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All 8 billion people in the world are in demand of water, be it for drinking, showering, cooking, cleaning, or even laundry. What would happen if the world did not have clean water? This is true for some parts of the world, rural areas in the world like parts of Africa are secluded from access to clean water (Lai, 2022). Fostering clean water and sanitation through safe and durable facilities is one way to help far-fetched regions to gain access to the clean and reliable water they demand.
URL:https://earth.org/water-scarcity-in-africa/#:~:text=Africa%2C%20in%20particular%2C%20is%20facing,needed%20to%20address%20the%20issue.

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The problem of -water scarcity has cast a shadow over the wellbeing of humans. According to estimates, in 2016, nearly 4 billion people - equivalent to two-thirds of the global population - experience severe water scarcity for a prolonged period of time. If the situation doesn't improve, 700 million people worldwide could be displaced by intense water scarcity by 2030. Africa, in particular, is facing severe water scarcity and the situation is worsening day by day. Resolute and substantial action is needed to address the issue.
Water Scarcity in Africa: An Overview

Water scarcity is the condition where the demand for water exceeds supply and where available water resources are approaching or have exceeded sustainable limits.

The problem of water scarcity in Africa is not only a pressing one but it is also getting worse day by day. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , water scarcity affects 1 in 3 people in the African Region and the situation is deteriorating because of factors such as population growth and urbanisation but also climate change.
Figure 1: Map of physical and economic water scarcity at basin level in 2007 across the African continent.
Water scarcity can be classified into two types: physical and economic. Physical water scarcity occurs when water resources are overexploited for different uses and no longer meet the needs of the population. In this case, there is not enough water available in physical terms. Economic water scarcity, on the other hand, is linked to poor governance, poor infrastructure, and limited investments. The latter type of water scarcity can exist even in countries or areas where water resources and infrastructure are adequate.

As reported by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in 2011, arid regions of the continent - mainly located in North Africa - experience frequent physical water scarcity, while Sub-Saharan Africa undergoes mainly economic water scarcity. Indeed, the latter region has a decent levels of physical water , mainly thanks to the abundant, though highly seasonal and unevenly distributed supply of rainwater. This region's access to water, however, is constrained due to poor infrastructure, resulting in mainly economic rather than physical water scarcity.

In a 2022 study conducted on behalf of the United Nations University Institute for Water Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), researchers employed indicators to quantify water security in all of Africa's countries. They found that only 13 out of 54 countries reached a modest level of water security in recent years, with Egypt, Botswana, Gabon, Mauritius and Tunisia representing the better-off countries in Africa in terms of water security.

19 countries - which are home to half a billion people - are deemed to have levels of water security below the threshold of 45 on a scale of 1 to 100. On the other hand, Somalia, Chad, and Niger are the continent's least water-secure countries.
Figure 2: The size of Lake Chad shows a massive shrinking between 1972 and 2007.
Egypt performs the best regarding access to drinking water while the Central African Republic performs the worst. The latter, however, has the highest per capita water availability while half of North African countries are characterised by absolute water scarcity. This again shows that Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Africa face economic water scarcity more than physical water scarcity.

Causes of Water Scarcity in Africa

Human activities, which result in overexploitation and global warming, are the main culprit for the water scarcity in Africa. Overexploitation is the main contributor to physical water scarcity. A 2018 report published by the Institute for Security Studies stated that more than 60% of South Africa's rivers are being overexploited and only one-third of the country's main rivers are in good condition. Lake Chad - once deemed Africa's largest freshwater body and important freshwater reservoir - is shrinking because of overexploitation of its water. According to a 2019 report , for this reason alone, the water body of the lake has diminished by 90% since the 1960s, with the surface area of the lake decreasing from 26,000 square kilometres in 1963 to less than 1,500 square kilometres in 2018.

The underlying cause for overexploitation can be further broken down to the increase in water demand, driven by the rise in population growth and rate of urbanisation.

Population in Sub-Saharan Africa is growing at a rate of 2.7% a year in 2020, more than twice that of South Asia (1.2%) and Latin America (0.9%). Meanwhile, the population of Nigeria - a country in West Africa - is forecasted to double by 2050. As for the rate of urbanisation, according to the United Nations , 21 out of the 30 fastest-growing cities in the world in 2018 are deemed to be in Africa. Cities such as Bamako in Mali and Yaounde in Cameroon have experience explosive growth.

The booming population will inevitably lead to more food demand, a faster rate of urbanisation and an rise in industrial activities, all of which require abundant water supply.

Climate change and global warming - mainly caused by an increase in human and commercial activities - equally contribute to water scarcity in Africa. As a report by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa found, a 1C rise in global temperatures would result in a reduction of runoff - excess rainwater that flows across the land's surface - by up to 10%. Another study stated that the declining trends of rainfall caused by global warming will continue in North Africa, limiting groundwater recharge and exacerbating groundwater depletion. Although in areas closer to the equator, a soar in precipitation will likely occur as a result of global warming, the increased potential evapotranspiration - the combined loss of water through the plant's process of transpiration and evaporation of water from the earth's surface - and drought risks in the majority of the continent still outweigh the increased rainfall in these areas.

Consequences of Water Scarcity in Africa

Water scarcity is expected to affect the economic condition, the health of citizens as well as ecosystems in Africa.

In economic terms, the agriculture sector is likely to be hampered under severe water scarcity. Agriculture is one of the most pivotal economic sectors for Africa, employing the majority of the population. In Sub-Saharan Africa alone, it accounts for nearly 14% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As the sector that relies on water the most, agriculture is already heavily impacted by water scarcity and the situation is expected to further deteriorate, leading to other issues such as food shortages and, in the worst cases, famine.

Not surprisingly, water shortage is an immense threat to human's health. In times of water scarcity, people are often forced to get their water supply from contaminated ponds and streams. When ingested, polluted water results in widespread diarrhoeal diseases including cholera, typhoid fever, salmonellosis, other gastrointestinal viruses, and dysentery. Quality of healthcare services in many African countries is low, with only 48% African people having access to healthcare. The poor system has made diarrhoeal diseases life-threatening and in many cases even fatal.

A study published in 2021 found that severe diarrheal disease accounts for about 600,000 deaths each year in sub-Saharan Africa, with the majority being children and elderly. Diarrheal disease is the third-leading cause of disease and death among African children under the age of five, a situation that public health authorities blame on poor quality of water and sanitation.

Lastly, water shortages jeopardise ecosystems and contribute to a loss in biodiversity. Africa is home to some of the most unique freshwater ecosystems in the world. Lake Turkana is the world's largest desert lake, while Lake Malawi hosts the richest freshwater fish fauna in the world, home to a staggering 14% of the world's freshwater fish species. If not tackled, water scarcity will disrupt and likely terminate freshwater and marine ecosystems in the continent.

Solutions to Water Scarcity in Africa

Remedies for water scarcity are observed on a local, national, and international scale.

Local communities are taking adaptation action. Many opt for drought-tolerant crops instead of crops that require large amounts of water, a strategy to mitigate both water scarcity and food insecurity. Conservation or regenerative agriculture is also introduced to help infiltration and soil moisture retention through mulching and no-tillage approaches. Countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Ethiopia have all adopted such techniques in recent years.

Several governments are also taking steps to tackle water scarcity across the continent. For example, the government of Namibia financed the construction of a urban wastewater management in the capital Windhoek, significantly improving the management of water resources and thus lowering the risk of water scarcity.

International organisations also lend a helping hand in times of water scarcity. In recent years, the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) promoted several initiatives and implemented innovative financing model to alleviate this pressing issue. In regions in eastern and southern Africa, UNICEF is cooperating with the European Investment Bank (EIB), the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) and other international agencies and organisations to evaluate and implement bankable projects in a blended financing mode, particularly targeting the urban areas. For example , the European Union donated € 19 million for the construction of water supply systems in the Eswatini's cities of Siphofaneni, Somntongo, and Matsanjeni. Similarly, the DBSA contributed about € 150 million to the construction of the Lomahasha Water Supply. Booster pumping stations as well as reinforced concrete reservoirs are also constructed with the support of international actors.

Conclusion

All in all, the water scarcity problem in Africa is likely to exacerbate under the ever-increasing water demand and rise in global temperatures. Tangible action from all parties is constantly required to tackle this massive problem. Individuals can equally play an important role in alleviating water scarcity in Africa by adopting a more environmental-friendly lifestyle and taking actions in their daily lives to mitigate the effect of climate change and they can develop mindful practises that help safe water, one of the most important resources for life on Earth.

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Water Scarcity in Africa: Causes, Effects, and Solutions | Earth.Org

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The problem of - water scarcity has cast a shadow over the wellbeing of humans. According to estimates, in 2016, nearly 4 billion people - equivalent to two-thirds of the global population - experience severe water scarcity for a prolonged period of time.

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City Government of Davao (Researched by: Tristan Sy)

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URL: https://www.facebook.com/davaocitygov/posts/pfbid02ZciroMF9QkvaZxQ2Rb4yFeXtJQb344aqquNRqJaHSj185qDejQwqUqyRr2CmiFQUl
TITLE: "The Davao City Environment and Natural Resources Office (Cenro) spearheaded Saturday, Sept. 17"
AUTHOR: City Government of Davao
DATE PUBLISHED: September 17, 2016

KEY INFO: The content shares how the Davao City Environment and Natural Resources Office spearheaded the multi-sectoral cleanup drive across the city's urban and rural communitie’s riverbanks and coastal and watershed areas. This connects to the research topic, Fostering Clean Water and Sanitation through Safe and Durable Facilities for Remote Areas, because this social media post shows that the CENRO is cleaning areas not only in urban areas in davao but in rural areas as well, supporting the research topic for clean water and sanitation.

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The Davao City Environment and Natural Resources Office (Cenro) spearheaded Saturday, Sept. 17, the multi-sectoral cleanup drive across the city's urban and rural communities, riverbanks and coastal...

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WATER RATE HIKE | Increase to be implemented in tranches - Mindanao Times (Researched by: Chloie Javier)

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URL:
https://mindanaotimes.com.ph/2022/04/06/water-rate-hike-increase-to-be-implemented-in-tranches/?fbclid=IwAR21pd7YKZ4mBoWjbiYwmLFqFelXyVhmiCt8QrndWCViee154x-KoMexr3I
TITLE: WATER RATE HIKE | Increase to be implemented in tranches - Mindanao Times
AUTHOR: Carmelito Francisco
DATE PUBLISHED: April 6, 2022

KEY INFO: DCWD increased water rates for the city’s development plan despite poor allocation of funds, which burdens those Dabawenyos without access to water.

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RESIDENTS may soon find their water bills higher if the proposed 60% water rate increase sought by the Davao City Water District (DCWD) is approved.

Jovana Cresta Duhaylungsod, spokesperson of the utility, told TIMES in a phone interview that the increase would be the first since 2005 and that, if approved, "it would be implemented in three tranches."

Under the proposal, Duhaylungsod explained, 30% the rate increase would be implemented upon approval, 20% the next year and the remainder in the third year.

Under the proposal and if fully implemented, those who use 10 cubic meters a month will pay about P100 more. At present, these users pay P137.30 a month.

The water utility filed the proposal before the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) in January with the hope of getting the approval two months later, although the regulatory body has required the applicant more documentation to substantiate its application.

The filing of the water rate increase application took place a month after the public hearing that was held at the water utility's parking area at its building in Matina lot in December.

The increase, Duhaylungsod said, is necessary because "without it there will be some infrastructure projects that will not be implemented" as these projects will respond to the growth of water requirements of the city.

The proposed water rate increase will be used to fund the expansion and improvement projects and operation expenses of DCWD based on its 10-year development plan,"

The application for the water rate increase was supposedly submitted in 2019, but the pandemic prompted the water utility to delay its submission.

Also submitted this year was its 10-year development plan, which was supposed to cover the programs between 2020 and 2030, but has been shortened to just eight years of implementation also due to the pandemic.

