the interdisciplinary study of visual media, now a central feature of the humanities. Along with his subsequent Picture Theory and What Do Pictures Want?, Mitchell's now-classic work introduced such ideas as the pictorial turn, the image/picture distinction, the metapicture, and the biopicture. These key concepts imply an approach to images as true objects of investigation-an "image science."

Continuing with this influential line of thought, Image Science gathers Mitchell's most recent essays on media aesthetics, visual culture, and artistic symbolism. The chapters delve into such topics as the physics and biology of images, digital photography and realism, architecture and new media, and the occupation of space in contemporary popular uprisings. The book looks both backward at the emergence of iconology as a field and forward toward what might be possible if image science can indeed approach pictures the same way that empirical sciences approach natural phenomena.

Essential for those involved with any aspect of visual media, Image Science is a brilliant call for a method of studying images that overcomes the "two-culture split" between the natural and human sciences.

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Almost thirty years ago, W. J. T. Mitchell's Iconology helped launch the interdisciplinary study of visual media, now a central feature of the humanities. Along with his subsequent Picture Theory and What Do Pictures Want?, Mitchell's now-classic work introduced such ideas as the pictorial turn, the image/picture distinction, the metapicture, and the biopicture.

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Communications, philosophy, film and video, digital culture: media studies straddles an astounding array of fields and disciplines and produces a vocabulary that is in equal parts rigorous and intuitive. Critical Terms for Media Studies defines, and at times, redefines, what this new and hybrid area aims to do, illuminating the key concepts behind its liveliest debates and most dynamic topics.Part of a larger conversation that engages culture, technology, and politics, this exciting collection of essays explores our most critical language for dealing with the qualities and modes of contemporary media. Edited by two outstanding scholars in the field, W. J. T. Mitchell and Mark B. N. Hansen, the volume features works by a team of distinguished contributors. These essays, commissioned expressly for this volume, are organized into three interrelated groups: “Aesthetics” engages with terms that describe sensory experiences and judgments, “Technology” offers entry into a broad array of technological concepts, and “Society” opens up language describing the systems that allow a medium to function.A compelling reference work for the twenty-first century and the media that form our experience within it, Critical Terms for Media Studies will engage and deepen any reader’s knowledge of one of our most important new fields.

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Why do we have such extraordinarily powerful responses toward the images and pictures we see in everyday life? Why do we behave as if pictures were alive, possessing the power to influence us, to demand things from us, to persuade us, seduce us, or even lead us astray?

According to W. J. T. Mitchell, we need to reckon with images not just as inert objects that convey meaning but as animated beings with desires, needs, appetites, demands, and drives of their own. What Do Pictures Want? explores this idea and highlights Mitchell's innovative and profoundly influential thinking on picture theory and the lives and loves of images. Ranging across the visual arts, literature, and mass media, Mitchell applies characteristically brilliant and wry analyses to Byzantine icons and cyberpunk films, racial stereotypes and public monuments, ancient idols and modern clones, offensive images and found objects, American photography and aboriginal painting. Opening new vistas in iconology and the emergent field of visual culture, he also considers the importance of Dolly the Sheep-who, as a clone, fulfills the ancient dream of creating a living image-and the destruction of the World Trade Center on 9/11, which, among other things, signifies a new and virulent form of iconoclasm.

What Do Pictures Want? offers an immensely rich and suggestive account of the interplay between the visible and the readable. A work by one of our leading theorists of visual representation, it will be a touchstone for art historians, literary critics, anthropologists, and philosophers alike.

"A treasury of episodes-generally overlooked by art history and visual studies-that turn on images that 'walk by themselves' and exert their own power over the living."-Norman Bryson, Artforum

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Why do we have such extraordinarily powerful responses toward the images and pictures we see in everyday life? Why do we behave as if pictures were alive, possessing the power to influence us, to demand things from us, to persuade us, seduce us, or even lead us astray? According to W.

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美国学者W.J.T.米歇尔（William John Thomas Mitchell）的图像三部曲，是视觉研究领域的经典著作，进一步发展了图像理论。

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在米歇尔看来，形象（image）曾是物的复制、镜像的他者或概念的再现。然而如今，形象不再像过去那样对人们敞开自身，反而建立了“一种不透明的、扭曲的和任意的再现机制”。媒介技术革命带来“虚拟仿制”可能性的同时，也在通过模拟现实来扩充自身文化。

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Iluminace 2007, 19(2):5-24

Empatie a (filmová) fikce

Studie se zabývá otázkami emočních reakcí na postavy a události, které jsou fiktivní, a racionálností tohoto přístupu. Autor se zaměřuje na oblast empatie, a to se zvláštním ohledem na možnost empatických reakcí na fikční filmy.

Klíčová slova: filozofie a film; psychologický vliv filmu; fikce ve filmu

Emapthy and (Film) Fiction

The study addresses the issues of emotional reactions to fictional characters and events and the rationality of this approach. The author focuses on the area of empathy, with particular reference to the possibility of empathetic responses to fictional films.

Keywords: philosophy and film; psychological influence of film; fiction in film

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filozofie a film; psychologický vliv filmu; fikce ve filmu

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Studie se zabývá otázkami emočních reakcí na postavy a události, které jsou fiktivní, a racionálností tohoto přístupu. Autor se zaměřuje na oblast empatie, a to se zvláštním ohledem na možnost empatických reakcí na fikční filmy.

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学术建制化的一篇文章，对于近期策展安排的评价

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学术建制化的一篇文章，对于近期策展安排的评价

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艺术家调研，关于图像捕捉信息传递的。参考里面

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艺术家调研，关于图像捕捉信息传递的。参考里面文本简介

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A british concept artist, richie culver adds a unique dynamic to exploratory and improvisational art. Originating from Hull, Richie's art narrates different period in his life through paintings and sculptures.

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The Use of Urine in Art

Urine's appearance in art has a long history that began in the 1600s. During this time, paintings depicting doctors and physicians holding bottles of urine became common across Europe. Urology, the branch of medicine concerned with the urinary system, was a popular subject of interest. Unsurprisingly, western doctors of the 1600s had a much different understanding of urine than today's medical professionals. Seventeenth-century doctors regularly inspected, smelled, and tasted the urine samples of their patients. This widespread practice became so closely linked to physicians that urine flasks became a popular symbol of the occupation-much like how we associate stethoscopes with doctors today. By the end of the 1600s, uroscopy fell out of common medical practice and subsequently fell out of favor in paintings. Hundreds of years later, urine's use in art has found its footing again-but today, its presence has drastically different meanings. Often, contemporary artists use art to open dialogue about sexuality and gender. The following list of works display this pattern with one exception, Andres Serrano's Piss Christ, which is such an iconic use of urine in art that it could not be ignored in this article.

Urine Wheel via Wikimedia

Andy Warhol, Oxidation and Piss Painting (1977-1978)

Andy Warhol's Oxidation Paintings and Piss Paintings are both created with urine but executed using different methods. To create the Oxidation works, Warhol would spread a canvas on the floor, coat it with copper paint, and then direct his assistants to urinate on it while the paint was still wet. The acid from the urine oxidized the metal in the paint, changing its color. Warhol preferred the urinary contributions of his assistant, Ronny Cutrone, due to his vitamin B intake. His urine reacted with the copper paint to create a particularly eye-catching hue. For his Piss Paintings, Warhol directed his workers to urinate on a prepared canvas. These works are often interpreted as a slight to Jackson Pollock, who was rumored to have urinated on canvases before giving them to clients he didn't like. Warhol found Pollock's macho bravado ridiculous and substituted Pollock's method of flinging paint from a paintbrush with flinging fluids from genitalia instead. These works can also be analyzed within the sex politics of the 70s. Warhol was known for anticipating trends and never wanted to be left behind. He likely took inspiration from the works of Robert Mapplethorpe.

Andy Warhol, Oxidation and Piss Painting via Artland Magazine

Robert Mapplethorpe, Jim and Tom Sausalito (1978)

This photograph features a black-and-white image depicting two men wearing S&M gear. One of the men stands while the other kneels and a stream of urine flows from the standing man into the open mouth of the one who kneels. Mapplethorpe was infamous for his transgressive photographs that celebrated the artist's place among the queer community in New York. While Mapplethorpe did not consider his work to be a form of activism, the response to his S&M photos did spark social discussion. These photos were taken during the height of HIV/AIDS, an era marked by rampant homophobia. t Amidst threats of censorship, queer voices came together to support Mapplethorpe's works and affirm their value. While some viewed this art as indecent and pornographic, others saw it as an exploration of sexuality and the human body. During a time saturated with homophobia, Mapplethrope's inclusive and unapologetic celebration of sexual liberation was inspirational.

