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Multilingualism refers to a linguistic state where numerous languages are in use by one individual or in the same nation.

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The Plurality of English | Multilingualism

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The Plurality of English | Multilingualism

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Multilingualism

Most of the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual

Monolingualism

characteristic only a minor of world’s people

Most world nations has groups who use other languages side from their national language

UNESCO (2003: 12)

“Bilingualism or multilingualism is the use of more than one language in daily life”

Key Concepts Related to Multilingualism

Bilingualism - both bilingualism and multilingualism

Bilingual - two native speakers in one

Ambilingual - native competency of two languages

Multilingual (Multilingualism) - refers to societies

Plurilingual (Plurilingualism) - refers to individuals

Ethnolinguistic Community

refer to a group of people who share a culture, ethnicity and/or language that distinguishes them from other communities

“ethnic minorities”, tribals"

may be derogatory and are understood differently

discouraged in the study because these terms pose threats to misinterpretation and misrepresentation (Kosonen, 2005, 2010)

Language Policy - legislation on and practices pertaining to the use of languages in a society

Language-in-education Policy - practices pertaining to

languages or media of instruction and languages of literacy used in basic education.

Language of Literacy - through which literacy is learnt, conveyed

Language of Instruction - language through which the contents of the curriculum in a given educational system

First Language (L1)

mother tongue

vernacular

language the speaker has learnt first

knows best

Dialect - non-standard variety of a language

Non-dominant Languages (NDL)

not considered the most prominent in terms of number, prestige, or official use by the government

Local Language

spoken in a fairly restricted geographical area

usually not learned as a second language by people outside

usually the first language of the given ethnolinguistic minority group

Language of Wider Communication (LWC)

that speakers of different local languages use to communicate with each other

trade language

Second Language (L2)

national or the official language, employed in contexts such as schools, interaction with government agencies

National Language

language that is considered to be the chief language of a nation state (Crystal, 1999; 227)

official language-used in such public domains

Bilingual/Multilingual Education

use of more than one language for instruction and attaining literacy

Biliteracy

use of more than one language for reading and writing

Mother Tongue/ L1-Based

multilingual education which begins with or is based on the learners’ first language or mother tongue

Submersion Education

refers to deployment of a language of instruction that the learner does not speak or understand

Oral use of a language

employment of an auxiliary language to enable learners to understand the contents of the curriculum and its textbooks

Language of Instruction in Southeast Asia

Philippines

183 languages are spoken

lingua francas

Bicol

Cebuano

Ilonggo

Ilocano

Tagalog

Constitution of 1987

Filipino is the national language

English is also an official language

Philippines adopted a policy of Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education in 2009

DepEd Order 74 - framework for MLE as the basis of educational language policy

Republic Act no. 10533 in 2013

19 languages are used as the initial LOIs in government schools, and dozens of other languages are used in programs supported by non governmental and civil society actors (Gunigundo, 2013; Metila et al., 2016)

Challenges Encountered in Multilingual Classrooms

policies and policy implementation reflect the governments’ positions on the official and national, non-dominant, as well as international languages – predominantly English

Non-dominant languages are rarely prioritized in language policies

English is prioritized in education

Language policies support the use of only some non-dominant languages in education

Gap (among southeast Asian nations) between policy and practice

Government officials and agencies often misunderstand the concepts of bilingual or multilingual education

confusion about the difference of using languages for instruction or studying them as subjects

Assimilation of minority populations into dominant languages

ethnolinguistic classification is done with criteria not necessarily based on the languages people speak

Ethnicity and language proficiency is not necessarily a one-on-one match

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Multiple Intelligences (Gultiano, Miano, Ramirez, Socorin)  (7)

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Fitting Philippine English in Kachru's Concentric Circles.