The development plan, which was submitted as part of justifying the application for water rate increase, is also aligned with the development plan of the city government to make sure that the water requirements are addressed.

Under the development plan, service connections will grow from about 260,000 by end of this year to 450,000 in 2030 with the volume growing from 347 million liters a day to 480 million liters a day. In February, the number of connections was at about 239,500 with a production of 345 million liters a day. About 87% of the connections are residential, 12% are commercial and the remainder the government offices.

Under the plan, the target is also increase the number of water supply systems from 11 by the end of the year to 23 in 2030 and the number of production wells from 77 to 115.

"With the development of additional sources, DCWD will also be developing complementary facilities which include additional storage facilities and pipelines and installation of appurtenances for improved water supply distribution," she added.

The plan is also to increase the number of served barangays from 118 to 146, including the rural areas of the Second and Third Districts.

Under the development plan, among these projects are those to be implemented will expand the coverage of the water utility as, based on the pre-pandemic period record of the water utility, there were about 100 applications for service provisions of condominiums and subdivision projects, some of them would start operating in 2025.

Also, part of the amount that would be generated by the increase will also be used to offset the losses of the water utility during the height of pandemic when many establishments decided to either permanently or temporary closed down, Duhaylungsod said.

However, she said, it was unfortunate that the application for water rate increase was filed when the country has been grappling with the impact both of the pandemic and the increase in prices of petroleum products.

Prices of petroleum products have gone up since last year and the increments have been exacerbated by the armed conflict between Russia, a huge petroleum producer, and Ukraine.

Duhaylungsod also assured the public that when the bulk water project starts operations, the prevailing rates by then will be adopted.

The water district and the Apo Agua Infrastructure have teamed up for the implementation of the water project, which is tapping the Tamugan River to produce about 300 million liters of potable water a day to serve the city, particularly areas in the second and third districts that can hardly be reached at present.

The project, which will serve as the lone surface water source of the city, was supposed to have started operations in December last year, but no update has been provided as yet.

In explaining the move to divide the water rate increase, this was based on the experience of the water utility in 2005, when upon approval of the application, then mayor Rodrigo Duterte sought for the its staggered implementation.

Although the first 30% of the increase was implemented that year, part of the remainder was only implemented in 2011 when the mayor was the present mayor, Sara Duterte. It also took the water utility to implement the remaining increase as the mayor also requested that it be divided into three with additional 10% each year.

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WATER RATE HIKE | Increase to be implemented in tranches - Mindanao Times

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RESIDENTS may soon find their water bills higher if the proposed 60% water rate increase sought by the Davao City Water District (DCWD) is approved. Jovana Cresta Duhaylungsod, spokesperson of the utility, told TIMES in a phone interview that the increase would be the first since 2005 and that, if approved, "it would be implemented in three tranches."

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43 people down as diarrhea outbreak hits 12 Davao villages (Researched by: Tisa Loayon)

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URL:
https://www.rappler.com/nation/mindanao/diarrhea-outbreak-villages-davao-july-2022/

TITLE: 43 people down as diarrhea outbreak hits 12 Davao villages
AUTHOR: Grace Cantal-Albasin

DATE PUBLISHED: July 18, 2022

KEY INFO: A diarrhea outbreak hit 12 Davao villages due to contaminated water caused by incessant rains or contaminated street food.

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Davao's health authorities suspect the diarrhea outbreak is caused by either water contamination as a result of flooding from incessant rain, or contaminated street food

DAVAO CITY, Philippines - Health officials in Davao City sounded alarm bells over an outbreak of diarrhea that sent several dozen people to hospitals since late last week.

The diarrhea outbreak started on Friday, July 15, in Davao's Toril District.

The City Health Office (CHO) counted at least 43 people brought to various hospitals in Davao as of Sunday night, July 17.

The hospital patients were as young as six months to 44 years, and at least one was diagnosed with amoebiasis.

Dr. Ashley Lopez, city health officer, said about a dozen villages, mostly in the Toril District, were adversely affected.

Lopez said a CHO team has been dispatched to the district to investigate the possible source and cause of the outbreak.

He said health authorities suspected it was a case of water contamination as a result of flooding from incessant rains in Davao for more than two weeks, or contaminated street food.

City hall suspended the sale of street food in all of Toril as a precautionary measure in the aftermath of the outbreak.

The CHO has started collecting specimens from the patients, and water samples for laboratory tests.

"The specimens collected have been sent to Southern Philippines Medical Center's laboratory," said Lopez.

Davao Mayor Sebastian Duterte ordered social workers to do the rounds and see if city hall could extend financial aid to the patients' families.

In a statement on Sunday, the Davao City Water District (DCWD) said all its chlorination facilities were fully working and that the city's tap water supply had chlorine residuals within the normal limit of 0.8 parts per million, enough to work against inactive bacteria-causing waterborne diseases such as diarrhea.

The DCWD said it was also taking samples from its water distribution network for extensive tests.

"DCWD has protocols in place to ensure that the quality of water it provides to the customers passes the parameters of the Philippines National Standards for drinking water. It maintains the use of gas chlorine in controlled doses to treat water and ensure it is safe for consumption," read part of the DCWD statement.

In the meantime, Davao's health officials urged residents to avoid drinking tap water or boil it before intake as a precaution while the investigation is ongoing.

"Soon as the water boils, let it stay boiling for at least a minute or 10 minutes at the maximum," Lopez said.

He said those with symptoms of diarrhea should also make sure they stay hydrated.

"Add a pinch of salt to the water to serve as electrolytes," he said.

Meanwhile, those who already find it difficult to manage the diarrhea symptoms should seek medical help, Lopez added. - Rappler.com

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43 people down as diarrhea outbreak hits 12 Davao villages

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Davao's health authorities suspect the diarrhea outbreak is caused by either water contamination as a result of flooding from incessant rain, or contaminated street food

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ILO and Japan launch five new water systems in Mindanao (Researched by: Tisa Loayon)

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URL: https://www.ilo.org/manila/public/pr/WCMS_839827/lang--en/index.htm
TITLE: ILO and Japan launch five new water systems in Mindanao
AUTHOR: ILO
DATE PUBLISHED: March 17, 2022

KEY INFO: Over 3,000 households in the Bangsamoro region have gained access to safe and clean water as the ILO-Japan Water and Sanitation Project launches five new water systems built by community members, indigenous peoples, and former combatants. The new water system addressed BARMM's below-average access to clean water. It was able to provide employment in BARMM by constructing safe water facilities.

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The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Government of Japan have launched five new water systems that will provide safe and clean water to more than 3,000 households in Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao and a Bangsamoro Special Geographic Area in Cotabato.

Under the ILO Japan Water and Sanitation Project, community members indigenous peoples and former combatants built the water systems in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) where access to safe water is lower than the national average in the Philippines.

"The project has contributed to building peace, promoting decent work, and reducing poverty. Communities including former combatants, indigenous peoples, and vulnerable groups have gained access to decent work and livelihoods with better working conditions and social protection benefits. These are integral to sustainable development and a human-centred recovery from COVID-19," said Khalid Hassan, Director of the ILO Country Office for the Philippines.

The ILO and the Government of Japan handed over the water systems on March 9, 10 and 15, 2022 in Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao and a Bangsamoro Special Geographic Area in Cotabato. The partnership, which started in 2019 provided decent jobs and promoted peace through improved water supply and sanitation services in BARMM.

"Food, water, shelter, and livelihoods are among the prerequisites to attaining personal security. By ensuring better access to these basic necessities, we empower the people to realize their own potential, and eventually, to contribute to the development of their own society. This is the principle of Human Security that Japan is strongly advocating for," said Ambassador Koshikawa Kazuhiko of the Embassy of Japan in the Philippines.

In Balabagan, Lanao del Sur, three new water systems built by 269 workers will benefit over 2,000 households in five barangays. A melting pot of various cultures, Balabagan is home to the Maranaos, settlers, and indigenous peoples who used to buy drinking water for US$ 2 per 200-litre drum.

Meanwhile, more than a thousand households and a school with 292 enrolled children in a Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) community in Barangay Nanga-an, Kabacan, Cotabato have also gained access to safe and clean water. About 57 local workers built the water system, the majority of them former combatants. The level II water system has 22 tap stands where safe and clean water will flow.

In Datu Piang, 82 locals from the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) community of the historical Barangay Reina Regente, Datu Piang, Maguindanao hurdled challenges of access and security to build a water system benefitting 95 households. About 34 per cent of local workers engaged by the project were women, while 32 per cent were former combatants.

With support from ILO's Implementing Partner, A Single Drop for Safe Water, Inc., workers were trained in skills development and water construction. They received the minimum wage and social protection benefits. The project further ensured safety and health through the observance of occupational safety and health protocols that are also COVID-19 responsive. Issues were resolved through social dialogue, as the project also promoted equal opportunity, and involved communities in every step of the implementation.

BARMM officials such as Bangsamoro Transition Authority (BTA) parliament member Romeo Sema, Ministry of Labor and Employment (MOLE) Minister and Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) Chairperson Muslimin Sema and other key local government officials witnessed the handover of the five new water systems in Cotabato, Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao.

For further information please contact:

Ms Ma Jennylyn Aguinaldo
ILO-Japan Water and Sanitation Project (Cotabato)
Email

Ms Minette Rimando
ILO Country Office for the Philippines (Manila)
Email

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ILO and Japan launch five new water systems in Mindanao

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The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Government of Japan have launched five new water systems that will provide safe and clean water to more than 3,000 households in Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao and a Bangsamoro Special Geographic Area in Cotabato.

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Global campaign aims to help communities get access to clean water | New Day (Research by: Meril Medina)

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URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ihJKevJScU
TITLE: Global campaign aims to help communities get access to clean water | New Day
AUTHOR: CNN Philippines
DATE PUBLISHED: July 16, 2021

KEY INFO:

Global campaign "World Vision" organizes a virtual fundraising run called "Global 6K for Water" that aims to create more handwashing facilities, drinking water facilities, and water treatment facilities in areas that have limited access to it and change the behavior of Filipinos towards handwashing and proper hygiene.

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Global campaign aims to help communities get access to clean water | New Day

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WION Dispatch: Inside the world's biggest water desalination facility | World News (Researched by: Mathew Alag)

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URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uhf-38-Hphk&t=2s
TITLE: Inside the world's biggest water desalination facility
AUTHOR: The World is One News
DATE PUBLISHED: October 14, 2020

KEY INFO: The world's largest producer of desalinated water, Saudi Arabia also makes the most amount of waste from this energy-intensive industry, but local researchers are trying to change that. As Mindanao is surrounded by vast sea waters, that being so, facilities will be of great help  to the production of clean, potable water for the consumption of Mindanaons. In Davao specifically, wherein it holds a lot of potential use. Not only will it generate water to quench the thirst of its residents but, as well as, provide revenue and employment to its people.

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WION Dispatch: Inside the world's biggest water desalination facility | World News

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Advocacy Poster (Researched by Ramon Calo Jr.)

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URL: https://www.margreetdeheer.com/the-global-goals-of-sustainable-development/
TITLE: Clean Water and Sanitation
AUTHOR: Margreet de Heer
DATE PUBLISHED: April 2015

KEY INFO: The poster uses a cartoonish art style to provide the information in an appealing way that draws readers in to the message it is trying to convey. Because the poster serves as a visual depiction of the significance and urgency of addressing the lack of access to clean water and sanitation in rural locations, it is pertinent to the theme of "Fostering Clean Water and Sanitation through Safe and Durable Facilities for Remote Areas." The filter they use for reused water, which is relevant to our research issue, is just one example of how to have good water quality while employing safe and sustainable methods.

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Sustainable Water Co: Clean Water and Sanitation for All (Researched by: Ramon Calo Jr.