Andres Serrano, Piss Christ (1987)

Iconic and controversial, this work features a photo of a small crucifix that has been dunked in the artist's own amber-yellow urine. The image has caused lasting controversy- 10 years after its debut, an enraged viewer tried to remove it from the gallery wall.In 2011, the work was vandalized by two angry Christians armed with hammers. Rather than to stir controversy from the pious, Serrano intended to give viewers the opportunity to reflect on the societal commodification of Jesus. The lasting influence of Piss Christ on the art world is undeniable, despite its contentious reputation.

Immersion (Piss Christ) photograph by Andres Serrano, 1987 150×100 cm Cibachrome print via Artland Magazine

Helen Chadwick, Piss Flowers (1991-92)

Piss Flowers is comprised of 12 bronze sculptures that Chadwick created alongside her then-partner, David Notarius. Chadwick placed a flower-shaped metal cutter in the snow, then squatted over the metal cutter and urinated at the center of the flower. Chadwick then directed Notarius to urinate around her mark by following the shape of the flower. When the urination was complete, Chadwick poured plaster into the shapes left behind in the snow. The cast was then inverted and attached to a pedestal, cast in bronze, and then enameled white. The inverted flower would have a long-rounded shape at its center and smaller raised bumps around the petals. Chadwick's mark at the center created a far more phallic shape than the shallow divots/bumps left by her male partner, who stood when urinating. Thus, Chadwick's urine took on masculine imagery, while Notarius created the feminine petals of the flower. This gender reversal represented a challenge to traditional binary norms of gender and sexuality.

Helen Chadwick, Piss Flowers via Wikipedia

Itziar Okariz, To Pee in Public and Private Spaces (2000-2004)

In this series of performance pieces, Okariz chose specific locations at which, with no prior warning, she publicly urinated. Due to the illegality of her art, Okariz often selected a time when less people would be around. In these works, Okariz urinated with her legs spread in a strong stance, standing up. She filmed herself this way to mimic masculinity and its associated machismo. Her work repeatedly employed this motif, in order to comment on the brazen audacity of the male performance of sexuality. For this series, Okariz urinated in striking locations, from Brooklyn Bridge to an underground train station. She wears a simple black outfit that consists of a long-sleeve shirt and skirt that she hikes up when peeing. Often, she stands staring defiantly into the camera, and on one occasion, her daughter even makes an appearance, held in a sling as her mother urinates. Her photographs represent a compelling examination of masculinity and, like Chadwick's work, offer a robust inversion of gender norms.

To Pee in Public and Private Space, Itziar Okariz, via @Em_Trinidad on X

Cassils, PISSED and Fountain (2017)

Cassils is a transmasculine artist who created PISSED and Fountain in response to Donald Trump's removal of bathroom protections for transgender students. Cassils began working on PISSED the very day that Trump announced this discriminatory policy. For 200 days, Cassils collected every drop of urine from their body. PISSED culminated in a plexiglass cube filled with the collected urine. Fountain, a powerful piece of performative art,was conceptualized in tandem with PISSED. Cassils performed Fountain in the same gallery, PISSED, which was displayed. Cassils stood on a high white pedestal with a glass water bottle, a kitchen funnel, and an orange jug. For two hours, Cassils drank the water and, when nature called, publicly urinated into the orange jug. Accompanying this performance was audio from the Gavin Grimm court case, in which a transgender teen fought his Virginia school for the right to use the boys' bathroom and lost. Upon conclusion of the two-hour display, the urine from this piece was added to the PISSED cube. This work brilliantly criticized the transphobic policies that deny gender-nonconforming individuals their basic human rights-rights that have been increasingly under fire in recent years. Cassils' work is filled with rage and bitter determination. Their use of urine delivered a powerful statement that speaks to the denial of trans and gender non-conforming individuals' essential bodily functions.

Pissed by Cassils. Photo credits: Alejandro Santiago via Cassils

Many of these art pieces feel reminiscent of the works of Judith Butler, who asserts that gender is a negotiation and a performance: "Masculine and feminine roles are not biologically fixed but socially constructed." They remind us that sexuality and gender exist on spectrums and that individuals' experiences with this aspect of their lives should be treated with care and respect. While urine's first debut in art was from a medicinal perspective, its use has expanded to discussions of the human condition. Urine has been used to spark important conversations about gender, sexuality, and religion. From inverting gender stereotypes to advocating for the rights of the trans community, urine and the act of urination have demonstrated irrefutable power in art.

©ArtRKL™️ LLC 2021-2023. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. ArtRKL™️ and its underscore design indicate trademarks of ArtRKL™️ LLC and its subsidiaries.

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Urine's appearance in art has a long history that began in paintings of doctors in the 1600s. Hundreds of years later, urine's use in art has reemerged to recontextualize discussions of gender, sexuality, and religion.

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A Lissajous figure, made by releasing sand from a container at the end of a Blackburn pendulum

A Lissajous curve , also known as Lissajous figure or Bowditch curve , is the graph of a system of parametric equations

which describe the superposition of two perpendicular oscillations in x and y directions of different angular frequency ( a and b). The resulting family of curves was investigated by Nathaniel Bowditch in 1815, and later in more detail in 1857 by Jules Antoine Lissajous (for whom it has been named). Such motions may be considered as a particular kind of complex harmonic motion.

The appearance of the figure is sensitive to the ratio . For a ratio of 1, when the frequencies match a=b, the figure is an ellipse, with special cases including circles (, radians) and lines ( δ = 0). A small change to one of the frequencies will mean the x oscillation after one cycle will be slightly out of synchronization with the y motion and so the ellipse will fail to close and trace a curve slightly adjacent during the next orbit showing as a precession of the ellipse. The pattern closes if the frequencies are whole number ratios i.e. is rational.

Another simple Lissajous figure is the parabola (, ). Again a small shift of one frequency from the ratio 2 will result in the trace not closing but performing multiple loops successively shifted only closing if the ratio is rational as before. A complex dense pattern may form see below.

The visual form of such curves is often suggestive of a three-dimensional knot, and indeed many kinds of knots, including those known as Lissajous knots, project to the plane as Lissajous figures.

Visually, the ratio determines the number of "lobes" of the figure. For example, a ratio of or produces a figure with three major lobes (see image). Similarly, a ratio of produces a figure with five horizontal lobes and four vertical lobes. Rational ratios produce closed (connected) or "still" figures, while irrational ratios produce figures that appear to rotate. The ratio determines the relative width-to-height ratio of the curve. For example, a ratio of produces a figure that is twice as wide as it is high. Finally, the value of δ determines the apparent "rotation" angle of the figure, viewed as if it were actually a three-dimensional curve. For example, δ = 0 produces x and y components that are exactly in phase, so the resulting figure appears as an apparent three-dimensional figure viewed from straight on (0°). In contrast, any non-zero δ produces a figure that appears to be rotated, either as a left-right or an up-down rotation (depending on the ratio ).

Lissajous figure on an oscilloscope, displaying a 1:3 relationship between the frequencies of the vertical and horizontal sinusoidal inputs, respectively. This particular Lissajous figure was adapted into the logo for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation

A circle is a simple Lissajous curve

are Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind of degree N. This property is exploited to produce a set of points, called Padua points, at which a function may be sampled in order to compute either a bivariate interpolation or quadrature of the function over the domain [−1,1] × [−1,1].

The relation of some Lissajous curves to Chebyshev polynomials is clearer to understand if the Lissajous curve which generates each of them is expressed using cosine functions rather than sine functions.

Animation showing curve adaptation as the ratio a / b increases from 0 to 1

The animation shows the curve adaptation with continuously increasing fraction from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.01 ( δ = 0).

Lissajous figures: various frequency relations and phase differences

Prior to modern electronic equipment, Lissajous curves could be generated mechanically by means of a harmonograph.

Lissajous curves can also be generated using an oscilloscope (as illustrated). An octopus circuit can be used to demonstrate the waveform images on an oscilloscope. Two phase-shifted sinusoid inputs are applied to the oscilloscope in X-Y mode and the phase relationship between the signals is presented as a Lissajous figure.