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The Plurality of English | Philippine English

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The Plurality of English | Philippine English

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Philippine English

any variety of English native to the Philippines

used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos

English is taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country

Philippine English Revisited (Martin, 2014)

Circles of English in the Philippine Context

Kachru presented the framework to Filipino scholars

Bolton (2011) - "Philippine English had become worthy of study as any other global variety of English"

1. Inner Circle of English in the Philippines

elite educated Filipinos who have embraced the English language and actively use and promote it

Thompson (2003)

"Filipino English and Taglish"

Three questions come to mind when English speakers arrive in Manila

Why are Filipinos so attached to English? If they like English so much, why do they sometimes speak English, sometimes Tagalog, and sometimes mix the two?

Borlongan (2011)

English continues to dominate domains

language that is not deficient and may represent Filipino identity

Philippine English is pushed as a language that must be taught in the classroom

2. Outer Circle of English in the Philippines

aware of Philippine English as a distinct and legitimate variety

Lexical Innovations:

hold-upper - robber

academician - academic

presidentiable - presidential candidate

meldific - Imelda + -ific : ostentatious extravagance (pertaining to the wealthy Imelda Marcos)

3. Expanding Circle of English in the Philippines

English remains a requisite condition to upward mobility but is often very difficult to access

Funny English

Pacquaio is known for this

Viloria (2011) - "It doesn't matter of the grammar, as long they understand the message."

Ear (2011) - Filipina Talking to her non-Filipino boyfriend:

‘Yes, babe, dis 3 pm is hot but dis 4 pm, its

coming rain babe.’

‘Oh babe look at, your dog is look at me.’

Philippine English, an outer circle country, can be though of as a circle with many circles.

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Multiple Intelligences (Gultiano, Miano, Ramirez, Socorin)  (9)

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English changes through contact with different languages.

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The Plurality of English | World English vs. World Englishes

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The Plurality of English | World English vs. World Englishes

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World English

singular, unified standard of English

spoken globally

British or American English

used as a lingua franca in international

communication, business, and scientific fields

Implies a universal standard

associated with notions of "correctness" and

"prestige."

World Englishes

refers to the differences in the English language that emerge as it is used in various contexts across the world

diversity of English spoken around the world

that each variety has its own unique features in

pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and register

challenges the idea of a single "correct" English

dynamic and evolving nature of language

needs can differ across cultures and geographies, multiple varieties of the English language exist

includes the sociolinguistic context of its use, its range of functional domains, and the ease with which new speakers can become acculturated to it, among other criteria

Globalization as an Agent

Nativization Continuum of World Englishes

1. Diffusion - English is spread as a result of colonization, globalization

2. Induction - English is officially accepted as the language used for trade, communication, education, and so on

3. Customization - reshape English slowly by giving it a local touch

4. Native Recognition - start to use English unconsciously without associating with its parent varieties.

Kachru's Concentric Circle

Linguist Braj Kachru (1932-2016) publishes his first journal article, entitled “The Indianness in Indian English.”

In the article, he lays the theoretical groundwork for the idea of World Englishes by interpreting how English is nativized in India, delineating some of its unique sociological and cultural aspects, and showing that “Indian English” is a unique variety of English which is neither an American or British English.

Kachru formally introduces the term “World Englishes” at the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

Later, he proposes the three concentric circles model.

Kachru's Concentric Circle is composed of: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle

Inner Circle

presents the countries where English is the primary language and is used in daily life and government

institutions

United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand

Outer Circle

includes countries that have British colonial ties, and English is widely used in social life or in the government sector

India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya, and others

English as a second language

Expanding Circle

introduce English as a foreign language in education, mainly for the purpose of communicating in English

Turkey, Saudi Arabia, The Emirates, Japan, China, South Korea

The Power of English

Kachru's parameters of the power of the English language

1. Demographical and numerical: unprecedented spread across cultures and languages

2. Functional: provides access to the most important scientific, technological and cross-cultural domains

3. Attitudinal: symbolizes certainly to a large group across cultures

4. Accessibility: international accessibility in the outer circle and international mobility

5. Pluricentricity: resulted in the nativization

and acculturation of language

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Multiple Intelligences (Gultiano, Miano, Ramirez, Socorin)  (5)

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Linguistics is comprised of different subfields.