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8.) Public Service Message or Promotional Video

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8.) Public Service Message or Promotional Video

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kh_cNbNbl0g
TITLE: Sustainable Water Co: Clean Water and Sanitation for All
AUTHOR: Jed Daluyo
DATE PUBLISHED: May 20, 2021

KEY INFO: In the Philippines, around 1 in 10 people still do not have access to improved water sources. In light of this, the researcher has decided to take steps and help people have an accessible drinking water and sanitation, especially those who are living in remote rural areas in the Philippines. This advocacy will succor to improve water supply and sanitation, wherein better management of water resources, can boost countries' economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction.

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Sustainable Water Co: Clean Water and Sanitation for All

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No man is an island: Clean water for all Filipinos (Researched by: Meril Medina)

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URL:
https://www.rappler.com/moveph/87704-clean-water-couriers-ph/
TITLE: No man is an island: Clean water for all Filipinos
AUTHOR: Rappler
DATE PUBLISHED: Mar. 23, 2015

KEY INFO: Non-profit organization Waves for Water (W4W) Philippines, headed by Country Director Carlo Delantar, led a water relief effort, encouraging Filipinos to raise awareness about water and sanitation. Waves for Water volunteers visited impoverished communities to help distribute and set up water filters that provided access to clean water across different remote areas nationwide.

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'While having access to clean water is a luxury that many of us take for granted, there are billions living in nations with no safe water infrastructure in place'

MANILA, Philippines - Clean water for all.

On World Water Day, a group of Filipino volunteers visited impoverished communities to help distribute and set up water filters.

Non-profit organization Waves for Water (W4W) Philippines, headed by Country Director Carlo Delantar, led a water relief effort on Sunday, March 22, encouraging Filipinos to raise awareness about water and sanitation.

The volunteers, dubbed as Clean Water Couriers, provided access to clean water across different remote areas nationwide. This included coastal towns and disaster-prone barangays.

Among the poorest of the poor, the water problem may not only entail more thirst but also diseases; at worst, death. (READ: Thirst world, PH water problem)

" People living in impoverished areas die every day from drinking dirty water. While having access to clean water is a luxury that many of us take for granted, there are billions living in nations with no safe water infrastructure in place," Waves for Water said. "Kids drink from the same streams where animals and humans bathe and relieve themselves."

Without clean water, these families are also at higher risks to cholera and other water and food-borne diseases.

To help end the world's water problem, Waves For Water developed a do-it-yourself volunteer program called Clean Water Couriers,in which volunteers carry water filters in their luggage wherever they go. The volunteers are then introduced to local non-profits in a particular area they are visiting. Some volunteers also travel to villages to set the filters by themselves.

The whole set-up is easy, affordable, and only requires a few minutes and equipment: filters, paint buckets, a knife to make a hole. The filters instantly turn dirty water into safe, clean, drinkable water.

"The goal is to provide existing clean-water solutions to countries that need them," Waves for Water added. "These solutions include point-of-use filtration and chlorination systems, rainwater harvesting, and the restoring of dead wells."

The organization also works with the United Nations and other non-governmental organizations.

Waves For Water first started within a small surfing community, which later on encouraged other surfers and travellers to do something meaningful while going out on adventures.

Its volunteers have successfully distributed water filtration systems across the Philippines, Haiti, Indonesia, Bali, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Samoa, North Korea, Chile, Brazil, Kenya, South Africa, Ethiopia, Uganda, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nicaragua, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Laos, among others. - To learn more about Waves for Water or to get involved as a clean water courier, you may contact Carlo Delantar at carlo@wavesforwater.org or visit their website

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No man is an island: Clean water for all Filipinos

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'While having access to clean water is a luxury that many of us take for granted, there are billions living in nations with no safe water infrastructure in place' MANILA, Philippines - Clean water for all. On World Water Day, a group of Filipino volunteers visited impoverished communities to help distribute and set up water filters.

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Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes (Researched by: Chloie Nicolette P. Javier)

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URL:
https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/water-access-philippines-fixing-institutions-fix-pipes
TITLE: Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes
AUTHOR: Aileen Castro
DATE PUBLISHED: March 22, 2017

KEY INFO: In the Philippines, there are currently more than 4,700 water utilities, although roughly half of them are relatively tiny and uncontrolled. Many of these were started as a result of previous national financing initiatives or programs. Due to a lack of financing and knowledge of available mentors, they were unable to expand their capacity or formally organize their activities once these had ceased.

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Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes

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Photo: NorthEyes Production/World Bank As we celebrate World Water Day, I find myself thinking about my work and one central question: how do you reach 8 million Filipinos with no access to clean water? I remember growing up in Pampanga, a province north of Manila, and visiting my aunt's house ...

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Philippines: Water for the Community (Researched by Ramon Calo Jr.)

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URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4JbW0ePpeoM
TITLE: Philippines: Water for the Community
AUTHOR: World Bank
DATE PUBLISHED: May 3, 2013

KEY INFO: A project was implemented in a community suffering from poverty. This project relates with our topic "Fostering Clean Water and Sanitation through Safe and Durable Facilities for Remote Areas"  since this project is all about giving the community safe, regular and affordable water supply for the poor.

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 Basic Service Level of Sanitation Facility in their Household Results from the 2020 Annual Poverty Indicators Survey (APIS) (Researched by: Tisa Loayon)

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URL: https://psa.gov.ph/content/about-four-out-five-families-used-basic-service-level-sanitation-facility-their-household
TITLE: About Four out of Five Families Used a Basic Service Level of Sanitation Facility in their Household Results from the 2020 Annual Poverty Indicators Survey (APIS)
AUTHOR: Philippine Statistics Authority
DATE PUBLISHED: January 14, 2021

KEY INFO: The infographic depicts the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) indicators based on the results of the Philippines' Annual Poverty Indicators Survey (APIS) 2020. It includes Mindanao locations such as Davao (70%), SOCCSKSARGEN (75%), and BARMM (39%), which indicate Families with Basic Service Level Sanitation Facilities.

Oral defecation affects 5.6 percent of households in rural areas. This means that sanitary practices with clean water are not practiced, necessitating the need for facilities that provide solutions to this problem.

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PT1 LIST OF CONTENTS (Instagram Post (Square))

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Water utility calls on Dabawenyos to conserve, store water (Researched by : Frances Pedida)

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URL:
https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1064214?fbclid=IwAR3AwDBJhV6pFQtoH6cTV73tSWuK4bL2PGn22u7LO3Cm9cpo7IemYX-dIhU

TITLE: Water utility calls on Dabawenyos to conserve, store water
AUTHOR: Lilian Mellejor
DATE PUBLISHED: March 11, 2019
KEY INFO: Davao City has a high water consumption of 320 million liters per day in 2019, indicating poor awareness on proper water utilization in Mindanao.

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Building Resilience for Peace: Water, Security, and Strategic Interests in Mindanao, Philippines (Researched by: Matehw Alag)

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14.) Non-Government Organization or Academic Institution Article

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14.) Non-Government Organization or Academic Institution Article

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URL:
https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2017/08/building-resilience-peace-water-security-strategic-interests-mindanao-philippines/
TITLE: Water, Security, and Strategic Interests in Mindanao, Philippines
AUTHOR: Roger-Mark De Souza and Chelsea Spangler
DATE PUBLISHED: August 1, 2017

KEY INFO: It is mentioned in the article that water resources are threatened by decades of illegal mining, wherein it is much seen in Mindanao. The awareness of the bad should be raised and these such things should be put to stop for it is causing the degradation of water facilities and nature itself.

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The Philippines faces a breadth of social and environmental challenges that threaten its economic and political stability. A long history of violent conflict stemming from ethnic, religious, and political tensions is further complicated by changing weather patterns that cause severe drought and damaging storms. Millions of people in Mindanao have been displaced by violence and extreme weather events, and their migration from rural areas leaves room for the expansion of terrorist groups that threaten regional stability. The United States currently has strong trade and cultural ties to the Philippines, and U.S. Pacific Command operates military facilities on the islands. This chapter examines the stakes for U.S. interests in Mindanao, and recommends a security approach that combines defense, diplomacy, and development efforts to promote improved governance, social stability, and climate resilience.

Ecological Challenges

Climate change is generating warmer coastal waters, rising sea levels, and stronger storms

The Philippines was listed as the country most affected by climate change in the 2015 Global Climate Risk Index. Mindanao's southern islands are currently experiencing extreme drought and rising temperatures due to climate change and heightened El Niño-Southern Oscillation effects. In April 2016, a severe drought in Cotabato Province drove thousands of farmers to urban centers to demand food assistance. An ongoing three-year drought is also leading to water rationing in Zamboanga City. In some areas, agricultural land has been rendered unusable. These trends are projected to continue: By 2050, average rainfall is expected to decrease by 11%.

Climate change is also generating warmer coastal waters, rising sea levels, and stronger storms in the Philippines. Since 2006, the Philippines has experienced five of the 10 strongest storms in its history.

In addition, Mindanao faces tradeoffs between maintaining marshlands and accessing the oil and gas deposits beneath them. A proposed dam near the Liguasan Marsh would drain 543,600 acres of marsh to enable drilling, but could also flood thousands of acres of farmland.

Other water resources are threatened by decades of illegal gold mining, which has contaminated freshwater sources in T'boli municipality with poisonous mercury and cyanide. Similarly, silt produced by unregulated industrial practices is restricting water flows into Mindanao's largest lake, Lake Lanao, limiting electricity generation.

Societal Challenges

Large segments of Mindanao's population have inadequate access to fresh water due to a combination of factors: degraded water quality stemming from a lack of regulation; depleted water sources due to overuse; and insufficient infrastructure as a result of poor governance, especially in areas experiencing conflict. Disputes over water rights arise where governing institutions are lacking, and feuding parties sometimes intentionally deprive opponents of water access as a tactic.

It is estimated that since 2000, 4 million people have migrated to displacement camps due to violent conflict

It is estimated that since 2000, 4 million people have migrated to displacement camps in Mindanao due to violent conflict in their home regions. In 2013, Typhoon Yolanda and other climate change impacts forced another 4 million people to relocate to Mindanao. Providing water and sanitation for so many displaced people is a challenge that the government has struggled to meet. The mass migration also contributed to a food crisis of such magnitude that in 2000 the Internal Displacement-Monitoring Centre reported that 30%-40% of preschool children on the islands were malnourished.

Over 48% of Mindanao's jobs are in the agriculture sector, which is increasingly threatened by climate impacts. Insufficient water supply and storm recovery mechanisms, along with degradation of watersheds, render agricultural livelihoods untenable, and displace farmers.

Inequitable land tenure and access to natural resources is also an underlying cause of violent conflict in Mindanao. While much of the widespread violence has its roots in a long history of ethnic, religious, and political tensions, it was ultimately land tenure disputes that helped drive part of the Philippines' Muslim population to pursue political separation from the Filipino state.

Implications for the U.S.

The United States and the Philippines have strong trade and cultural ties; around 150,000 Americans live in the Philippines, and around 4 million Filipinos and Filipino-Americans live in the United States.

Mindanao is of geostrategic importance to the United States. It is close to the South China Sea and its potentially oil- and gas-rich Spratly Islands, the ownership of which is hotly contested by various states, including China.

The United States operates military facilities in the Philippines, which the U.S. Pacific Command suggests are critical for maritime security, counterterrorism, and humanitarian and disaster relief operations. These operations are facilitated by the 2014 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement, and are an important part of U.S.-Philippine cooperation to counter terrorist groups, including Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf, which are helping to establish a territorial foothold for the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in the Philippines.

The newly elected Duterte government is critical of the defense cooperation agreement, asserting that it pits U.S. interests against those of the Philippines. In late 2016, the new president repeatedly called for the removal of U.S. troops from the Philippines, a move that would severely curtail U.S. ability to carry out counterterrorism operations.

