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Lexical development in additional languages

Definitions and measures of multilingualism

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The impact of multilingualism and proficiency on L2 vocabulary knowledge: contrasting high and low multilinguals

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This study investigates the effects of multilingualism and the degree of proficiency in different languages on vocabulary knowledge among Spanish language learners. Participants completed a 160-wor…

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Background to the multiliteracies project

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Background to the multiliteracies project

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1. Background to the Multiliteracies Project

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Multimodal Assessment with Dr. Andrea Liendo

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Multimodal Assessment with Dr. Andrea Liendo

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Multimodal Assessment with Dr. Andrea Liendo

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How multilingual is my school? - A self audit tool

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How multilingual is my school? - A self audit tool

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Nurturing a multilingual environment at school

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Nurturing a multilingual environment at school

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Nurturing a multilingual environment at school

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This article demonstrates how research findings on supporting multilingualism at school can be put into practice in the classroom.

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This article focuses on supporting language learning and home language maintenance in multilingual children. Research introduced in this paper supports ongoing projects and projects in preparation - all of which are part of forthcoming Integration and Language Learning Living Lab (i4L). The article covers the benefits of multilingualism, the facilitating effects of existing linguistic knowledge, and the crucial role of active language use. The paper also examines the significance of home environments, detailing key principles such as repetition, rich input, and the interplay between language acquisition at home and at school. Strategies employed by multilingual families, communication with peers, and language use are emphasized, providing a comprehensive guide for language maintenance. Additionally, insights into supporting language development in early school age and fostering an inclusive environment within classrooms are explored.

Introduction

Since the number of multilingual individuals is continuously rising in Finland, supporting language learning and maintenance already in childhood is crucial also for academic success of multilingual children. Laurea is currently coordinating a 'Multisensory approach to language learning' project, where we develop language learning methods, and soon launch a new Integration and Language Learning Living Lab (henceforth, i4L). In addition, Laurea is preparing an interdisciplinary project, in which we test and further develop supporting tools for language learning in preschool and other levels of education.

The majority of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual (Marian & Shook 2012). Each multilingual child's development is unique and depends on the languages they are learning, how often they hear the languages, and the context in which the languages are used (Festman, Poarch & Dewaele 2017). Benefits of multilingualism include preservation of a native language and culture, academic advantages, better career opportunities, as well as increased metalinguistic and metacognitive skills (e.g., Haukås, Storto & Tiurikova 2022; Festman 2021; Marian & Shook 2012).

When learning a new language, learners can proﬁt from the already existing linguistic knowledge, i.e., vocabulary, grammatical structures, sound patterns of their other languages, and so on. Due to this, they may encounter a facilitating effect when handling a new language. (Festman 2021). Merely hearing the minority language, however, does not necessarily result in high proficiency in that language (Silvén & Rubinov 2010). Children must be given opportunities to actively use a language in interactions with other speakers of that language (Festman & al. 2017; Silvén & Rubinov 2010).

Supporting language learning in early childhood

In a home environment, children learn languages in a contextual setting through interaction and by engaging in various activities. Daily activities contribute to strengthening of memory and emotional connections with words. A home environment rich in diverse actions and objects facilitates language acquisition. A positive atmosphere also promotes language learning as children express themselves for communication rather than perfecting grammar (Festman & al. 2017; McCabe & al. 2013). Key principles of learning languages in a home environment include the importance of repetition, providing rich input, and contrasting language acquisition at home and at school. Multilingual families can use, for instance, following strategies (Festman & al. 2017; McCabe & al. 2013):

1. Each parent communicates with the child in their native language, and a third language is introduced into the child's environment. The success of this approach relies on ensuring that the child is consistently exposed to and actively engaged in the multilingual environment.

2. Learning a third language at school can be challenging, but with engagement and interaction, children can catch up. Early participation in activities with peers who speak the third language can aid the learning process.

3. If exposure to parents' languages is unbalanced, the child can still learn both languages, albeit to a lesser extent, and this can also be beneficial for the child's future.

4. Enrolling the child in a language course or involving grandparents in the learning process can be helpful for language learning. Caregivers can demonstrate using different languages for various events or situations.

It is important to talk to children about the positive aspects of multilingualism and why it should be valued. If parents enjoy using multiple languages, children may find it easier to do the same. The amount and type of exposure significantly influence language proficiency (e.g., (Silvén & Rubinov 2010). That is, children will learn language comprehension only through substantial exposure to the languages and will learn to speak if they have enough opportunities to use it in meaningful situations. Continuous exposure, quality input, personal communication, making language learning interesting - all contribute to a supportive language learning environment (Festman & al. 2017). For example, designating specific days for each language can create a structured language environment, provided that all family members are proficient in each language. Parents can also choose a language during play, and for instance, board games which are not related to some specific language, can encourage playing that game multilingually. Encouraging children to repeat in the desired language when responding in another language helps reinforcing language use. Caregivers can allow the child to use the language they prefer while maintaining their language choice. Crucially, regular interaction with speakers of different languages also enriches cultural knowledge (Festman et al., 2017; McCabe et al., 2013).