In the professional audio world, this method is used for realtime analysis of the phase relationship between the left and right channels of a stereo audio signal. On larger, more sophisticated audio mixing consoles an oscilloscope may be built-in for this purpose.

On an oscilloscope, we suppose x is CH1 and y is CH2, A is the amplitude of CH1 and B is the amplitude of CH2, a is the frequency of CH1 and b is the frequency of CH2, so is the ratio of frequencies of the two channels, and δ is the phase shift of CH1.

A purely mechanical application of a Lissajous curve with a = 1, b = 2 is in the driving mechanism of the Mars Light type of oscillating beam lamps popular with railroads in the mid-1900s. The beam in some versions traces out a lopsided figure-8 pattern on its side.

In this figure both input frequencies are identical, but the phase difference between them creates the shape of an ellipse.

Top: Output signal as a function of time.
Middle: Input signal as a function of time.
Bottom: Resulting Lissajous curve when output is plotted as a function of the input.
In this particular example, because the output is 90 degrees out of phase from the input, the Lissajous curve is a circle, and is rotating counterclockwise.

When the input to an LTI system is sinusoidal, the output is sinusoidal with the same frequency, but it may have a different amplitude and some phase shift. Using an oscilloscope that can plot one signal against another (as opposed to one signal against time) to plot the output of an LTI system against the input to the LTI system produces an ellipse that is a Lissajous figure for the special case of . The aspect ratio of the resulting ellipse is a function of the phase shift between the input and output, with an aspect ratio of 1 (perfect circle) corresponding to a phase shift of ±90° and an aspect ratio of ∞ (a line) corresponding to a phase shift of 0° or 180°.[citation needed ]

The figure below summarizes how the Lissajous figure changes over different phase shifts. The phase shifts are all negative so that delay semantics can be used with a causal LTI system (note that −270° is equivalent to +90°). The arrows show the direction of rotation of the Lissajous figure.[citation needed ]

A pure phase shift affects the eccentricity of the Lissajous oval. Analysis of the oval allows phase shift from an LTI system to be measured.

A Lissajous curve is used in experimental tests to determine if a device may be properly categorized as a memristor.[citation needed ] It is also used to compare two different electrical signals: a known reference signal and a signal to be tested.

Lissajous animation

Lissajous figures were sometimes displayed on oscilloscopes meant to simulate high-tech equipment in science-fiction TV shows and movies in the 1960s and 1970s.

Lissajous figures are sometimes used in graphic design as logos. Examples include:

Lissajous curves have been used in the past to graphically represent musical intervals through the use of the Harmonograph, a devise that consists of pendulums oscillating at different frequency ratios. Because different tuning systems employ different frequency ratios to define intervals, these can be compared using Lissajous curves to observe their differences. Therefore, Lissajous curves have applications in music education by graphically representing differences between intervals and among tuning systems.

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A Lissajous curve , also known as Lissajous figure or Bowditch curve , is the graph of a system of parametric equations which describe the superposition of two perpendicular oscillations in x and y directions of different angular frequency ( a and b).

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A Collective Invention: Photographs at Play, New York

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Ways of Seeing is a 1972 television series of 30-minute films created chiefly by writer John Berger and producer Mike Dibb. It was broadcast on BBC Two in January 1972 and adapted into a book of the same name.

The series was intended as a response to Kenneth Clark's Civilisation TV series, which represents a more traditionalist view of the Western artistic and cultural canon, and the series and book criticise traditional Western cultural aesthetics by raising questions about hidden ideologies in visual images. According to James Bridle, Berger "didn't just help us gain a new perspective on viewing art with his 1972 series Ways of Seeing - he also revealed much about the world in which we live. Whether exploring the history of the female nude or the status of oil paint, his landmark series showed how art revealed the social and political systems in which it was made. He also examined what had changed in our ways of seeing in the time between when the art was made and today."

The series has had a lasting influence, and in particular introduced the concept of the male gaze, as part of his analysis of the treatment of the nude in European painting. It soon became popular among feminists, including the British film critic Laura Mulvey, who used it to critique traditional media representations of the female character in cinema.

The book Ways of Seeing was written by Berger and Dibb, along with Sven Blomberg, Chris Fox, and Richard Hollis. The book consists of seven numbered essays: four using words and images; and three essays using only images.

Now described as "revolutionary", the book has contributed to feminist readings of popular culture, through essays that focus particularly on how women are portrayed in advertisements and oil paintings. "Berger ... has had a profound influence on the popular understanding of art and the visual image," according to sociologists Yasmin Gunaratnam and Vikki Bell.

The book and television series were considered groundbreaking. A 1994 critic noted

There is one occasion when other voices are introduced, in the second programme, about representations of women - reflecting Berger's awareness that he's been speaking on behalf of women too long. About two-thirds through, he says he's shown what he's done so far to 'five women', and asked them to discuss it. The discussion occupies the rest of the time. A clear gesture of openness. But the 'five women' remain unnamed until the closing credits. They are women. And Berger himself actually sits in on the discussion - in fact he chairs it, with complete confidence in the non-prejudicial nature of his own presence.

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Ways of Seeing is a 1972 television series of 30-minute films created chiefly by writer John Berger and producer Mike Dibb. It was broadcast on BBC Two in January 1972 and adapted into a book of the same name.

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艺术在机械复制时代的意义

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艺术在机械复制时代的意义

最初，艺术与传统的语境整合在崇拜中得到了体现。我们知道，最早的艺术作品起源于仪式——首先是魔法，然后是宗教。重要的是，艺术作品的存在与其光环从未完全脱离其仪式功能。换言之，“真实”艺术作品的独特价值在于仪式，即其原始使用价值的位置。这种仪式基础，无论多么遥远，即使在最亵渎的美崇拜形式中，仍然可以被认为是世俗化的仪式。

现代人对被复制的合法要求。在这种情况下，电影业正努力通过促进幻觉的奇观和可疑的猜测来激发大众的兴趣。

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图像的物质性

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Voyage(s) en utopie (Jean-Luc Godard, exhibition at the Centre Pompidou, 2006)

In this essay, an earlier version of which was given as the Daphne Mayo Lecture at the University of Queensland on October 8, 2014, Thomas Elsaesser examines the increasingly strategic role played by art spaces in the preservation and promotion of a certain idea of "cinema". He argues that museums and galleries have been staking their claim to be the guardians of cinema as cultural memory and the patrons of moving image installations, leading to new alliances between filmmakers, curators and major institutions that have favoured media-archaeological perspectives on "cinema after film", thereby giving the various kinds of obsolescence their special status as a gesture of both recovery and resistance.

It will not have escaped anyone's attention that the moving image - in the form of either video installations, monitors or black box film projections - has made a dramatic entry into the contemporary art scene. Suddenly screen and projection, motion and sound are everywhere, when previously hushed silence and the stillness of immersive contemplation reigned supreme in the temples of art we call museums. Some reasons are internal to the development of modern art practice, if one accepts that for many of today's artists, a digital camera and a computer are as much primary tools of the trade as a paintbrush and canvas, or bronze and stone were a hundred years ago. Other reasons are more conjunctural, and in what follows, it is the latter I want to attend to. If approached from the side of the museum, the move towards incorporating film took place against the background of several parallel developments: the opening of Museums of Contemporary Art as an urban magnet in virtually every developed city or university town since the 1980s, and the general transformation of museums away from exclusivity and elitism, in the direction of spectacle and popular attraction, supported by major exhibitions, curated in order to travel to different places and tour the world, while generating the kind of attention (and revenue) previously reserved for high production-value Hollywood films.

If one adds to these blockbuster exhibitions the proliferation of Venice Biennales, Whitney bi-annuals, Kassel documenta's and their replicas in Sao Paulo, Istanbul, Shanghai, one realises that museums have not only been on a convergence course with Hollywood studio-productions but also with the film festival circuit which - with more festivals than days in the year - now generates and funds, gate-keeps and polices a large part of the world's non-Hollywood film production. As a consequence, the dramatic increase in scale of the world's museum exhibition space, and the need to put on several new shows a year, has created an enormous demand for new work from fresh talent, bringing into the museum precisely those artists whose background and training makes them utilise contemporary materials and technologies, but also creating openings for the work of an earlier generation of filmmakers and video artists.