Reports indicate that ISIS training camps are being established in Mindanao

Several extremist groups in Mindanao are designated as "foreign terrorist organizations" by the United States, and some of these have carried out attacks on Western targets. Reports indicate that ISIS training camps are being established in Mindanao, and the large-scale displacement of rural populations has created space for such terror operations to prosper. There is a risk that extremist groups will carry out tactics already used in Iraq and Syria, such as taking control of water resources, driving agricultural workers from their land, and destroying infrastructure.

Recommendations

In order to promote stability in the Philippines and protect its interests, the United States should consider the following actions:

Support water-related programs that promote peace-building and climate resilience, including assistance with monitoring and allocating water resources equitably; military protection of dams to prevent terrorist groups from seizing vital water resources; ensuring viability of the agriculture sector; and facilitating the quick resettlement of people displaced by storms or violence.
Chelsea Spangler is a water and security program associate with the World Wildlife Fund-US. Photo Credit: People living in a camp for those displaced by the conflict in Mindanao receive water by truck because the existing pumps have been contaminated by saline water, January 2017, courtesy of European Commission Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations

1. Build trust between governments, local actors, and international aid groups, and build institutional capacity for collaborative governance. An essential step toward such trust will be for local governments to provide basic social services, including water and sanitation, for all social groups.

2. Encourage water management programs that link defense, diplomacy, and development efforts. For example, all donor interventions in Mindanao should include conflict management and mitigation, and should aim to improve local governance.

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Building Resilience for Peace: Water, Security, and Strategic Interests in Mindanao, Philippines

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This article is a summary of the chapter by Roger-Mark De Souza, the director of population, environmental security, and resilience for the Wilson Center, in the new book, Water, Security and [...]

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Small Water Systems: Water Storage Facilities (Researched by: Tisa Loayon)

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URL:
https://open.spotify.com/episode/2a08vVc576Rj2xd1w7ev7e?si=8Kam9epaS0Snir5fZtJ0kg
TITLE: Small Water Systems: Water Storage Facilities
AUTHOR: Environmental Finance Center Network
DATE PUBLISHED: January 30, 2023

KEY INFO: The content talks about using water storage facilities and associated components to ensure a continuous, dependable, and clean drinking water supply.

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Small Water Systems: Water Storage Facilities

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Listen to this episode from Environmental Finance Center Network on Spotify. This podcast describes the use of water storage facilities and associated components to ensure a continuous, dependable, and clean supply of drinking water.

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Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes (Researched by: Chloie Nicolette Javier)

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URL: https://youtu.be/Z9lmLCK3bsM
TITLE: Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes
AUTHOR: World Bank
DATE PUBLISHED: March 22, 2017

KEY INFO: Over 8 million Filipinos still lack access to clean water. In this short documentary, chosen Filipino citizens explains and shows their daily struggle for them to have adequate and clean water to use.

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Water Access in the Philippines: Fixing the Institutions that Fix the Pipes

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Philippine Water Challenge Webinar: Be Part of the Solution (Researched by: Meril Medina)

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URL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9I5dGoHM3o
TITLE: Philippine Water Challenge Webinar: Be Part of the Solution
AUTHOR: Philippine Disaster Resilience Foundation
DATE PUBLISHED: Sep. 1, 2021

KEY INFO: Provides solutions and ways to promote participation in the first-ever national platform to generate promising innovations and support improvements in clean water and sanitation problems concerning the local area.

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Philippine Water Challenge Webinar: Be Part of the Solution

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Water Resources Systems of the Philippines: Modeling Studies (Researched by: Tristan Sy)

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URL: https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=49fIDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=water+pollution+mindanao&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-zpPJ3f38AhU-mlYBHa_-Cv4Q6AF6BAgIEAI#v=onepage&q&f=false
TITLE: Water resources Systems of the Philippines: Modeling Studies
AUTHOR: Guillermo Q. Tabios III
DATE PUBLISHED: January 7, 2020

KEY INFO: This book connects to the research topic through the various modeling studies about water resources, like water reservoirs and dams in the Philippines including all three geographical areas, Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao, both rural and urban areas, which may serve as a safe and durable facility. The book shows the science and art of water resources, things related to reservoirs and many more.

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Water Resources Systems of the Philippines: Modeling Studies

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This book presents a number of modeling studies of various water resources systems in the humid tropics and the typical short, steep mountain-to-coast systems in the archipelagic setting of the Philippines. Covering natural and rural systems, urban watersheds and built systems, such as reservoirs and flood control systems, it discusses modeling studies based on pure simulation and combined optimization-simulation.

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Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines (research by: Tristan Sy)

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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7153040/
TITLE: Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines
AUTHORS: Beth Ann Fiedler, Angelo Mark P. Walag, Mark P. Walag
DATE PUBLISHED: May 10, 2018

KEY INFO: The paper connects to the research topic because it focuses on the water quality, water scarcity, health and environmental impact of us people to bodies of water in Mindanao, and the fight between water supply and demand, especially in areas limited by infrastructures and facilities.

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Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning. 2018 May 10 : 219-253.

Guest Editor (s): Beth Ann Fiedler

Independent Research Analyst, Jacksonville, Florida USA

Abstract

The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in agriculture. Water supply and usage for the island and the nation are identified and discussed in relation to the scarcity of potable water. Potential threats and pollution hotspots bring forth the various health and environmental impact attributed to the water system accessibility, distribution, and quality. Strategies addressing water resources problems are taken into consideration side-by-side the numerous national laws, policies, standards, and guidelines in addressing water quality control and management. Therefore, the legal framework for various agencies to carry out these policies on quality control, usage, and water management are pivotal to recommendations on revision of certain provisions that rely on embedding local community involvement to lessen the environmental impact that is causal to poor population health. The World Bank has been instrumental in prompting local activity with initiatives first established in relation to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals that are being carried forward today in the Sustainable Development Initiatives. This chapter extends the recent UN and World Bank initiatives to demonstrate how further community involvement can continue to improve quality of life for Philippine citizens through education and participation.

Keywords: Community involvement, Water monitoring, Water quality, Public health, Water shortage

Introduction and Background

Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not guarantee access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low socioeconomic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017, para 2). However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs ) (United Nations 2015) and a steady flow of financial support from the World Bank at $638.1 million (United Nations 2017, para 7; World Bank 2014) provides guidance and funding that led to the development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions to respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent greater opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven development ( CDD) initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to "make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their priorities" (United Nations 2017, para 2).

The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initiatives to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships with existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social Welfare and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, providing community access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development partnerships, such as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several governments, which were instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms and metrics based on monitoring the MDGS (United Nations 2017). These metrics establish empirical evidence for decision-making with the long-term goals of a healthy environment and population. "The monitoring of the MDGs taught us that data are an indispensable element of the development agenda," and that "what gets measured gets done" (United Nations 2015, p.10).

Monitoring at the turn of the millennium quickly brought forth data indicating the leading water consumers, the problem of scarcity of water resources, and other threats to the availability of potable water that remains problematic in the nation. The baseline established the disproportionate use of agricultural consumption for irrigation and fisheries (Greenpeace 2007) accounting for 85.27% of the total water supply followed by the industrial sector (7.46%) and the remaining 7.27% for domestic consumption (World Bank 2004, p.29). Further, differentiating groundwater and piped-water supply systems sources was instrumental in revealing harmful practices in which groundwater extraction is done without permit. This indiscriminate and unregulated method of withdrawal led to the enactment of Executive Order No. 123 Series of 2012. The order mandates the transfer of National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) from the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH ) to the Office of the President then to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources' (DENR ) jurisdiction. Furthermore, the NWRB was tasked to immediately review the implementing rules and regulations of the Water Code of the Philippines (Barba 2004). These modifications to multiple water agencies and the introduction of new legislation were brought into action to regulate, monitor, and redistribute usage of water resources but distribution remains the same today. Further, the water agencies struggle with interagency integration, manpower shortages, and lack of financial resource allocation at the local levels often rendering their mandated efforts ineffective (Rola et al. 2015).

The success of the UN MDG targets in the Philippines were evident meeting goals to improve access to drinking water up from 85% of the population in 1990 to 92% in 2010 (Fehr et al. 2013, p.638) but several challenges remain. Improved water sources (e.g., bottled, regulated water refilling stations) (Israel 2009; Madrazo 2002; Magtibay 2004; UNICEF and WHO 2012), an adequate freshwater supply and high rate of precipitation contributed to improvements (see Table 12.1 ). However, several factors such as biased geographic distribution, seasonal variations , and water shortages based on population distribution remain problematic (Barba 2004; Dumlao 2016; Ranada 2015). Damage to infrastructure due to civil unrest (Malapit et al. 2003) and the long history of the southern part of the Philippines being disenfranchised and underrepresented in the government is apparent in the lack of infrastructure projects there (Clausen 2010; Silva 2005) providing a historical basis leading to the present conditions. Furthermore, investments and policies crafted to better provide water access have been greatly affected by these conflicts (Clausen 2010). Earlier analysis of these political factors (e.g., institutional deficiencies, weak regulatory policies, lack of government leadership and political will, and lack of an integrated water resources management system) (Madrazo 2002) continue to pose additional barriers to the water crisis. Therefore, the legal framework on water quality, use and management are important factors for any proposed solutions.

Table 12.1

Region

Water district

LGUa

RWSAb/BWSAc

Cooperatives

Total population served

The National Water Resources Board (NWRB ) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA ) identified nine urbanized areas in the country, three of which are in Mindanao Island (Davao, Cagayan de Oro City, and Zamboanga City), facing water demand challenges in the next several years (JICA 1998). Health hazards associated with the shortage include an increasing number of gastrointestinal diseases caused by unpotable water and new housing developments that alter the balance of supply of and demand (Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006; Tacio 2014). Consequently, these areas establish the basis for a growing concern for a national water crisis by 2025 (JICA 1998). Striking a national balance between the water supply and demand, especially in the areas limited by infrastructures and facilities, is vital to optimizing, producing, and distributing potable water.

This chapter unfolds the problem scope and legal framework for surface and ground water management, the important aspects of assessing water quality, and the health and environmental impact of contaminated water. Then, several water quality initiatives will be discussed followed by a series of recommendations promoting civic engagement to support local community involvement in government organized projects. The chapter concludes with a high-level summary.

Water Scarcity Problem Scope

The scope of water scarcity in the Philippines still rests on systemic problems brought forth at the onset of baselining the nation's status in relation to UN MDGs by the World Bank in 2003. Several major and tangential issues remain the foremost, of which access to clean water is important to population health. Ranked number 5 in the overall causes of death for the nation in 2010 analysis was preventable diarrhea attributed to unsanitary water at a rate of 354.5 per 100,000 population (DOH 2012, p.14). Therefore, the location of natural resources in the form of surface and groundwater provide geographic references demonstrating regional water availability and the problem location poses to access in areas of need.

Major issues concerning the use and scarcity of water include: (1) inconsistency of water supply and demand (Barba 2004; Madrazo 2002), (2) lack of water allocation system and distribution formula (Barba 2004), (3) NWRB weak regulation , permit monitoring, and enforcement of water use due to insufficient manpower and low operating budget (Barba 2004), (4) outdated principles mandated in the Water Code of the Philippines "first in time priority in right" and discretion is vaguely granted to a deputized government agency to investigate violations (Barba 2004, p.2), and (5) unsustainable water pricing that does not properly reward efficient water users with economic incentives (Barba 2004). Other threats to water availability are linked to (1) outdated research and framework plans, and (2) hampered policy decision-making due to insufficient data collection in certain areas, lack of data sharing protocols governing inter-agency access, and lack of a common integrated knowledge management database (Barba 2004).