Families can establish rules for using the different language as much as possible to increase its impact and mastery. In the early years of a child, stable and balanced use of diverse speech by parents (and other individuals caring for the child) can accelerate initial learning of words in both home languages (Silvén et al., 2014). Language use outside the home predicts reading comprehension in the language(s) spoken at home (so-called heritage languages) (Papastefanou, Marinis & Powell 2021). This demonstrates the importance of exposure to the heritage language(s) through complementary schools and other activities outside the home for their maintenance and development (Papastefanou et al., 2021).Festman and colleagues (2017) suggest that repeated reading of the same books, playing the same songs, and engaging in sequential interaction allow children to memorize and understand the meanings of words and the context of books. In addition to repetition, introducing new elements, for example, in the repertoire of reading, contributes to their development, supports interest and motivation. Novelty allows children to explore the surrounding world, express themselves using more specialized words, and improve language skills. For example, during games, parents can repeat words and sentences, encouraging children to repeat them. Introducing variations, such as changing a word in a sentence, can turn learning into a game. For example, saying "I love cherries" can be modified by including other types of fruits or toys. Some key ways to strengthen, support, and maintain the home languages are communication with peers (for example, when children play and speak the minority language together), reading to the child in home languages (Silvén & al. 2014; Silvén & Rubinov 2010; Festman & al. 2017) and language use outside the home, such as complimentary schools (Papastefanou et al., 2021). That is, organizing playgroups or social events where the home (heritage) language is used can help children speak and support that language (or both home languages). Caregivers and other speakers of that language can make language learning enjoyable using games, songs, culinary activities, and various fun activities to engage children in language learning.

Supporting language learning in early school age

Research also provides insights into supporting language development in early school age. It is important to take advantage of the cognitive potentials of children at the early school stage by informative, stimulating, multilingual, and multi-themed learning materials and instruction methods (Festman, 2021). To support reading development in a child's home languages in, for instance, complementary school, such as online Ukrainian school, it is important to support dialogical reading. In dialogical reading the child engages in a dialogue about read material, where a teacher asks the child questions on the content of the book, thus supporting the child's engagement in the story (Festman 2023). To raise and maintain a child's interest in reading, caregivers and/or teachers should support and encourage a child's active participation in discussing the read material. This, in turn, might strengthen the child's memory traces related to the read vocabulary. (Festman, 2021). Shared reading in classrooms has also shown positive effects on the vocabulary and grammar skills of young children (Grøver, Rydland, Gustafsson & Snow 2020). Active participation in discussing and engaging with learned material supports interactive learning and may therefore increase a child's motivation in learning. Teachers (and caregivers) should invest time in addressing questions and answers a child has about the read material and support a greater role of children in conversations about reading material. In addition, both teachers and caregivers should show interest in a child's success in maintaining and learning the home languages by providing supportive feedback, asking the child questions related to the material, leaving space for curiosity as well as offering reading and learning material that is interesting to the child. For instance, in school, children could choose not only the required books but also those that interest them during class (Festman 2023).

Furthermore, teachers can connect with the families to ask what educational practices they are already using at home. For example, the family might read a favorite book or tell a traditional tale. Once the educators know more information from home, they can include and build upon those practices, creating an inclusive environment within their classroom. Multilingual caregivers can help create and plan events and activities related to their languages and cultures, such as family literacy projects and cultural sharing opportunities. Overall, enabling more successful heritage (home) language maintenance requires a collaboration across families, communities, schools, and government (e.g., Boettcher 2022).

i4L in a nutshell

The aim of i4L is to utilize human- and community-centred approach in R&D work on the topics of language learning and integration. i4L aims for solutions and services that meet local needs and are accepted by the community, thereby ensuring the impact of R&D activity. In i4L R&D, we strive towards identifying and implementing measures that bring tangible and positive changes to people's lives. i4L aims to create a sustainable collaboration structure based on knowledge exchange and long-term joint development.

Author
Alina Leminen (PhD, Docent) is a cognitive scientist, who works in Laurea as Chief RDI officer. She has conducted research on, e.g., language learning, multilingualism, and the language development of immigrants. She is the Research Director in the Multisensory Approaches to Language Learning (MALL) project and in the forthcoming Integration and Language Learning Living Lab.
References

Boettcher, E.E. 2022. Increasing Multilingual Parent Engagement: A Literature Review. Masterʼs thesis, Bethel University. Accessed: 1 February 2024.