Among the artists-turned-filmmakers, perhaps the best known are Bill Viola, Tacita Dean, Pipilotti Rist, Fischli & Weiss, Johan Grimonprez, Matthew Barney, Omer Fast, Tracy Emin, Douglas Gordon, Sam Taylor-Wood, Isaac Julien and Steve McQueen. The cross-over filmmakers turned installation artists are also numerous, but a snapshot of the filmmakers who, for the first time, were invited to show their work or make original pieces for a major exhibition, may give an idea. I am thinking of Kassel's documenta X, curated in 1997 by Catherine David, who had already been involved in another major show that brought together film, video and installation art in Paris: L'Entr'images, which she did in 1990 together with Raymond Bellour and Christine Assche. David invited to documenta X filmmakers from France, Germany, Belgium, Russia and Britain, among them Harun Farocki, Jon Jost, Johan Grimonprez, Chris Marker, Christoph Schlingensief, Alexander Sokurov, as well as Hans-Jürgen Syberberg, many of whom then went on to specialise in installations only, such as Harun Farocki (a filmmaker whom I have been following and writing about for 40 years). Documenta XI added Chantal Akerman, Eija-Liisa Ahtila, Kutlug Ataman, Fiona Tan, Shirin Neshat and Ulrike Ottinger to the list, some of whom made films that also yielded exhibitions (with photographs, installations, objects and re-enactments complementing the films), such as Ulrike Ottinger and Chantal Akerman. Then, there is the case of Agnès Varda, who thanks to the museum, reinvented herself and revitalized her career as both installation artist and filmmaker. Finally, there were filmmakers who turned against the museum in the museum: most spectacularly Jean-Luc Godard with his exhibition at the Centre Pompidou Voyage(s) en Utopie: À la recherché d'un théorème perdu in 2006, which caused something increasingly rare, namely a genuine scandal, since it cost almost a million euros to put on, and looked like Godard had tipped out his trash can of useless gear and botched model drawings and laid them out on the Pompidou floor.

Godard was protesting not least against the fact that art had become a debased, commercial medium, with exhibitions the theme parks for the world's middle-classes. For the kind of art tourism that now sustains not only Paris and New York, Amsterdam and Venice, Berlin and Vienna, Seoul and Shanghai, but also Belfast, Bilbao and Brisbane, the moving image as both art object and source of information has become indispensable. For Godard, it was the cinema which was now called upon to cleanse and purify the museum, rather than the other way around, whereas Pompidou curators like Dominique Païni and Philippe-Alain Michaud argued that it was the museum's task to take in hand the film industry, make it inoperative, or useless, before reviving it as the nation's patrimony and cultural memory. To these lofty ambitions, Godard responded by turning the museum into a pigsty, as if to hold up a mirror to their arrogance of thinking the cinema needed rescuing because it had sunk so low into commercialism, without acknowledging that the museum itself had long ago made commercial considerations part of their own priorities.

For as museums lowered the threshold of entry, as it were, from exclusivity to popularity, with the museum shop becoming the beating heart of the collection, there is also the tendency of trying to "bring to life" its traditional objects and artifacts, be they paintings, drawings or sculptures. And this "life" is best conveyed through the moving image, with museums increasingly deploying film not only as art installations, but in their promotional videos camouflaged as guides to the collection. There, museums try to valorise (as well as monetise) their more classical assets by using the techniques of film and advertising: letting the camera "touch" a painting, isolating telling details on the canvas, and highlighting individual gestures, the richness of fabrics or sumptuous textures in a Renaissance portrait. In short, the videos, posters and postcards of a Manet retrospective or a Max Liebermann exhibition freely use such eminently cinematic techniques as montage, dissolves and close-ups to simulate the riot of colors or the drama of movement and action, as if a Rubens, a Tintoretto, or even the quiet Vermeer and the contemplative Rembrandt had always wanted to makes movies (or take 'selfies'), and just didn't have the tools yet.

But this popular bent and commercial clout also implies that the big brand museums - networked or franchised as they now are - along with the private galleries, with which they have complicated but symbiotic relationships, have the means to commission artists to make films and videos, eager to bring into the fold also that earlier generation of avant-garde filmmakers, educated through the co-op movement, adamantly anti-narrative and committed to the materiality of film. These filmmakers - Michael Snow, Hollis Frampton, Ken Jacobs, Stan Brakhage - were more interested in exploring the ontologies of cinema than elbowing their way into the museum as an exhibition space, put off not least because of the often inadequate viewing conditions that prevailed well into the 1980s, but more fundamentally opposed to the museum because of the very real differences between the museum and the cinema as specific sites and discursive spaces, with their distinct histories, spatial arrangements and attention economies. For however snugly a "black box" can be fitted into the "white cube" with just a few mobile walls and plenty of dark fabric, the museum is no cinema and the cinema no museum: most obviously because of the different time economies and temporal vectors, which oblige even a dedicated museum visitor to "sample" a film rather than watch it in its entirety, and to constantly adjust his or her attention span, navigating between concentration and distraction. When going to the movies, by contrast, I know in advance that I am committing a two-hour-plus segment of my time and my life, and I readily submit to the relentless forward thrust and irreversibility of the moving image on the screen. The bodily differences are also crucial: upright and peripatetic in the art-space, supine and immobile in the cinema.

How, then, are these tensions or outright oppositions to be resolved or overcome? One way is to stage them quite explicitly (and sadistically, as Godard did), or to highlight the different parameters. At documenta 12, for instance, the chief curators Roger Bürgel and Ruth Noack decided not to show any films or film fragments within the different sites of the exhibition, but commissioned the director of the Vienna Cinematheque, Alex Horwath, to program appropriate films in a cinema, thus designating a film theatre as an exhibition space, while respecting its distinct autonomy. And Horwath did indeed show 96 films in separate sessions and séances, often standing at the entrance and frowning at people who left the screenings midway. In his curatorial statement, Horwath programmatically declared: "The format and space [of the film theatre] are based on the physical and technical characteristics of the medium. They allow film to be perceived on a specific level of intensity to which it owes its historical success." In other words, what might seem either self-evident (films should be shown on the big screen) or the opinion of a conservative cinephile, trying to stem the tide, here becomes the assertion of the modernist art historical argument: asserting medium-specificity and the principle of absorption, in terms reminiscent of Michael Fried's famous essay "Art and Objecthood".

The Dutch artist duo de Rijke and de Rooij are known for imposing similarly strict prescriptions for the screening (this time within the gallery or museum space) of their works, which are often ten-minute static shots, taking from a carefully chosen vantage point. In one of their best-known films, entitled "Untitled" (a gesture that in itself immediately refers us to an art-world practice) they show a Djakarta cemetery with a skyline of modern high-rises. As Erika Balsom comments: "Unlike most moving image artists, the duo insists that their films be exhibited in custom-designed spaces at particular screening times. The projector is enclosed in a soundproof booth and any potential distraction is minimised. Describing these rooms as "minimal sculptures," de Rijke and de Rooij are interested in the vacancy resulting from the span of time between projections, when the room will be white and empty. [...] With screening times posted outside of the room, the viewer is expected to sit, wait for the film to start, and stay until its end."

De Rijke and de Rooij, in other words, resolve the contradictions between cinema and museum by compounding and exacerbating them, putting the spectator into a state of cognitive dissonance and bodily double bind. A less severe but no less conceptual approach is taken by Anthony McCall, a British artist who began from within the London filmmakers' Coop movement, along with figures such as Peter Gidal, Malcolm LeGrice and Steve Dwoskin, who called themselves "structuralist-materialists". Strictly anti-illusionist, Gidal, for instance, would argue against both narrative and representation, claiming that in narrative films: "the real substance of what is being shown on film is overtaken by what it 'stands for' or 'represents'. A film must rely only on the materiality of the image; it should document nothing." Although resolutely thinking of himself as a filmmaker, hostile to the museum, Gidal nonetheless here voices a credo that is directly inspired by the art historian Clement Greenberg and his insistence that the subject matter of a work must be based on the distinct materiality of the medium being used.