Natural water-related disasters and environmental degradation are persistent threats to most of the watersheds in Mindanao impacting water access and quality. A super typhoon Bopha (Pablo) struck significant part of Mindanao in 2012 and super typhoon Sendong (Washi) in Cagayan de Oro caused watershed damage leading to high rates of erosion (Franta et al. 2016; Rodolfo et al. 2016). In 2015, the Butuan City Council approved the Resolution declaring a city-wide water crisis due to low water supply to 200,000 residents attributed to the damaged facilities and infrastructures of Butuan City Water District after onslaught of tropical storm Seniang. However, investigation later revealed that the water crisis was a result of the neglect, callousness, and inefficiency of the officials of the local water district (Serrano 2015).

Man-made activities, such as deforestation or denudification, also spur on water-related disasters that degrade watersheds. DENR representatives cited three such watersheds due to the urgent need for rehabilitation from excessive deforestation (BusinessWorld 2011). Reducing nonrevenue water, the water that is lost from leaks, pilferage through illegal connections, and wastage, is another aspect in the problem scope of water scarcity.

While the problem of water scarcity spans several areas (e.g., policy, poor oversight, natural disasters, environmental degradation), there some are cases of emerging solutions. For example, Cagayan de Oro City and USAID partner to implement water-saving measures by reducing the percentage of nonrevenue water. The local water district of Cagayan de Oro estimates that they lose 53% (80,000 m ³) of their water supply as nonrevenue water and aim to reduce to acceptable levels ranging from 20 to 30% (Jerusalem 2016). Upon completion of the project, water recovered in the process was slated to serve areas still lacking a water service connection.

Mindanao Water Source Potential

The water resources of the Philippines are composed of inland freshwater, coastal, bay, and oceanic water (Raymundo 2015). The portion of potential supply of water both surface and groundwater of Mindanao Island per region is shown in Table 12.2 demonstrating the uneven distribution of these resources that favor the Northern and Southern regions. Water resources differ also from province to province based on several factors like population density, rainfall patterns, watershed quality, and the rate of groundwater recharge (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011).

Table 12.2

Region

Surface water

Groundwater

Total

Southwestern Mindanao

12,100

1082

13,182

Northern Mindanao

29,000

2116

31,116

Southeastern Mindanao

11,300

2375

13,675

Southern Mindanao

18,700

1758

20,458

Mindanao Surface Water Resources

The Philippines have five principal river basins and two are found in Mindanao-the Agusan and Pulangi River Basins (Tan et al. 2012). The surface water resource of the nation is primarily the inland freshwater resources occupying 1830 km ² of the Philippine area (World Bank 2003) with an estimated 262 watersheds (Tan et al. 2012). Eight of the 18 significant rivers covering an area greater than 1000 km ² are in Mindanao (World Bank 2003) which makes up watersheds or river basins that further drains into the bays in the north, east, and south.

Groundwater Resources

Mindanao houses two of the four major groundwater reservoirs in the Philippines, the Agusan Groundwater Reservoir (8500 ha) and Pulangi Groundwater Reservoir (estimated at 6000 ha). These groundwater resources lie beneath Mindanao's vast watersheds or recharging zones-the Agusan and Ligawasan Marshes (Tan et al. 2012) establishing Southeastern and Northern Mindanao as the highest potential groundwater resources (World Bank 2003).

A 5.3% annual increase in total demand for groundwater resources (e.g., domestic, industrial, and commercial) throughout the Philippines also saw a decline in precipitation reducing recharge by an average 3.7% annually and a steady decline in the volume of groundwater at an average annual rate of 1.4% from 1988 to 1994 (Philippine Statistics Authority 2016, para 4). This reveals that there is a continuing trend towards depletion of the country's groundwater resource stock making Mindanao Island, heavily reliant on the agricultural and industrial sectors for economic development, highly susceptible.

Legal Framework and Policies on Quality Control, Regulation on Water Usage, and Water Management

Understanding the existing national legal policy and framework on water use establishes important systemic factors in the existing protocols and presents an opportunity to apply analysis techniques to generate novel responses to the water scarcity problem. This section introduces government agencies, national laws, quality and emission standards, and presents problems associated with enforcement of existing guidelines.

Government Agencies

The water resources management of the Philippines is divided into several components performed by multiple government agencies and offices (Table 12.3 ) mandated by law and their charter, to perform roles in water supply, hydropower, irrigation, pollution, flood control, and watershed management (Dayrit 2001). The foremost agency in water management is the National Water Resources Board (NWRB ), responsible for policy formulation, administration, and enforcement of the Water Code of the Philippines (Madrazo 2002). The overlapping duties of the agencies and their regulatory framework can create a complex and competitive environment hindering effective water resource management.

Table 12.3

Agency

Function

URL

Supply and water distribution

Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) b

Local water districts managing water supply and sewerage systems

http://www.lwua.gov.ph/

Policy formulation and planning

Water resource regulation

Other relevant regulatory agencies

National Water Use, Management Laws and Policies

The adoption of National Water Code of 1976 (Presidential Decree of 1067) is the first attempt by the national government to systematically manage the water resources of the Philippines. The main purposes of this policy are to (1) provide basic principles and structural framework for the appropriation, control, conservation, and protection of water resources to achieve optimum development and efficient use to meet present and future needs; (2) determine the scope of the rights and obligations of water users and provide for the protection and regulation of such rights; and (3) the necessary and essential administrative machinery and systems. Several related laws and policies are enumerated below.

Republic Act No. 8041 or . Water supply, distribution, finance, privatization of state-run water facilities, conservation and protection of watersheds, and wastage and pilferage of water including the matters of graft and corruption in all water agencies.

Presidential Decree No. 198 or . Mandates to create, operate, maintain, and expand local water districts (LWDs); direct and administer economically viable and sound provincial water supply and wastewater disposal systems.

Presidential Decree No. 1586 or . Mandates the administration of environmental impact assessment for all investments undertaken by the government of private sectors.

Presidential Decree No. 424 or . Mandates the creation of a National Water Resources Council; primary duty of coordinating and regulating national water resource development; planning and policy for social and economic development.

Republic Act No. 7160 or . Mandates the LGUs to enforce water-related laws and policies for sanitation, water supply, and flood control (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

Water Quality Control Laws, Classification, and Assessment

The main document establishing and defining the basic regulatory programs (e.g., discharge standards, issuance of permits, monitoring of compliance) is the Philippine Environment Code (Presidential Decree No. 1151). Several national laws have also been passed and established defining policy on abatement, control, and water quality management. These laws are summarized below.

Republic Act No. 9275 or . Mandates the protection, preservation, and revival of the quality of the country's freshwater, brackish, and marine waters; pollution abatement; market-based instruments that charges fees based on effluent discharge volume impacting applications for permitting; and strengthens enforcement by imposing stiffer penalties for violations of standards.

Commonwealth Act 383 or . Early legislation addressing environmental pollution (e.g., solid waste dumping) in rivers causing water levels to rise and/or streamflow blockage.

Presidential Decree No. 984 or . Guideline for water pollution control water from industrial sources; establishes penalties for noncompliance and violation; requires industries to acquire necessary permits before operation.

Presidential Decree No. 856 or . Establishes the standards for collection and disposal of sewage, refuse, excreta covering both solid and liquid wastes; mandates cities and municipalities the responsibility to furnish efficient and proper waste disposal systems and to manage nuisance and offensive trades and occupations.

Republic Act No. 9003 or . Mandates the systematic implementation of a national program that will govern the transfer, transport, processing, sorting, and disposal of the country's solid waste; establishes the criteria and standard for identifying landfill sites ensuring that their operation does not affect the groundwater sources in nearby aquifers.

Republic Act No. 6969 or . Establishes the standards in the control and management of the importation, manufacturing, processing, distribution, utilization, treatment, transportation, storage, and disposal of toxic, hazardous, and nuclear wastes and substances (Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 or . Establishes the categories and classification of water bodies in terms of their best usage; defines the minimum required for different water quality parameters per type of water classification.

DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990 or . Stipulates the national standards for the discharge of effluents for the different classifications of water bodies.

DENR Administrative Order No. 26A Series of 1994 or Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water . Establishes the national standard values for the different water quality parameters; guidelines and methodologies accepted for assessing the drinking water quality.

DENR Administrative Order No. 38 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the policies on regulation and control of the importation, manufacturing, distribution, and use of mercury and mercury compounds; defines the accepted procedures on storage, transportation, and disposal of mercury and mercury compound wastes.

DENR Administrative Order No. 39 Series of 1997 or . Establishes the requirements and procedures for importing, manufacturing, distributing, and using cyanide and cyanide compounds; determines protocol for the storage, transport, and waste disposal for these compounds.

DENR Administrative Order No. 58 Series of 1998 or Priority Chemical List/DENR Administrative Order No. 27 Series of 2005 or . Determines the potentially harmful substances which pose unreasonable health risks to the public and even to the environment. The order requires companies, industries, distributors, importers, and manufacturers of chemicals listed to submit reports twice a year (DENR 2017; Chan Robles Virtual Law Library 2015).

Many of the water resource problems relate to quality rather than the quantity (Senate Economic Planning Office 2011) as water pollution affects island marine waters, fresh and groundwater sources. Surface water quality in the Philippines is classified in terms of its beneficial use (Table 12.4 ) and different portions of a water body can have several uses with multiple classifications. One example is the Lipadas River in Region 11 which has four classifications; Class AA upstream, Classes A and B midstream, and Class C downstream (EMB 2014). Notable is that two of the five Class AA inland waters can be found in Mindanao Region 11-the Lipadas River (upstream) and Baganga-Mahan-Ub (upstream).

Table 12.4

Class

Beneficial use

Number in Class

AA

Public water supply class I. Intended primarily for waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise protected; require approved disinfection to meet the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW)

5

A

Public water supply class II. For sources of water supply that will require complete treatment (e.g., coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection) to meet the PNSDW

234

B

Recreational water class I. For primary contact recreation such as bathing, swimming, and skin diving. (particularly those designated for tourism purposes)

197

C

1. Fishery water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic resources

2. Recreational water class II (e.g., boating)

3. Industrial water supply class I (for manufacturing processes after treatment)

333

D

1. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering.

2. Industrial water supply class II (e.g., cooling)

3. Other inland waters as determined by their quality belong to this classification

27

Mindanao has 236 classified inland waters as of 2013 which were based on data monitored and collected by the EMB from 2006 to 2013 as shown in Table 12.5 (EMB 2013). Based on the data available, further efforts must be employed to classify the remaining inland waters to provide additional information and for further management and rehabilitation if needed, especially in the case of Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM ).

Table 12.5

Region

Class AA

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

TOTAL

2

101

60

56

17

The assessment of water quality is based on the number of samples taken from the body of water meeting the DAO 1990-34 water quality criteria per parameter (EMB 2014, p.9). Only bodies of water with at least four sampling events, representing both the dry and wet seasons, were included (EMB 2014). Please refer to the EMB ( 2014) for details on assessment methodologies used to rate water bodies for optimum levels of various particulate matter based on DENR formulations of ambient standards. DENR standards emphasize parameters such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), total suspended solids (TSS ), total dissolved solids (TDS ), and heavy metals to assess inland water quality. The standard value in each parameter serves as the benchmark data for monitoring and assessing water quality in their respective classification.

Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a parameter used to indicate level of water pollution and the capacity to support aquatic plants and animal life (Greenpeace 2007). Water movement, temperature, and pollution can also affect the concentration of DO in a body of water. High levels of DO are observed in water bodies with these activities.

Only 138/164 (84%) of the inland waters monitored by the EMB met the required sampling events from 2006 to 2013 while 81/138 (59%) were deemed to have "good" water quality (EMB 2014, p.9). Most of these are Class A or C designated bodies of water located in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao (EMB 2014).

Biological Oxygen Demand

Biological oxygen demand (BOD ) is a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in decomposing organic matter from a pollution source (EMB 2014). Higher levels of BOD manifest downstream where decomposition occurs and not where the effluent is directly discharged (EMB 2014).