Festman, J. 2021a. Learning and Processing Multiple Languages: The More the Easier? Language Learning, 71, S1, pp. 121-162.

Festman, J. 2023. Der Fremdsprachenfrühbeginn nimmt die kognitiven Potentiale der Kinder ernst. In H. Böttger & N. Schlüter (Eds.). Fortschritte im frühen Fremdsprachenlernen. SchriftBild GmbH.

Festman, J., Poarch, G.J. & Dewaele, J.M. 2017. Raising Multilingual Children. Multilingual Matters.

Grøver, V., Rydland, V., Gustafsson, J. & Snow, C.E. 2020. Shared Book Reading in Preschool Supports Bilingual Children's Second‐Language Learning: A Cluster‐Randomized Trial. Child Development, 91, 6, pp. 2192-2210.

Haukås, Å., Storto, A. & Tiurikova, I. 2022. School students' beliefs about the benefits of multilingualism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, pp. 1-14.

Marian, V. & Shook, A. 2012. The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual. Cerebrum, 13.

McCabe, A., Bornstein, M.H., Guerra, A.W., Kuchirko, Y., Páez, M., Tamis‐LeMonda, C.S., Cates, C.B., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Melzi, G., Song, L., Golinkoff, R., Hoff, E. & Mendelsohn, A. 2013. Multilingual Children: Beyond Myths and Toward Best Practices and commentaries. Social Policy Report, 27, 4, pp. 1-37.

Papastefanou, T., Marinis, T. & Powell, D. 2021. Development of Reading Comprehension in Bilingual and Monolingual Children-Effects of Language Exposure. Languages, 6, 4, pp. 166.

Silvén, M. & Rubinov, E. 2010. Language and preliteracy skills in bilinguals and monolinguals at preschool age: Effects of exposure to richly inflected speech from birth. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23, 3-4, pp. 385-414.

Silvén, M., Voeten, M., Kouvo, A. & Lundén, M. 2014. Speech perception and vocabulary growth. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38, 4, pp. 323-332.

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Fostering Language Development in Multilingual Children | Laurea Journal

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This article focuses on supporting language learning and home language maintenance in multilingual children. Research introduced in this paper supports ongoing projects and projects in preparation...

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Making Classrooms More Inclusive for Multilingual Learners

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Making Classrooms More Inclusive for Multilingual Learners

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Making Classrooms More Inclusive for Multilingual Learners

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When do you “speak” a language? | IB Community Blog

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Each year we invite IB alumni to share their experiences, interests and advice with our global community in the graduate voices series. We welcome Diploma Programme (DP) graduate from Steyning Grammar School, England, Berit Braun as she shares her thoughts on when you truly “speak” a language.

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Relevance and authenticity in language development

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Relevance and authenticity in language development

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Relevance and authenticity in language development

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The digital Me Maps on our website were created by language learners at different stages of their natural progression in learning a new language. It is important to highlight that every child or youth who took part in Me Mapping is multilingual with abilities and strengths spanning more than one

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This awareness guides participants in exploring the role of multilingualism in teaching and learning, how language policies taking multilingualism into account can foster intercultural awareness, understanding and respect; and how this perspective can help school communities grow as IB learning communities.

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Participants are invited to investigate how school communities live in and grow through a plurality of languages that shape everyday interactions, and how this constitutes the shared and deeply personal texture of all learning experiences.

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Topic: IB Multilingualism workshop
Time: This is a recurring meeting Meet anytime

Join Zoom Meeting
https://ibicus-org-uk.zoom.us/j/87189166148

Meeting ID: 871 8916 6148

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Listen to this episode from IB Voices on Spotify. In this episode of IB Voices, we'll be exploring the world of language learning with educator Lorna Caputo. Lorna is based in Switzerland and the International School of Zug and Luzern where she holds the position of coordinator for first language and English as an additional language across the IB continuum.

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Global Engagement and Global Competencies

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Global Engagement and Global Competencies

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Which elements related to being a teacher of language? Please take a moment to reflect on those elements related to being a teacher of language and discuss with your group which are strengths and which are areas for development?

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Eithne Gallagher – Equal Rights to the Curriculum: Promoting Home Languages in the Classroom

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Eithne Gallagher – Equal Rights to the Curriculum: Promoting Home Languages in the Classroom

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Eithne Gallagher – Equal Rights to the Curriculum: Promoting Home Languages in the Classroom

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Teaching Content-Area Literacy and Disciplinary Literacy

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Teaching Content-Area Literacy and Disciplinary Literacy

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Language of Instruction

At ISU, the language of instruction is English, however we create an awareness of trans-linguistic connections so that each student is able to access the curriculum. All classes are taught in English, except the primary and secondary Dutch Language Acquisition and secondary Spanish Language Acquisition classes.