McCall - coming from within the same context as Peter Gidal, nonetheless chose a different way of resolving the tensions between cinema's sensuous appeal and the modernists' more ascetic aesthetics. In his most famous work, Line Describing a Cone (1972), McCall projects a 30-minute film which does exactly what the title suggests: a white line is gradually traced until it depicts a complete circle on the screen. But what the audiences focuses on - since there clearly is no narrative progress, even though a distinct time-line is given through the completion of the circle as moment of closure - what we focus on is the projector beam that gradually forms this white cone of light into which we can step, and which is made more material, tactile and dense by having a fine jet of water or chalk dust sprayed into the auditorium (it used to be cigarette smoke, but those days of smoking in the cinema are long gone).

McCall here fully affirms his commitment to cinema - making the projector the iconic representative of some of the key characteristics of cinema as a distinct and specific medium: projection, luminosity, transparency - but purging it of what it shares with other media, such as narrative, characters and story, while nonetheless making the spectator the central figure. This spectator, however, is reminded that s/he is not only a pair of eyes, but also a body, eager to feel and to touch: a desire that Line Describing a Cone both gratifies and suspends, because there is nothing to touch, except to become aware of the desire itself. At the same time, McCall opens his work up to the museum space insofar as the cone clearly has sculptural qualities. To complicate matters further, Line Describing a Cone is an anti-sculpture sculpture: in the museum, a sculpture solicits your touch, but museum protocol bars you from touching it, whereas you are free to try and touch the cone, but what you actually touch is pure light: the irreducible essence of cinema, so that it is the museum that here teaches you what is essential and specific about cinema.

In the best tradition of minimalist art (which can pile layers upon layers of complex and contradictory association in the simplest and cleanest of objects), McCall elegantly and with supreme economy demonstrates what the museum, as both an institution and a space with a long tradition (and not only deep pockets) can do for the cinema, in its hour of need or crisis: it can recall it to its essentials, and thereby purge or cleanse it, by confronting it with what it is and what it is not. It is this ability to generate out of a confrontation based on legitimate differences a kind of antagonistic mutuality and cooperation, which makes the encounter between cinema and museum at its best so exhilarating and productive, and helps the cinema retain its autonomy while regaining some of the prestige and cultural value that both commercialism and easy access or over-abundance had stripped of it, and that French cinephilia of the 1950s and 60s Cahiers du cinéma school had worked so hard to build up for Hollywood and its directors.

What is special about McCall is that here is a filmmaker who valorises cinema by means of the museum, rather than a museum director or exhibition curator lording it over the cinema, and that he does so in a more ironic, self-effacing and playfully engaging way than, for instance, de Rijke and de Roij's rather arbitrary and authoritarian imposition of rules on the spectator and the institution, or even Horwath's curatorial statement that does not invite either dissent or debate.

McCall's origins in the London Co-op Movement are a reminder that during the 1960s and 1970s there was a parallel development - mainly, though not exclusively located in New York - emerging from within the art-world, and also close to minimalism and conceptual art, where artists began to use portable video as their primary tools, and the monitor (rather than projection) as their material-immaterial support. These artists include Peter Campus, Gary Hill, Dan Graham and Yoko One, often inspired by Nam Jun Paik or the German artist Wolf Vostell. Insofar as their work focused on the monitor rather than on projection, the primary reference was to sculpture and occasionally painting, and perhaps touched the cinema only in some of the works of Gary Hill who "spatialises" the cinematic technique of montage and the close-up across a bank of monitors re-articulating the human body across its media-monitor fragmentation. Other artists, such as Joan Jonas, made video pieces, which - while being shown in museums - also entered other public spaces, in the context of performance art and happenings. This further complicates the genealogies of these two strands - video artists on the one hand, and materialist filmmakers on the other - whose trajectory began to converge with the introduction of high-resolution projection equipment in the 1990s, leading some video artists to claim pioneer and precursor status with respect to artists' cinema and digital videos, while materialist filmmakers were faced with the dilemma of either insisting on the original materiality of their work, making it largely inaccessible for a contemporary public, or appearing to compromise on their theoretical positions and remake or convert their works into digital formats. Notable examples of the latter are Ken Jacobs and Michael Snow, who found quite an original way of resolving the conundrum, by re-issuing his most celebrated film, Wavelength, in a digital format, calling it WVLNT: Wavelength for those who don't have the time (2003).

By mentioning so explicitly the time factor of the move from film theatre to museum space, Snow shows a very astute awareness of the main parameter around which artists try to creatively respond to the new realities of their survival as filmmakers, within the tendentially inhospitable or counterproductive environment of the museum. One strategy of claiming the cinema as one's natural habitat, but bursting the boundaries of both movie-theatre and museum, is to produce work that massively extends duration. While filmmakers like Syberberg ( Unser Hitler, 1977, 442 minutes), Béla Tarr ( Sátántangó, 1994, 340 minutes) or Jean-Luc Godard (with his 260-minutes Histoire(s) du cinema, 1988-1998) test the limits of cinema, Douglas Gordon has made his 24-Hour Psycho specifically for the gallery space, in a gesture that simultaneously honours and repudiates both cinema and the museum. Such works openly and explicitly also challenge the exhibition visitors' own time-economy (rarely more than a few minutes in front of an installation, and maybe a little longer inside the black box). The mis-match creates its own aesthetics: for instance, how do I, as viewer, when confronted with such overlong works, manage my anxiety of missing the key moment, and how do I balance this anxious anticipation against my sense of surfeit and saturation, of creeping boredom and mounting sense that I might be taken for a ride (albeit in a very static vehicle). As one art critic put it: "Why is it that whenever I come across Douglas Gordon's 24-Hour Psycho, all I ever get is some dull, stop-go, slo-mo frames from the car purchase scene, or a man taking 10 minutes to walk jerkily around a desk? I've never yet, in the 9 years this work has been doing the international rounds, seen the shower scene. That's my luck, or the lack of it."

Such extreme slowing down refocuses our attention in so many different ways, turning action into abstraction and photography into pointillism, veering towards the video image reminding us that it is from a late-night television broadcast that Gordon took his Psycho. We are almost in the realm of animation, the photographic mode becoming once more a graphic mode, and in its blurry effect already hinting at the pixilated break up point of the digital image.

These extended works, by confronting us viewers with our own temporality (and thus, our mortality) are no doubt also a filmmaker's way of actively "resisting" the quick glance and the rapid appropriation by the casual museum visitor. Regret like missing the shower scene, or a bad conscience for slipping away after a minute or two from a three-hour video, have to be part of an artist's calculation: his sole consolation or her sly revenge.

If almost no-one has ever seen 24-Hour Psycho in its entirety, because no museum is open for 24 hours (except the Guggenheim, once, putting on an all night round of accompanying lectures and performances), the gesture was already anticipated in the avant-garde film world with Andy Warhol's Empire (1964) or Sleep (1963). However, the contemporary counterpart - which does obligate the museum or gallery to be open the full 24 hours - is Christian Marclay's hugely successful The Clock - a 24-hour perfectly synchronised time-piece that also functions as a fanboy's history of the cinema , combining the daring challenge to the museum's office or store-like opening hours with the no less problematic, but opposite aesthetics of the found footage film, taking fragments from works conceived as autonomous, and approximating the on-line mash-up or super-cut, which Marclay subverts by the sheer superhuman skill, diligence and dedication he has invested in his work, daring the spectator to resist the very cinematic pull and suspense his rapidly edited snippets of well-known movies with famous stars exert on us.

Other artists have equally responded to the time-factor by relying on montage, on juxtaposition and the quick cut to capture the spectator and accommodate random attention and impatient selectivity. Or they develop new forms of the short film and the sampler, found-footage compilations or the video-essay, looped forms and other iterative or serial modes. In the film work of, for instance, Matthias Müller, Johan Grimonprez or Martin Arnold it is repetition and looping, as well as stretching and slowing down, that takes over from linear narrative or argumentative trajectories, as the structuring principles of moving image works destined for the museum.

All these works are appropriations, re-workings of Hollywood films, and thus can be viewed as direct engagements with the mainstream cinematic legacy, entering with canonical or popular works into a fraught and ambivalent dialogue. An early example, still made for the cinema), Martin Arnold's Life Wastes Andy Hardy is typical for the 1980s: it still contains some of the traces of the old hostility of the filmic avant-garde towards Hollywood, and Arnold's brute manipulation of filmic materiality (and the addition of extraneous, but carefully calibrated sound) exploits a fine line between fascination with Hollywood movie magic and disgust at its sentimentality, between acknowledging the precise craftsmanship and aggressing the medium itself, but also aggressing the viewer. By the late 1990s, such mash-ups of "found footage" are more interested in bringing out a different cinematic unconscious, so that Life Wastes Andy Hardy contrasts interestingly with Matthias Müller's more cinephile Home Stories or Müller and Christian Girardet's reworking of Hitchcock, in their Phoenix Tapes.