Only 75/131 (57%) if the inland waters that met the sampling requirements are considered "good" (EMB 2014, p.11). They were from Class A or Class C water bodies in Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and in Regions 10, 12, and 13 of Mindanao.

Total Suspended Solids

Total suspended solid (TSS ) is a measure of undissolved solid in water (e.g., silt, decaying plant and animal matter, domestic and industrial wastes) (EMB 2014). A body of water with high TSS value has lower capability of supporting aquatic life due to reduction of the light penetrating the body of water.

Only 40/138 (29%) Class AA and Class A water bodies met the sampling requirements while only 13/40 (33%) bodies of water manifested "good" quality (EMB 2014, p.12). Two out these water bodies were just shy of reaching 100% compliance rating-(1) Mindanao, upper portion of Taguibo River (99%), and (2) Lake Mainit (98%) (EMB 2014, p.12). Several water bodies from Mindanao received a "poor" rating including the Davao River (upper reach) in Region 11, Lun Masla River in Region 12, and Iponan River in Region 10.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS ) refers to a broad array of chemical contaminants coming from agricultural runoff, leaching soil contamination, and point source pollution from industrial or domestic sewage (EMB 2014).

Only 17 (55%) bodies of water manifested "good" quality out of 30 Class AA/A bodies of water monitored which are mostly concentrated in Region 3 and only Marilao River in Bulacan had a "poor" quality level (Greenpeace 2007, p.16).

Heavy Metals

Heavy metal ions are soluble in water that forms toxic sediments at the bottom of bodies of water. These are considered harmful to aquatic life and to humans who consume seafood contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. Monitoring heavy metals is important to maintaining healthy waterways especially in water bodies that are near mining industries, electroplating, tanning, and other similar activities (Appleton et al. 1999; Baharom and Ishak 2015; Canencia et al. 2016).

Additional findings in the EMB report include results from 63 inland surface water bodies that were monitored in terms of total mercury, cadmium, and lead from 2006 to 2013. These monitored rivers exhibited 100% total mercury compliance except for Agno, Malaguit, Panique, and Tubay Rivers (Mindanao) (EMB 2014, p.16). Tubay River (Class A) did not meet the criterion in two sampling events out of 56 conducted. However, the presence of mercury there could remove the Tubay River as potential source of potable water.

Similarly, the maximum limit of cadmium was present in 10/18 bodies of monitored waters from 2006 to 2013. Of these ten, the lower part of the Davao River (Class B) is found in Mindanao. Although this river did not completely meet the compliance standard, notable is that of the ten rivers, the Davao River exhibited the highest compliance rating with 93% (EMB 2014, p.17).

Lead monitoring indicates that only 7/18 bodies of water monitored met the maximum limit demonstrating a 100% compliance rating. The Davao River in Mindanao, both upper and lower sections did not meet the maximum limit and both sections failed some aspect of sampling collection event (EMB 2014, p.18). These findings are particularly alarming for the upper section of Davao River, because of the Class A designation as a source of potable water.

Standards Overview: Ambient Water Quality, Wastewater Emission, and Enforcement

Various Philippine legislations cover different water quality parameters. This section provides an overview of major evaluation protocol for surface water, groundwater used to produce drinking water, bottled water, and wastewater. Then we present some high-level issues of enforcement relating to these standards.

Ambient Water Quality

Ambient water (e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans) quality is defined as the average water purity distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the source of the pollution as defined by the Clean Water Act of the Philippines (Greenpeace 2007). DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990 sets forth 33 water quality assessment for minimum and desired levels for drinking water, water purification, polyvinyl chloride, and bacteria. Five key parameters determine classification and reclassification of surface water bodies: (1) pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD ), and total coliforms.

Drinking Water

For drinking water, the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (DOH 2007) holds criteria for bacteriological, physical, chemical, radiological, and biological qualities across 56 parameters used to assess groundwater source quality. Only three measures-fecal coliform, salinity or chloride content, and nitrates (EMB 2014) are highly relevant. Chloride and nitrates constitutes the total dissolved solids (TDS ) with a maximum limit of 500 mg/L while no total coliform must be detectable in 100 mL sample for the fecal coliform parameter (World Bank 2003).

Bottled Water

Standards for bottled water are stipulated in Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) Administrative Order No. 18-A Series of 1996. The BFAD stipulates assessment of several parameters including the levels of bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers, pesticides, hydrocarbons, detergents, phenolic compounds, heavy metals, radioactive substances, and other soluble organic and inorganic substances. Source quality, production processes and facilities, and handling and proper labeling are also part of the BFAD order.

Wastewater

The protocol for wastewater effluent emission standards are gathered in DENR Administrative Order No. 34 and 35 Series of 1990 as they apply to the different classifications of water bodies. Several standards dictate maximum corresponding numerical values coming from any point source for any effluent discharge but target toxic and deleterious substances which can affect the quality of the receiving body of water. Discharge of effluents in bodies of water categorized as Class AA is strongly prohibited to ensure protection of public health while for other categories, industrial discharges and effluents should not contain toxic substances greater than the indicated value in the said order (Greenpeace 2007). Standard values on conventional and other pollutants which affect the aesthetic and oxygen demand are also established in these administrative orders. Some researchers have suggested that despite the number of governing policies, standards, and guidance, these assessment parameters appear to be relatively insensitive to the actual ambient standards due the utilization of concentration-based standards (Luken 1999).

Current wastewater standards do not reflect the proliferation of toxic chemicals used for and as a byproduct of modern industrial and commercial processes especially in electronics and semiconductor industry, such as beryllium, nickel, copper, tin, zinc, vanadium, and many other volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Enforcement

Enforcement of existing laws and regulations are another prominent issue. Several researchers have identified the problematic nature of government institutions due to inefficient and/or ineffective activities. For example, overlapping, or in some cases competing, water resource management function and enacted responsibilities across various levels of government challenging leaders to agency realignment (Rola et al. 2015). Because of this problem of variance in policy and implementation mechanisms, consistent enforcement remains a challenge for the national and local governments (USAID and AECEN 2004). The problem becomes transparent when a new law is enacted but then adopts a new or different strategy, giving varied powers and responsibilities to existing government agencies like the EMB, LGUs, and other especially constituted multisectoral management and regulatory bodies.

Several challenges in the enforcement of existing regulations, such as an unclear reporting structure, accountability, enforcement responsibilities, and nonstandardized inspection procedures, have been identified by the EMB ( 2014). The EMB faces their own challenges in reporting structure as staff in the provincial and community offices are categorized as reassigned personnel reporting to the DENR regional offices and not directly to the EMB hierarchy as prescribed by the EMB mandate. Additionally, these EMB personnel are in the DENR Regional offices and depend on their resources. This crease results in the delay of submissions of reports, determination of accountable personnel, and mandate enforcement.

Another prevailing enforcement issue is that most local government officials are unaware of their responsibilities with regards to the enforcement of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act and other pertinent policies. Most of the responsibilities and obligations LGU require significant technical capability aside from financial investments. However, training conducted by the DENR and internal training conducted by the LGU do not reflect this. While a good strategy to address this challenge is for the DENR to facilitate compliance of LGUs through capacity building activities, workshops, and penalties exacted on LGU officials that violate or fail to meet their mandated responsibilities, DENR budgets do not currently allocate for training or monitoring of LGUs. EMB annual budgets for training, monitoring and inspection are annually exceeded and do not receive a steady revenue source. This creates a challenge of allocating enough budget for the DENR to be able to provide a comprehensive program for capacity building to prepare LGUs for the enforcement of certain provisions of the law.

Another enforcement problem is the lack of cohesive, standardized procedures in various EMB field offices. Instead, field agents often establish and practice their own procedural strategy when conducting inspection and monitoring tasks. Although several attempts have been made to produce unofficial field guides, manuals, and checklists for the standard conduct of inspection, these items were unsuccessful. First, they were considered impractical to actual field situations, and second, they failed to garner support because they were not backed by official administrative orders reinforcing their implementation.

Demand to address certain limitations of current and existing laws, standards for water quality and effluents, and enforcement is apparent. While policies are presumably adequate, agencies face limitations on enforcement that may only be ameliorated by institutional influence.

Groundwater Quality Assessment

The country's groundwater resources provide most of the water needs for households, agricultural activities, commercial, industrial processes, and others. Therefore, preventing groundwater contamination and remediating contaminated groundwater are important considerations that warrant testing and other associated expenses.

In assessing the country's groundwater quality, the Philippine National Standard for Drinking Water (PNSDW) is referenced. This standard includes relevant parameters indicating the level and degree of pollutants such as fecal coliform and nitrates. Other common parameters (e.g., salinity, chloride content) are used to indicate the level of seawater intrusion.

Fecal Coliform

The PNSWD prescribes that drinking water should contain less than 1.1 Most Probable Number per 100 mL (MPN/100 mL) using the method of Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (EMB 2014). The EMB conducted a program in 2008 to consolidate the results of analyses on tap water samples for Total and Fecal Coliforms submitted by different regional laboratories across the country. Under this program, 59 shallow wells were monitored in selected areas of the country and 6 were found to be potable, 23 failed to meet the fecal coliform standard, and the remaining 30 sites require further testing (EMB 2014). Sites found not potable in Mindanao are in Zamboanga City and Davao City (Greenpeace 2007).

Salinity or Chloride Content

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater causes the natural groundwater gradient to reverse and allow seawater to contaminate and intrude the aquifers in coastal areas (Pinder 1981). Seawater intrusion can affect the potability of drinking water and the quality of water in irrigation wells leaving some areas unfit for continued agricultural activities (EMB 2014).

No current study assessing the degree of seawater intrusion in the groundwater resources of Mindanao Island to date. However, some studies were conducted in the areas of Luzon (Insigne and Kim 2010) and Visayas (Scholze et al. 2002).

Pollution Hotspots

The Philippine Government maintains the quality of water bodies according to intended and beneficial use (DENR 1990). In 2003, pollution hotspots of surface water were assessed by the World Bank and evaluated by province using DO and BOD criteria while groundwater sources tested TDS and coliform. Water quality status of surface waters was categorized and rated as Satisfactory (S), Marginal (M), and Unsatisfactory (U) while groundwater quality status was rated either Satisfactory (S) or Unsatisfactory (U) (Table 12.6 ).

Table 12.6

Parameter

Satisfactory

Marginal

Unsatisfactory

DO (mg/L) a

>5

5

<5

BOD (mg/L) b

<5

5

>5

TDS c

Less than 10% of wells tested did not meet standard

N/A

10% or more of wells tested did not meet standard

Coliform

No wells found positive for coliform (0%)

N/A

Wells found positive for coliform (>0%)

Results of the 3-year monitoring project conducted by the World Bank reported on the Water Quality Scorecard for Surface Waters from Regions 9-11 and 13 are satisfactory with marginal ratings for the Mercedes River (Region 9), Manicahan River (Region 9) and Agusan River (Region 13) (World Bank 2003, p.36). Several surface water bodies on the island were rated as unsatisfactory including the Saaz River (Region 9) and the Padada, Tuganay, and Agusan Rivers in Region 11 (World Bank 2003, p.36). There were no available data for Region 12 and ARMM .

There were further gaps in analysis. No groundwater data were available for Regions 12, 13, and ARMM for both TDS and coliform while for Region 9 and 11, no coliform data were available (World Bank 2003). Zamboanga del Sur (Region 9) and Misamis Oriental (Region 10) groundwater sources were rated unsatisfactory for TDS while Misamis Oriental (Region 10) was rated unsatisfactory for coliform (World Bank 2003, p.37).

Point and Nonpoint Sources

Water pollution can be classified in terms of its source-(1) point source pollution, and (2) nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution refers to any pollution with an identifiable pollution source with a specific and known discharge point. On the other hand, nonpoint source pollution refers to pollution with no known or identifiable source (World Bank 2003).