Students new to English

To ensure all students can benefit from the curriculum, the school provides an English Language Acquisition (ELA) programme for learners whose first language is not English. In primary, specialist ELA teachers work alongside the classroom teachers in the class to ensure that learners have access to the curriculum. Students also attend stand alone ELA sessions with the ELA teacher outside the classroom. In secondary, students join English Language Acquisition (ENLA) classes. Students also join stand alone ELA sessions with a language teacher. Older students from grade 9 and above will need to demonstrate they have sufficient English to be able to access the curriculum. This means your child(ren) may be asked to take a language assessment as part of the enrolment process.

Home Language Clubs

In addition to our language-rich curriculum, we encourage and facilitate Home Language Clubs which we organise through parents. We also celebrate events such as Home Languages Week - a week of multilingual activities across the school.

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At ISU, the language of instruction is English, however we create an awareness of trans-linguistic connections so that each student is able to access the curriculum. All classes are taught in English, except the primary and secondary Dutch Language Acquisition and secondary Spanish Language Acquisition classes.

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Bilingual Children's Mother Tongue: Why is it important for education?

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Bilingual Children's Mother Tongue: Why is it important for education?

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Guidelines for developing a school language policy

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Guidelines for developing a school language policy

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Learning in a language other than mother tongue in IB programmes

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Learning in a language other than mother tongue in IB programmes

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Language Scope and Sequence Case Studies (PYP)

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Language Scope and Sequence Case Studies (PYP)

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This workshop allows participants to explore how multilingualism is at the core of each individual learner’s identity, their sense of self and their experience of the world.

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Since 2011, CUNY-NYSIEB has developed a wealth of resources which school leaders, teachers, and communities can use to support emergent bilingual learners. The concrete tools and strategies we present here unite theory with practice, and respond to needs identified by our partner schools across New York State.

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A handbook for new ESL parents The first days at school can be especially stressful for ESL children and their parents. This handbook can be given to parents, maybe during their first open-day meeting with the ESL teacher. It helps explain to ESL parents what to expect, how to help their children and provides answers to many frequently asked questions. This resource is provided as a MSWord document to be downloaded and tailored to your school's context. Features of an effective international school Eithne says: "I believe schools need to have a shared vision and an overiding collaborative ethos where there is genuine respect for diversity and language is viewed as a right and a valuable resource. Only in this way will all languages and cultures have equal rights to the curriculum." Click on the button to the right to see a high level check-list to verify a school's international mindedness. An ESL, language acquisition & mother-tongue reading list This PDF file contains a useful reading list with over 120 references to some of the most important writers in the field of language acquisition. What the children say ... This video features short speeches from young ESL students that convincingly put the case for allowing all languages into the classroom. Presented at the International School of Stuttgart for their 2010 UNESCO Mother Language Celebration Day, it underlines how Interlingual classrooms allow ESL children to use their mother-tongues to "learn across languages". Thanks to Petar Silobrcic for the technical support. How internationally minded is your school ? Michael J. Allan, Intercultural Awareness Leader at the International School of Amsterdam, has developed an Internationalism Audit to help evaluate just how internationally minded a school really is. He says, "Although international understanding or intercultural awareness forms part of the declared philosophy of IBO and other international schools, very few would be able to point to a coherent, monitored and evaluated programme for internationalism." This document provides an example of how Michael's research-based approach for assessing the level of internationalism could be implemented. An identity text fairytale In this video ESL children present an identity text fairytale they produced collaboratively for a group of blind children at a local charity. It is an excellent example of the use of identity texts. The story was presented to peer groups in school and a CD & booklet were produced to sell and raise money for a school in Zambia. Grandparents, aunts, uncles and friends of Grade 4 all over the globe received copies of our multilingual tale, The Power of Friendship. What is an Interlingual classroom ? The children in our International School classrooms should not just be described as monolingual, bilingual or multilingual. These classifications only create distinctions and barriers. We need a new word which promotes a mindset of inclusiveness. Interlingual does just that. All children (and all parents) have equal standing in an Interlingual classroom. This document explains why. Go here for a description of how this project was organised and for more on identity texts.

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Interlingual consultancy for truly International Schools

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Jean Berko Gleason's Brief But Spectacular take on language

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Education Talks: Language Diversity in the Classroom / James Cummins

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Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Ontario

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Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Ontario

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Teaching and Learning in Multilingual Ontario

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Methodology in Language and translanguaging

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Methodology in Language and translanguaging

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Jim Cummins - Methodology in Language and translanguaging - Binogi

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Session 7 - Principles of Equitable_Inclusive .pptx (1)