The changing attitude to Hollywood movies returns us to another aspect of the alliance of filmmaker and art-space: one of the subtler forces at work in bringing museum and moving image together is the programmatic reflexivity of the museum, the recursiveness of the modern art-work and the increasing self-reference of the cinema regarding its own history. To enter a museum or a gallery is still to cross a special kind of threshold, of seeing objects not only in their material specificity and physical presence, but also to understand this "thereness" diectically: as a special kind of statement, as both a question and a provocation - which has often been discussed under the heading of an art-work's autonomy and self-sufficiency, or more paradoxically evoked in Walter Benjamin's notion of the "aura", which connotes a distance, however close you get - and usually, in a museum, we are not permitted to get too close, while the cinema, of course, in Benjamin's thinking, was precisely the medium that satisfied the contemporary masses who wanted to bring things closer.

Ownership and Found Footage

The liberal and often celebratory rather than critical use of Hollywood films, in order to recast, re-work, re-cycle and re-edit them, is a phenomenon so widespread now that its self-evidence should give us pause and make us ask some pertinent questions, especially in light of my earlier remarks about the museum's self-appointed guardianship of the cinema's patrimony which includes, as we saw, the attempt to save the cinema, if necessary, from itself. How does the museum deal practically, ethically and discursively with this discrepancy, and what might it be symptomatic of? And why is it that Hollywood cinema has become the basic reference point for so much artists' cinema? The answer to the second question - Hollywood as common reference point for artists - brings me back to the point I started with: namely the ready availability of so much of movie history either on the web or as DVDs, at so little cost and effort

What is key, perhaps, is the insouciant and self-evident use of the Hollywood legacy, in the very face of copyright restrictions and punitive actions for infringements. It indicates a general sense of ownership of cinema: as part of culture, it belongs to everybody. Even Hitchcock has become common property, as in Matthias Müller/Christian Girardet or the dozens of artists who have reworked his films, stills or scenes into installations. In one sense, this is tribute, proof that the cinema - popular cinema - is indeed the art of the 20 th century and our shared cultural memory to which we have a right as citizens of the world, and for which need neither the sanction of high culture nor the mediation of the museum. In another sense, however, what we are witnessing are acts of appropriation and post-production that make notions of ownership more problematic. Appropriation is a varied concept and it can carry very different meanings. For instance, it can be used as a more vivid term for reception and spectatorship in general, if we think of the active and interactive role we now tend to assign to the spectator - as viewer, as user, as player - in light of all the different screen activities that are involved in the consumption and apperception of moving images. In the more specific case of popular cinema, appropriation can also signify a gesture of love and an act of devotion. Thus, cinephilia - the particularly intense manner of living the film experience, by wanting to repeat it and to prolong it - should be seen as a form of appropriation. In which case, appropriation implicitly includes a claim to ownership, and this in turn can be either legitimate or illegitimate ownership. Ownership may be understood in legal terms, as copyright or intellectual property rights. But ownership extends to other modalities as well: ownership as the physical possession of the object "film" - something become possible only in relatively recent times, in the form of a DVD or an mp4 file - or it may be the right to do with the object as one pleases: interfere with it, re-edit its scenes and images, or alter it via commentary or sound-track. But ownership can also manifest itself, in the sense of trying to "own" a film's meaning and interpretation and thus claim a particular kind of power over it: the critic's secret dream. Several of these forms of ownership just named would seem to shift appropriation from the realm of reception to an act of production, and in the cases I have been discussing, when it comes to appropriation, reception can become productive (as in the video essay), and production can be a form of reception (as in found footage films) - with both coming together in the concept of post-production: a notion now almost as pervasive in the art-world as it is in Hollywood's special effects and CGI studios.

In the art world, however, the sense of ownership, as already hinted at, is also based on the museums' enhanced self-confidence as the patrons of filmmakers, on behalf of the public and the nation. Since the 1990s, big institutions like Tate Modern, the Pompidou Centre, or the Whitney in New York, began making big claims in this respect, and they usually had the power, the legitimacy (and the money) to enforce these claims: these museums have essentially "acquired" or "appropriated" not only the cinematic avant-garde for their permanent collections, but metaphorically they have also appropriated Hollywood. This new sense of ownership of the cinema that started in the mid-1990s was not unconnected with the already mentioned "death of cinema", except that the more ostensible occasion was the cinema's centenary, which launched a whole series of retrospective recovery missions. Celebrating hundred years of the Lumière Brothers' invention in 1995 became the ideal occasion to praise the cinema, in order to bury it. The success of a number of ambitious, large scale exhibitions by major art institutions, such as Hall of Mirrors at MoCA in Los Angeles, Spellbound at the Hayward Gallery, London, Into the Light at the Whitney in New York, X-Screen at MUMOK in Vienna, Le Mouvement des Images at the Centre Pompidou in Paris, or The Cinema Effect: Illusion, Reality and the Moving Image at the Hirschhorn Gallery at the Smithsonian in Washington, helped to consolidate the notion that the proper place for the history of the cinema is now in the museum.

This is a bold admission of "appropriation", which claims that there has always been a natural fit between the gallery space and the "cinema effect" - we just had not taken the trouble to spell it out. However, the discourse of the curators also hints at a host of contradictions, not thematised explicitly, but nonetheless present between the lines. One is reminded of a dictum by Boris Groys, to the effect that today art is not made by artists, but by curators, because in order to decide what is art, you first have to be in control of the space where it appears; second, of the institution that guarantees its authenticity, and third, of the discourses that legitimate it. This seems to be true of the cinematic archive, too, in the sense that the gesture of appropriation hints at a kind of takeover bid, where it is not yet clear whether it is a hostile or friendly one, and whether it is the museum or the movies that benefit most from their mutual re-alignment and embrace.

It is a lesson not lost on the artists themselves, and their sense of ownership is keen enough to contest some of the acts of the appropriation on the part of the museums, not least by turning themselves into curators, including curators of the cinematic archive: think of the many found footage installations in the oeuvre of Douglas Gordon or Gustav Deutsch. Deutsch's "Film Is" makes poetic compilations out of early silent films, industrial films, medical films, pornography, etc. Not unlike Farocki's installations that focus on "operational images", found footage films expand the canon to include all those areas where the moving image has been used to record and document processes and actions in the fields of medicine and the military, scientific experiment, surveillance as well as the monitoring of natural phenomena and of industrial machinery. Such footage has gathered dust in film archives for decades: artists are now welcome, because they valorise holdings hitherto considered too ephemeral, too trite, too specialised or too much lacking aesthetic interest, to merit exhibition and exposure. Artists' sense of ownership can also make them forget or ignore prior authorship or provenance. At times they strip context or obfuscate the origins of the materials in question, so as to present their re-working and re-staging as a surreal collage of fresh fragment or as the walk-in installation of an uncannily familiar space. The black box then also becomes a black box in the technical sense, as a space within which anything is possible, where input and output are not predetermined.

None of this, however, explains one feature of artists' cinema and the reflexive appropriation of the cinema's history with which I want to end: the many works that pay tribute to the cinema's past, and do so not by re-working favourite films of fond movie-going memories, but by celebrating the cinema's technological demise. What is it with exhibiting the machinery of cinema, its apparatus, often without inserting a film, concentrating on the projected image itself or showing the unwound reel of film in a sad heap of celluloid strips, or endlessly rattling through the projector gate, frantic in its apparent purposelessness, vulnerable in its isolation, or like a child's wind-up toy, flailing the air with its whirring sound of the gears and spools? Examples abound: besides Tacita Dean and Rosa Barba, there is, for instance, Gibson + Recoder and Rodney Graham. Are these installations merely pale echoes of McCall's Line Describing a Cone, or is there also something else at stake? The term I briefly introduced and have alluded to throughout seems to me to hold the key: obsolescence. This is a more complex notion than it might at first appear.