Point source pollution can be categorized into three main sources-domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater discharges, and industrial wastewater discharges. Pollution load is calculated using BOD as the measuring parameter indicating pollution contribution from point sources is 24% from Industrial discharges, 31% from Domestic or Municipal discharges, and 45% from Agricultural discharges (EMB 2014, p.24) The calculations for domestic, agricultural, and industrial BOD can be seen in the documents published by World Bank ( 2003), EMB ( 2014), Economopoulos ( 1993).

Domestic discharges contain the most organic waste with suspended solids and coliforms from common household and kitchen activities (World Bank 2003). The problem is attributed to the lack of appropriate domestic sewage treatment system allowing allows 90% of inadequately treated domestic sewage discharged into surface waters (Greenpeace 2007, p.19). Major areas that generate BOD are Metro Manila and Region 4A (18% and 15%, respectively) while only small levels of BOD are generated in Mindanao regions (World Bank 2003, p.7). In Mindanao, regions 10, 11, and 12 went above the 50 thousand megaton mark for BOD load while areas within regions of 9, 13 and ARMM were below 50 thousand megaton marks (World Bank 2003).

In terms of agricultural BOD , Regions 4 and 1 contributed the most BOD in the country (13% and 12%, respectively). In Mindanao, region 10 is ranked fourth in BOD attributed to active animal and vegetable farming in this region, while Region 13 and ARMM (1.2% and 3.0%, respectively) had the least agricultural BOD contribution (World Bank 2003, p.21). Notable is that Region 13 also has the least agricultural BOD contribution for the whole country.

Industrial BOD contribution depends on the volume and characteristics of industrial effluents which vary by industry type. Water-intensive industries discharge huge amounts of waste water (Canencia and Walag 2016; World Bank 2003). Most of the water-intensive industries are in Luzon in the National Capital Region, Regions 3 and 4, thus having the most BOD contribution (42.5%, 9.0%, and 14.1%, respectively) while other regions, such as 11 (6.6%), 9 (3.3%), 10 (2.2%), and 8 (1.1%), have relatively smaller contributions. Finally, ARMM reports 0% BOD contribution due the absence of or an insignificant number of large industries (World Bank 2003, p.21).

Nonpoint source pollution depends generally on the land use thus it is calculated and estimated based on the different land uses. Several technologies are now available to help monitor, control, and mitigate the effects of point source pollutions but there remains difficulty in these activities for nonpoint sources (Greenpeace 2007). The difficulty in monitoring is evident in the lack of information and scarcity of monitoring on the contribution of solid waste, a major source of nonpoint pollutants (World Bank 2003).

Health and Environmental Impact

Human population and the surrounding environment are at risk when bodies of water like rivers, streams, and lakes are polluted with wastewater or spillage. These source bodies of water, in turn, contaminate nearby groundwater making humans susceptible to environmentally-related illness and disease resulting in mortality and morbidity (Cabral 2010; Grimes et al. 2015). Specifically, inadequate sanitation and hygiene brought about by lack of clean, safe, and comfortable facilities could promote the risk of acquiring diarrhea (Pfadenhauer and Rehfuess 2015) "which is second to pneumonia as the leading cause of morbidity in the Philippines" (DOH 2012, p.63) in diseases related to the environment. Several studies discussed in this section have firmly established the relationship between polluted water supply and disease in the Philippines (WEPA n.d., para 7):

Untreated wastewater... makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

Water bodies in urban areas are the most susceptible to contamination due to the direct and indirect pollution caused by unprecedented development. However, rural surface waters are endangered due to farming, animal production, and other food sector industries that release organic pollutants into the water system. Consequently, the environmental impact of improper sewerage leading to unsanitary water causes a variety of debilitating health effects on living creatures-land-dwelling animals, aquatic life and humans.

Water Supply Contamination and Diseases in Humans

Excessive levels of fecal coliform organism and E. coli indicative of surface water contamination was detected in a recent study of Cagayan de Oro River upstream. The contamination was attributed to improper disposal of animal wastes, human wastes which are discarded directly to the river, and poor sewerage in nearby communities (Lubos et al. 2013; Lubos and Japos 2010).

Several studies confirm the need for increasing attention to watershed management and sanitation. The Labo and Clarin Rivers are considered important to the different communities in Misamis Occidental, where both tested positive for coliforms; the site along the agroforest and agricultural areas had the highest total coliform (Labajo-Villantes and Nuneza 2014) confirming the need for increasing attention to watershed management. Several problematic physicochemical and bacteriological qualities were also reported in several rivers-the Aligodon, Misamis Oriental, Daveo River, and Talomo (Ido 2016; Laud et al. 2016).

Morbidity from outbreaks of diarrhea continue to be a major health problem stemming from groundwater contamination of wells on farmland in villages in North Cotabato (Pelone 2014a) and the application of herbicides on cornfields that are washed down to river systems (Bacongco 2014). One death and 32 instances of mortality was consequent to contamination through leakage of distribution pipes in Zamboanga City (Pelone 2014b) where 14/19 residents there later tested positive for norovirus (Radyo Natin 2016).

Fish Kills and Red Tide Occurrences

Low DO levels in water, abrupt and abnormal shifting water temperature, and deteriorating water quality are common environmental conditions that kill aquatic life (EMB 2014). Several fish kills were documented and recorded throughout the island including the 1 km long algal bloom of Cochlodinium sp. in the coastal area Jasaan, Misamis Oriental in 2003 (Jabatan 2004). The bloom occurs because of high surface temperature, favorable transport, radiation available for photosynthesis, and enrichment for organic nutrients (Kim et al. 2016; Lee and Choi 2009; Tomas and Smaydab 2008).

Several fish kills were reported in the island to have been caused by oxygen depletion due to overcrowding and harmful algal blooms Lake Sebu and Lake Seloton in South Cotabato and Iligan bay (Fernandez 2017; Vicente et al. 2002). Consequently, government representatives of Maguindanao took precautionary measures to ensure the balance of environment and marine life in the Lake Buluan by regulating the number of fish pens (Sarmiento 2017).

The health of humans and marine species are both continuously threatened by occurrences of Red Tide. Mindanao's affinity for red tides, shown on the data from the Incidences of Red Tide in Coastal Areas in 2016, has been credited to northeast monsoon-driven upwellings (EMB 2014). Balite Bay in Mati, Davao Oriental was exposed to red tide from January to March 2016, posing significant threats to aquatic life until finally deemed toxin free in early March (Bureau of Fish and Aquatic Resources 2016).

Improper Sewerage and Sanitation

In the Philippines, 76.8% of families have sanitary toilet facilities but only less than 10% are connected to piped sewerage system while the rest rely on septic tanks, pit latrines, or open defecation (EMB 2014, p.28). Both the existence of unsuitable sewerage systems or absence thereof greatly impacts the quality of different bodies of water because this type of contamination may give rise to various water-borne diseases caused by various microorganisms (EMB 2014).

While incidents of diarrhea have been deadly several other viral infections can result from unsanitary water. Instances of hepatitis in Surigao del Sur (Crisostomo and Serrano 2006) and leptospirosis in Davao City (Zapanta et al. 2014) were all attributed to poor sanitation and improperly maintained sewage system. Rural areas are typically affected where water systems, such as traditional wells and rivers, contain fecal matter that contaminates the source (Bain et al. 2014).

Mine Tailing Spillages and Siltation

Several activities and sources of mercury and heavy metals that pollute water bodies can be attributed to mercury mining, gold mining, chemical industry, metal smelting, coal combustion, and metropolitan and agricultural runoffs (Li et al. 2009). Several mining industries are in the eastern and western sections of Mindanao where reports of spillages, heavy metal pollution, and siltation of nearby bodies of water have taken place (Appleton et al. 1999; Cortes-Maramba et al. 2006).

The gold mining industry has a strong presence in Eastern Mindanao near the Agusan River where the gold-rush town of Diwalwal has a foothold. Initial analysis revealed that the Diwalwal drainage, evident downstream of the river system, was characterized by extremely high levels of mercury in solution and sediments downstream (Appleton et al. 1999) exceeding multiple international guidelines.

Different kinds of organisms were also recorded as having been contaminated with mercury from different main tailings. Contaminations were also found in rice, fish and mussels from Naboc River (Appleton et al. 2006; Drasch et al. 2001) and in three species of fish in Davao del Norte (Akagi et al. 2000). Population and biodiversity of damselflies and dragonflies in Surigao del Sur (Quisil et al. 2014) and oyster production in Zamboanga Sibugay Province (Lim and Flores 2017) have also been drastically affected by mine tailing ponds.

Efforts to Address Water Quality

Water quality is a physical and chemical problem. Several projects have been conducted both by the government and nongovernment agencies to address recurring and perennial challenges regarding the protection and conservation of water resources. Programs on the enhancement of water quality in the Philippines are spearheaded by the DENR with the support of various nongovernment organizations, financing institutions, and development partners (EMB 2014).

Environmental Management Bureau Projects and Programs

The DENR is mandated, through the EMB, to be the national authority responsible for the prevention and control of pollution and assessment of environmental impact. Aside from the enforcement and compliance activities of EMB in 12.3, the EMB also take part in projects and activities to enhance and rehabilitate water quality throughout the country.

Designation of Water Quality Management Area

The Water Quality Management Area ( WQMA) is established by the NWRB together with DENR to assign water quality management areas using appropriate physiographic units to protect water bodies and its tributaries ( EMB n.d.b). The WQMA follows a two-step process by first initiating an assessment followed by the development of an agency Action Plan crafted to improve the quality of a certain body of water. Mindanao has ten bodies of water were designated as WQMAs in 2016.

Financing Institutions and Development Partners

Financing institutions and development partners aid various projects aiming to promote, conserve, rehabilitate, and manage water quality. While the World Bank, Development Bank of the Philippines, JICA , and USAID all contributed to various national projects to protect, conserve, manage and rehabilitate the water bodies in the Philippines, we emphasize support for projects on Mindanao Island.

Land Bank of the Philippines

The Land Bank of the Philippines, together with the DENR , implemented the " Adopt-a-Watershed Project" restoring 14 hectare (ha) total area of denuded forestlands in six pilot areas nationwide (EMB 2014). (1 ha is equal to 10,000 m ².) Two major watersheds in Mindanao were covered in Phase 1(2006-2011) of this project, Lasang River in Davao Del Norte and Silway River in South Cotabato. In Phase 2 (2012-2015) of this project, 10 ha total watershed was covered in Mindanao, these are Paquibato, Davao City and Olympog in General Santos City. In the last Phase (2015-2018), and additional 14 ha of Mindanao watersheds found in Zamboanga Sibugay, Lanao del Sur, Davao del Norte, and South Cotabato will undergo restoration (Land Bank of the Philippines 2014).

Asian Development Bank

The Asian Development Bank ( ADB) provided technical assistance to Cebu and Davao cities to improve access to water supply and sanitation services. The Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2011-2014) aimed to increase continuous water supply in Cebu and Davao City by 2022 from 50 to 80% of the population while the coverage for clean and hygienic sanitation was targeted to improve from 10 to 50%. Furthermore, marine biodiversity ecosystems in the provinces of Cagayan de Oro and Davao Oriental were also allocated funds by ADB to enhance coastal services and reduce poverty among fisher folks (EMB 2014).

Research and Development Initiatives

Various research and development initiatives and programs conducted by DENR and Department of Science and Technology (DOST ) have been reported to address water quality problems nationwide. DENR conducted leachate characterization study from various solid waste disposal facilities from 2005 to 2007 assessing the impacts of leachate on groundwater and studies on toxicity testing to assess the harmful effects of substances like cyanide, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and nitrates with fish and invertebrate test organisms. The collected data from the tests were used in the formulation of parameters for environmental quality assessment and monitoring (EMB 2014).

The DOST also conducted various research and development initiatives geared towards prevention and control of water pollution under a five-year plan from 2011 to 2016 entitled, "Science & Technology Water Environment Roadmap." Various programs and projects are investigating and implementing water technologies. They include water treatment technological improvement and innovation, wastewater treatment and remediation technologies, and space technology applications on water resources such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR ) technology and photonics for aquatic resource assessment (EMB 2014).

Recommendations to Improve Quality, Control, and Management

The environmental impact and negative health consequences elicited from water scarcity and pollution aid in refining the existing legal framework and policies on quality control, regulation on water usage, and water management. Major recommendations include policy amendments to the Philippine Water Code and Clean Air Act and various methods to further enhance local community involvement in government organized activities.

Policy Amendments

Major policy recommendations include the development of an institutional framework under the purview of the Philippine Water Code and amending the Clean Air Act to eliminate the use of concentration-based standards through the introduction of a two-tiered permit system. Suggestions include providing clarification of the roles and responsibilities of the various enacted national and local government units.

Centralized Regulation

A central regulatory body mandated within the main Philippine Water Code would provide an essential reporting structure that legally defines the framework for extraction, allocation, and management of the country's water resources. The transition to central control recognizes the presumably adequate existing law but may afford the necessary opportunity to successfully address the constant challenge of policy enforcement resulting from government institutions having overlapping functions and responsibilities (Rola et al. 2015). Thus, an institutional framework where all water users understand their roles and responsibilities should be enacted under the Philippine Water Code. The NWRB , currently enforcing the Water Code of the Philippines, is a prime candidate for transition. The existing organizational chart of NWRB allows conferring of water right but much of the proportion of water right is freely held by other public institutions like DENR (watershed management), LWUA (domestic water supply), and National Irrigation Administration (NIA) (irrigation water supply) as shown in Fig. 12.1 .

This proposal reinforces the technical capacity and administrative function of NWRB by restructuring agency responsibilities to become the country's water resources management authority. Hence, a single, independent, and autonomous regulatory board will ensure the protection of water consumers, enshrine accountability and transparency throughout the water resource management of the country, and implement an honest and dynamic tariff policy. Further, these steps would streamline all projects and activities geared towards water quality improvement, sustainable allocation, and distribution among all users. The proposed central agency would carry the name National Water Resources Management Office (Fig. 12.2 ) having the mandate to manage and protect the country's water resources.

Local Community Involvement in Government Organized Activities

The civil society in the Philippines is very strong and vocal particularly in respect to the environment. National and local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are very keen in monitoring proposed projects or activities that may pose serious deleterious effects to the environment. For this reason, tapping local community involvement and public participation in various government projects and activities is beneficial to the government, environment, and population. Recommendations encompass a series of local community involvement in government organized activities spanning the important aspect of citizen engagement in environmental impact assessments prior to development and community-managed services, among others.

Public participation in environmental impact assessment (EIA ) activities is very significant not only in the process of consultations but also in the process of issuance and renewal of Environmental Compliance Certificates (ECC) (EMB 2007). Certain provision in the EIA requires the creation of a multisectoral monitoring team especially for major development projects. This provision allows public participations to ensure compliance with environmental standards by companies and industries as stipulated in the ECC.

EcoWatch Program is a private sector initiative listing and publicizing major polluters. DENR has adopted this initiative and encourages public participation in monitoring major polluters ( EMB n.d.c). This system creates negative publicity for the involved firms since they are "color-coded" according to their compliance with environmental regulations. EcoWarch also allows public recognition and praise to firms and companies categorized as green, silver, and gold.

The Kapitbisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Project (KALAHI-CIDSS) is a World Bank project working with different impoverished communities in the Philippines. The project utilizes a community-driven development approach by enabling villagers to make their own decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development initiatives based on their current need (World Bank 2014). Public participation was very significant due to clearly established guidelines on participation, accountability, and transparency. Furthermore, an impact study revealed that the income of the household beneficiaries who participated in the project rose significantly by 12% as measured in terms of consumption (World Bank 2014, para 4).

There are numerous waterless municipalities around the country and about 213 are found in Mindanao (Llanto 2013). SALINTUBIG Project was conceived in 2011 by the DILG, DOH, and National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC). Their common objective is to provide water supply systems to the 455 waterless municipalities, barangays, health centers, and resettlement sites in the Philippines. To reach their goals community members and LGU personnel were given technical training in terms of planning, implementation, and operation of water supply facilities. This program emphasizes the capacity building mechanisms and the provision of technical assistance to LGUs in the pursuit of sustainable and efficient water supply services in the country (National Anti-Poverty Commission n.d.).

Cagayan de Oro City through the Cagayan de Oro Water District (COWD ) sought the private sector to implement a design-build-operate contract for their septic facility. Through this setup, the private proponent will design and construct the treatment facility, purchase and operate desludging trucks, and implement a program for desludging septic tanks around the city. The local government on the other hand will approve a comprehensive citywide septic management ordinance, develop and targeted promotional campaign (USAID 2010).

The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS ) assists in the creation of institutions providing technical assistance for the effective community management of water supply and sanitation systems. The formation of the Provincial Water and Sanitation Center in Agusan del Sur facilitated the capacity building of the municipal-level project implementers, providing sustainable support to community water and sanitation associations (Asian Development Bank 2006).

Lack of access to clean, potable water and improved sanitation is still a longstanding issue in most rural areas in the Philippines. Climate Resilience in Water Stressed Communities (CREST ) is a project funded by USAID, local governments and communities in the Philippines to bring potable water to these areas and conflict-affected regions of Mindanao (USAID 2016). This project utilized a community-based, participatory approach to bring safe and potable drinking water through innovative water and water sanitation technologies resilient in the face of climate change.

Finally, the Estero Program is a collaborative effort among estero community members, local government units, private company donors, and DENR through EMB, to clean up waterways that empty into rivers and other bodies of water ( EMB n.d.a). This is an effort to mobilize members of the community to actively engage in clean up, planning and implementation of continued plans to keep the estero clean in continuous projects. Immediate of their initial efforts that were observed by residents and other locals include less flooding due to unimpeded water flow and reduction of water-borne diseases.

Summary

Clean water is essential to improving the quality of public health. Therefore, maintenance and improvement of the quality of water is important to achieving this objective. In the Philippines, several legal frameworks and policies have been established with the mandate of quality control, regulation of water use, and water supply management. National government agencies, taskforces, and committees have been established in response to the implementation of laws and departmental administrative orders. These government agencies through various consultative meetings and research developed ambient water and wastewater emission standards for the protection of water bodies in the country. Although these legal framework and policies are in place, several obstacles are still presently challenging the realization of providing clean and potable water for all Filipinos. These challenges are apparent in the fragmented establishment of legal policies cascading into weak reinforcement that, in turn, is ineffective in preventing pollutants from contaminating fresh and groundwater sources that impacts public health. Efforts must be made to address problems on water quality and pollution, shortage and scarcity of water, and the health and environmental impacts. This could begin in the development of a unified inter-agency and multisectoral taskforce on the management of water bodies. The system of rewards and incentives to improve environmental compliance of firms and industries must be further strengthened. Although several government agencies are mandated with the task of improving the water quality, this requires a multisectoral approach which necessitates the involvement of local government units and communities.

Initiatives by different civic societies and community associations are crucial in the improvement of the water quality throughout the island. Attention should also be given in the capacity building of local communities especially in their involvement on monitoring the compliance of different firms and industries. A good amount of investment must also be made in locally developed and produced sanitation and sewerage systems to introduce public accountability among every citizen. A community association must also be encouraged to manage water distribution and management of wastewater treatment facilities. These efforts to involve and engage local communities would address the challenge on the financial and personnel constraint of both the EMB and DENR . Together with the National Government, the rights and powers stipulated by legislative policies, support from various international and local Nongovernment Organizations, and active and responsible participation from local community members, the dream of providing clean, safe, and accessible water resources is possible. The rich resources of the Philippines must not be taken for granted and action must be taken before it's too late. The community, an untapped resource, must be involved in the various efforts to conserve and preserve the very foundation of life-water. Therefore, now is the time to revise and translate national laws and policies through the involvement of community to better the environmental condition of the Philippines.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge the United Nations, World Health Organization, and the World Bank for access to their outstanding resources. The authors accept responsibility for all analysis and interpretation.

Glossary

Biological oxygen demand (BOD )

Amount of oxygen dissolved in water required for the survival of microorganisms.

Coliforms

Bacteria commonly found in soil, water, and in the guts of animals, which indicate that the water supply may be vulnerable to contamination.

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Amount of diatomic oxygen dissolved in water.

Domestic

Refers to the utilization of water for drinking, washing, cooking, bathing, and other household chores and needs.

Effluent

Wastewater discharged from a sewage treatment facility or an industrial plant.

Industrial

Utilization of water for the needs of factories, industrial plants, and mines.

Irrigation

Controlled application of water for agricultural uses through man-made systems to supply water requirements not satisfied by precipitation.

Municipal

Utilization of water for supplying the water needs of the community.

Potable water

Water that is safe for consumption or food preparation with no risk to health.

Seawater Intrusion

The natural phenomenon where freshwater is contaminated with seawater because of overdraft-extracting too much water that leads to an unsafe imbalance in water quality.

Sewerage

Collective term used for drains, canals, manholes, pumping stations, and screening chambers for disposal of sewage and surface water.

Volatile Organic Compounds ( VOCs)

Synthetic chemical compounds dissolved in water which can be vaporized at low temperatures.

Wastewater

Water that has been used for various purposes in homes, industries, businesses that is not meant for reuse unless it is treated for contaminants.

Water Quality Management Area

Certain water bodies and its tributaries identified by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR ) to be prioritized for protection and conservation.

Water Right

The right granted by the government to appropriate and use water.

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Articles from Translating National Policy to Improve Environmental Conditions Impacting Public Health Through Community Planning are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Water Quality: Mindanao Island of the Philippines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Philippines is an archipelagic country dominated by water and inland water sources. Water quality has been the subject of attention for the country and specifically, Mindanao Island, because of the role this natural resource plays in agriculture. ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Keep The Water Safe. by Gangadharan nair Pulingat.. - Keep The Water Safe. Poem (Researched by: Mathew Alag)

# data[].attributes.body
URL:
https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/keep-the-water-safe/
TITLE: Keep the Water Safe
AUTHOR: Gangadharan nair Pulingat
DATE PUBLISHED: March 22, 2015

KEY INFO: This poem highlights the keeping of the water for the human being safe. As Mindanao slowly becomes industrialized, the more prone it becomes to water pollution. Thus, reliable water facilities is a very crucial factor into ensuring clean and potable water for the citizens. This literary art showcases how humans should take care and should treat water, for it is one of the most important thing for a living thing to live, because with it's damage, there will be an ultimate destruction of life.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Great men of bygone centuries
They lived with dedication to fellows
They saw the nature, plants, fields
The service they rendered for world
Enjoyed in seeing the happiness of depressed
And made efforts to ease water scarcity
They made tanks with beautiful surrounding
There they made bathing ghats for women
There they made bathing ghats for men
Also made facilities to maintain water clean
Advised, not to do harmful practices
Asked to abstain the wrong acts on water sources
Asked to children never to urinate in water
The water they treated as holiest of holiness
Water from birth to death, cradle, to grave
We humans uses, in reverence, and keeps well
But unfortunate, the things are a little different
People acts against the wishes of elders
The water systems are slowly contaminating
By intentional or other ways the toxicity
May be over usage of pesticide and insecticide
The reasons are many, but keep water clean
Or the good potable water will be in loss
Where it is the ultimate destruction of life.

Topic(s) of this poem: nature

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Keep The Water Safe. by Gangadharan nair Pulingat.. - Keep The Water Safe. Poem

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Great men of bygone centuries They lived with dedication to fellows They saw the nature, plants, fields The service they rendered for world Enjoyed in seeing the happiness of depressed And made efforts to ease water scarcity They made tanks with beautiful surrounding There they made bathing ghats for women