The term "obsolescence" has in recent years appeared in the vocabulary of both media historians and the art world, as a quick look at Google entries will show. In the process, it has significantly changed its meaning, by enlarging its semantic and evaluative range. From being a descriptive term within the technicist-economic discourse of "progress through creative destruction", it became a critical term in Marxist discourse, when designers and marketing people advanced the principle of "built-in" obsolescence, while critics of consumerism in the 1950s, such as Vance Packard, attacked such "planned" obsolescence as both wasteful and immoral. But now the meaning of obsolescence has once more shifted: it has entered the realm of the positive, signifying something like heroic resistance to relentless acceleration, and in the process, has become the badge of honour of the no-longer-useful (which by itself associates the obsolete with the "disinterestedness" of the aesthetic impulse). Obsolescence can even be the rallying point for sustainability and recycling, while also making an eloquent plea for an object-oriented philosophy and a new materialism of singularity and self-sufficiency of being.

In many ways obsolescence seems the overarching concept, under whose broad etymological expanse and varied figurations the appropriation of the cinema as shared heritage, but also its valorisation as the artists' privileged domain proceeds most effectively, forming a slender bridge between an institutional trafficking with nostalgia and retro-fashion, and the artists tentatively or aggressively reflexive re-examination of the cinema. What is crucial, it seems to me, is that obsolescence - now considered as a distinct poetics, and for my purposes here, one of the faces of cinephilia in the age of over-abundance - can herald a different relation between present, past and future, not just by acts of creative anachronism, but also by using technological obsolescence like an anchor, cast into the churning sea of an uncertain future. In this, the artists enact something of deeper significance, also for the rest of us. The present moment, cognisant of its stasis and paralysis, can look at the past's obsolescence as if into a mirror of its own fate, and not only take comfort from it, but by actively preserving these obsolete objects and by treasuring their uselessness, we protect, love and redeem ourselves, in a proxy gesture of half-acknowledged narcissism.

Obsolescence, understood as the surviving witness of past newness while renouncing once-upon-a-time utility, can therefore also harbour utopian aspirations, and even become the vehicle for preserving lost promises and unfulfilled potential. This positive view of the poetics of obsolescence we can trace back to Walter Benjamin and his reflections on the early years of photography (in his "Short History of Photography") and his musings on the surrealist object as both proud and vulnerable in its uselessness. Freed from utility and market value, both the hand-crafted implement and the industrially made commodity can reveal unexpected beauty and deploy a potent charm: out of the transition from use-value to display value, and from cult object to the disenchantment of the world, Benjamin derived not only an exalted view of the collector, but also a whole theory of the origins of art. And nowadays it seems that when reclaiming the discarded, preserving the ephemeral and redeeming the newly useless, we are not that far from paying our tribute to sustainability and the ethics of recycling, even if only in the form of the symbolic act that is the work of art, or the scholarly discourse of the media-archaeologist.

At the heart of many of these processes and phenomena is our own deeply paradoxical cultural moment, where to be retro is to be novel, where "going vintage" is "avant-garde". But it also has a political dimension, since the dialectics of (technological) innovation and (capitalist) obsolescence has in some sense become the fate of the contemporary art world, and its wider implications suggest that the poetics of obsolescence and the idea of progress (or what is left of it) have become the recto and verso of each other: through obsolescence we negatively conjure up the ghost of progress past. One of the strategic uses of obsolescence as a critical concept can be found in the fact that, being a term that inevitably associates both capitalism and technology, it is of special interest in the context of both the art world and audio-visual media, both old and new, because it implicitly acknowledges that today there is no art outside capitalism and technology.

For if capitalism is still the most revolutionary, which is to say, the most disruptive force in the contemporary world, it is at the same time, the untranscendable horizon of our thinking and being. This not only means that there is no outside to the inside, which renders any critical stance that much more difficult to protect from being co-opted, but it gives obsolescence a new kind of self-contradictory dignity: it is on the inside, but it makes its stand against the inside, and thus speaks a paradoxical truth of which it is itself the embodiment.

Obsolescence is "history at a standstill", to vary Benjamin's famous aphorism about the allegorical image. But by arresting history, suspending time and reversing its flow, obsolescence can be a moment of reassessment as well as of renewal, which is why I want to insist that obsolescence implies a special relation of past to present that no longer follows the direct linearity of cause and effect, but takes the form of a loop, where the present rediscovers a certain past, to which it then attributes the power to shape aspects of the future that are now our present. Remaining within Benjamin's frame of reference, we can cite his messianic conception of Jetztzeit or Now-time, and say that "the past is always formed in and by the present. It comes into discourse analeptically in relation to a present, and since it is read from the standpoint of the present, it is proleptic as well, in that it forms 'the time of the now'." This analeptic-proleptic relationship I call the "loop of belatedness", which is to say, we retroactively discover the past to have been prescient and prophetic, as seen from the point of view of some special problem or urgent concern in the here and now. Much of the work of artists and academics, of curators and museum directors is, for good or ill, today caught in this loop of belatedness, where we retroactively assign or attribute uncanny agency to a moment or a figure from the past that suddenly speaks to us in a special way. In fact, if I am right to argue that especially the West is caught in this loop of belatedness, of which obsolescence has become the stubborn emblem (reflected also in the notion of "cinema after film is cinema before film", which underpins my title), then it is no wonder that contingency is fast becoming our new causality, since it promises that flicker of hope, that moment of interruption, that possibility of the event, capable of breaking open a future that already feels foreclosed.

Perhaps the loop of belatedness, whose instantiation as well as interruption I associate with such a poetics of obsolescence, is neither as tautological nor as retrograde as it might appear, but actually describes the human condition. For at the borders of repetition and the replay lies also our mortality, and the irreversibility of the arrow of time applies to all living things. A digital video called Still Life by Sam Taylor Wood makes the point quite poignantly, as the only object unaffected by mortality in this tableau is the plastic ball point pen.

This pen, which can also stand for "cinema" (in the digital age), as it successfully suspends this irreversibility, would seem to mock us with the promise of some sort of immortality, just as the museum, when embracing the cinematic heritage, beckons with the assurance of its timelessness. By contrast, "cinema" as lived experience in the dark space, the cave, the camera obscura, preserves all the terrors of mortality, and becomes the very epitome of our tentative existence as individual subjects and as a species. This is perhaps why Jacques Aumont wants to call "cinema" only that which insists on the irreversibility of the projected image. Appearing retrograde and excessively conservative in rejecting the DVD, he nonetheless gives one possible answer not to the classic question "what is cinema", or the more contemporary "where is cinema", but also to the even more puzzling one: "what is cinema good for"? Aumont makes cinema the memento mori art of the electric and the electronic age, indirectly reminding us that "cinema", in the words attributed to Jean Cocteau, "records death at work", which becomes a paradoxical consolation at a time when cinema is more like "death and life, suspended in digital animation". But Aumont's seemingly harsh verdict also suggests that the gap which the art work can open up in the loop of belatedness, precisely by repeating it, is an important one: it helps us keep the faith in the possibility of a future, even if we cannot be sure whether the digital is or is not the great leveler that voids our past as it suspends our present in an eternal now. A poetics of obsolescence, which invests in the past in order to prepare for possible futures would be the perfect, because suitably precarious, balancing act between both these possibilities.

Endnotes:

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Duncan Caillard, with Scott W. Kekama Amona

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The Loop of Belatedness: Cinema After Film in the Contemporary Art Gallery

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Voyage(s) en utopie (Jean-Luc Godard, exhibition at the Centre Pompidou, 2006) In this essay, an earlier version of which was given as the Daphne Mayo Lecture at the University of Queensland on October 8, 2014, Thomas Elsaesser examines the increasingly strategic role played by art spaces in the preservation and promotion of a certain idea of "cinema".

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三和大神，中国县城的图像景观

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三和大神，中国县城的图像景观

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Some books I'd like, in case you need to get me a gift.

Ælfred's Britain: War and Peace in the Viking Age, Max Adams.

At the Existentialist Cafe, Sarah Bakewell.

The Age of Wonder, Richard Holmes.

All the Wrong Moves, Sasha Chapin.

The Ashtray: (Or the Man Who Denied Reality), Errol Morris.

Backroom Boys, Francis Spufford.

The Black Death (Manchester Medieval Sources), Rosemary Horrox.

Black Teacher, Beryl Gilroy.

Blindsight, Peter Watts.

A Brief History of Neoliberalism, David Harvey.

Capitalist Realism, Mark Fisher.

The Centaur, John Updike.

The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Ruth Benedict.

The City Authentic: How the Attention Economy Builds Urban America, David A. Banks.

Climbers, M. John Harrison.

Cod: A Biography of the Fish that Changed the World, Mark Kurlansky.

CoDex 1962: A Trilogy, Sjón.

The Compleat Strategyst, J.D. Williams.

A Confederacy of Dunces, John Kennedy Toole.

Crossroads, Jonathan Franzen.

Crow Court, Andy Charman.

The Cry of the Owl, Patricia Highsmith.

Cuddy, Benjamin Myers.

The Currency of Politics, Stefan Eich.

Disappearing Earth, Julia Phillips.

Dispatches, Michael Herr.

The Dispossessed, Ursula K. LeGuin.

A Divine Language, Alec Wilkinson.

Down and Out in Paris and London, George Orwell.

The Drowned World, J. G. Ballard.

The Earth Dies Streaming, A. S. Hamrah.

Elite Capture, Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò.

The Embrace of the Fourth Dimension, Mark Blacklock.

Emergent Tokyo: Designing the Spontaneous City, Jorge Almazan.

Erasure, Percival Everett.

Essays (Penguin Modern Classics), George Orwell.

The Essential Turing, B. Jack Copeland (ed.).

The European Eel, Steve Ely.

Evil Men, James Dawes.

Fat City, Leonard Gardner.

The First American: the life and times of Benjamin Franklin, H. W. Brands.

First Love, Last Rites, Ian McEwan.

First You Write a Sentence, Joe Moran.

The Fish Can Sing, Halldór Laxness.

Foolproof, Brian Hayes.

Fred, Posy Simmonds.

The Friendly Young Ladies, Mary Renault.

From Hell, Alan Moore & Eddie Campbell.

Fuccboi, Sean Thor Conroe.

Full Tilt, Dervla Murphy.

Future Sex, Emily Witt.

The Gallows Pole, Benjamin Myers.

Ghosts of Gondwana: The History of Life in New Zealand, George Gibbs.

The Golden Bough, James Frazer.

The Great Railway Bazaar: By Train Through Asia, Paul Theroux.

Half of a Yellow Sun, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.

The Hedgehog and the Fox, Isaiah Berlin.

Hiroshima, John Hersey.

The Honest Rainmaker: The life and times of Colonel John R. Stingo, A. J. Liebling.

How Animals Work, Knut Schmidt-Nelson.

How To Be Depressed, George Scialabba.

House of Leaves, Mark Z. Danielewski.

Hunger Makes Me a Modern Girl, Carrie Brownstein.

I Must Go, Yiyun Li.

The Ice Palace, Tarjei Vessas.

Icelandic Folk Tales, Hjörleifur Helgi Stefánsson.

Idoru, William Gibson.

Imaginary Museums, Nicolette Polek.

Impro (Performance Books), Keith Johnstone.

In My Own Time: thoughts and afterthoughts, Jane Miller.

Indelible City: Dispossession and Defiance in Hong Kong, Louisa Lim.

Infinitesimal, Amir Alexander.

The Infinities, John Banville.

An Instinct for Dragons, David E. Jones.

The Intellectuals and the Masses, John Carey.

The Internet Is Not What You Think It Is, Justin E.H. Smith.

It, Stephen King.

Japan Sinks, Sakyo Komatsu.

The Journals Of A White Sea Wolf, Mariusz Wilk.

Journey to the Edge of Reason: The life of Kurt Gödel, Stephen Budiansky.

Kepler, Max Caspar.

Kokoro, Natsume Sōseki.

K-Punk: The Collected and Unpublished Writings of Mark Fisher, Mark Fisher.

Kusamakura, Natsume Sōseki.

The Lady Tasting Tea, David Salsburb.

The Library at Mount Char, Scott Hawkins.

Lint, Steve Aylett.

Luminous, Greg Egan.

Madam Bovary, Gustave Flaubert.

Making "Nature", Melinda Baldwin.

Meet Me in the Bathroom: Rebirth and Rock and Roll in New York City 2001-2011, Lizzy Goodman.

The Melancholia of Class, Cynthia Cruz.

Miles from Nowhere, Nami Mun.

Mill, David Macaulay.

More Trees to Climb, Ben Moor.

My First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir.

Naming Infinity, Loren Graham & Jean-Michel Kantor.

Night Sky with Exit Wounds, Ocean Vuong.

The Nine Billion Names of God, Arthur C. Clarke.

The Nineties, Chuck Kloosterman.

Njal's Saga (Penguin Classics), Anonymous.

The Norton Introduction to Philosophy, Gideon Rosen, Alex Byrne, Joshua Cohen & Seana Shiffrin (Eds.).

On Bullshit, Harry G. Frankfurt.

On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts, Thomas de Quincey.

One Way and Another: new and selected essays, Adam Phillips.

Once a Runner, John L. Parker Jr.

Once They Were Hats, Frances Backhouse.

Ordinary Differential Equations (MIT Press), V. I. Arnold.

Perdido Street Station, China Miéville.

Picture This, Molly Bang.

Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment, David Bordwell.

The Planets, Dava Sobel.

The Platform's Edge: uncanny tales of the railways, Mike Ashley.

Poor, Caleb Femi.

Reasons and Persons, Derek Parfit.

The Reinvention of Humanity, Charles King.

Revolting Prostitutes, Juno Mac & Molly Smith.

The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs: a new history of a lost world, Steve Brusatte.

RISINGTIDEFALLINGSTAR, Phillip Hoare.

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, Tom Stoppard.

The Ruin of all Witches, Malcolm Gaskill.

The Sarah Book, Scott McClanahan.

A Scheme of Heaven: Astrology and the Birth of Science, Alexander Boxer.

Set Adrift Upon the World, James Hunter.

Seven Games: a human history, Oliver Roeder.

Silence, Endō Shūsaku.

Silent Spring, Rachel Carson.

Something in Disguise, Elizabeth Jane Howard.

Stubborn Attachments, Tyler Cohen.

The Souls of Yellow Folk, Wesley Yang.

Speak Not: Empire, Identity and the Politics of Language, James Griffiths.

Stephen King, Stephen King, William Walsh.

The Strangest Man: The hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius, Graham Farmelo.

Tales from the Loop, Simon Stålenhag.

Ten Great Ideas About Chance, Persi Diaconis & Brian Skyrms.

Territory of Light, Yuko Tsushima.

That Reminds Me, Derek Owusu.

Things Remembered and Things Forgotten, Kyoko Nakajima.

Things The Grandchildren Should Know, Mark Oliver Everett.

Thousand Cranes, Yasunari Kawabata.

The Time Machine, H.G. Wells.

Travels in Alaska, John Muir.

The Trial of Henry Kissinger, Christopher Hitchens.

Tokyo Ueno Station, Yu Miri.

The Tokyo Zodiac Murders, Soji Shimada.

The Topeka School, Ben Lerner.

The Transcendent Kingdom, Yaa Gyasi.

The Tyranny of Merit, Michael J. Sandel.

Uncanny Valley, Anna Wiener.

The Unconsoled, Kazuo Ishiguro.

Unix: a history and a memoir, Brian W. Kernighan.

The Unreal and the Real: Selected Stories, Ursula K. LeGuin.

Up in the Old Hotel, Joseph Mitchell.

Urne Burial, Thomas Browne.

Virtual Light, William Gibson.

Watching the English, Kate Fox.

We Who Are About To..., Joanna Russ.

What Artists Wear, Charlie Porter.

What's Your Pronoun, Dennis Baron.

The What, Why and How of Assessment, Simon Child & Paul Ellis.

White Chapell, Scarlet Tracings, Iain Sinclair.

White is for Witching, Helen Oyeyemi.

The Women Are Up to Something, Benjamin J.B. Lipscomb.

Yes Yes More More, Anna Wood.

You Too Can Have a Body Like Mine, Alexandra Kleeman.

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Some books I'd like, in case you need to get me a gift. Ælfred's Britain: War and Peace in the Viking Age, Max Adams. At the Existentialist Cafe, Sarah Bakewell. The Age of Wonder, Richard Holmes. All the Wrong Moves, Sasha Chapin. The Ashtray: (Or the Man Who Denied Reality), Errol Morris.

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聊聊赛博朋克（一）：《银翼杀手》的细节与菲利普·迪克的作品 | 机核 GCORES

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在"赛博朋克"梗快要玩烂的时候，慢热的我终于开始整活了......