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Micro linguistics

theoretical linguistics or general linguistics

more on the structures of the language system in itself and for itself

study of small-scale linguistic phenomena within a specific language or languages

focuses on detailed analysis of fundamental properties of languages and linguistic elements

Branches under Micro-linguistics¹

1. Phonology

studies the system of sounds

studies the systematic pattern of sounds

how speech sounds are organized

2. Phonetics

studies the physical property of sounds

how sounds are produced and articulated

3. Morphology

study of morphemes

smallest meaningful unit of a language

describes how words are formed

how word formation processes affect the meaning of the word

4. Syntax

arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences

syntaxis

Greek word meaning arrangement

how words, phrases, clauses are arranged or ordered to form sentences

5. Semantics

linguistic meaning of words and sentences

language meaning in terms of words-sentence relationships

lexical

6. Pragmatics

studies the contextual meaning

meaning beyond the surface or literal level

intended meaning of the speaker, rather than what the sentence literally means

Macro-linguistics

focus on the way languages are acquired, stored in the brain and used for various functions

Looks at linguistics with a broader view

application of language in daily use

Branches under Macro-linguistics¹

1. Sociolinguistics

study of the effects of the different social and cultural factors

analyzes how people make choices in terms of language style or the way they use language to express their personal and social identity

2. Psycholinguistics

focuses on the interrelation between linguistic and psychological factors

3. Computational Linguistics

studies the application of computer science in the analysis of language and speech

how computational modeling and approaches can be used to help describe linguistic processes

4. Historical Linguistics

known as diachronic linguistics

study of language change or change of a group of languages over time

5. Comparative Linguistics

comparative-historical linguistics

concerned with comparing languages to establish their similarities and differences

6. Structural Linguistics

study of language as an independent network of formal systems or structures

based on theories and principles that language is composed of structural units

7. Biolinguistics

study involving other disciplines such as biology, linguistics, psychology, and neurolinguistics

explain the evolution and formation of language

8. Applied Linguistics

application of language studies in real life, such as language teaching and learning

9. Clinical Linguistics

application of linguistic concepts and theories in the field of speech-language pathology

10. Developmental Linguistics

studies the development of the linguistic ability of an individual especially children

11. Linguistic typology

aims to classify languages on their structural and functional components

12. Neurolinguistics

studies the relationship between language and the structures and functions of the brain

analyzes the different functions and mechanisms of the brain related to language comprehension

13. Stylistics

literary linguistics

studies the different authors and writers especially on their writing styles

14. Etymology

investigate the origin of the words

References

1. Gonzales, Jennifer. Introduction to Linguistics. 2021.

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Multiple Intelligences (Gultiano, Miano, Ramirez, Socorin)  (1)

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 First Language and Second Language in language acquisition.

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First Language

Speaker's first language; native language

Sometimes referred to as "mother tongue"

Used and learned by a person from birth until critical period

critical period

delimited in different ways in the literature

Lenneberg's critical period - from two years of age to puberty

some consider the possibility of the critical period ending earlier than puberty

Language used at home

Learned from people they interacted since birth

Like an instinct which is triggered by birth and developed with the experience of being exposed to it

6 Stages of First Language Acquisition

1. Prelinguistic Stage

ranges from birth to approximately 6 months

include crying, whimpering, and cooing

not considered language because they are involuntary responses to stimuli

might more appropriately be called the pre-production stage

2. Babbling Stage

6 months of age and continues until a child is about one year old

more varied constrictions can be formed, which leads to a new stage of vocal play or babbling

2 Types of Babbling

Repetitive babbling - same syllable in each successive cycle

Variegated babbling - variation in syllables in successive cycles

3. First Words Stage

starts at about one year and continues for approximately 6 to 12 months

referred to as the Holophrastic Stage

one word = one sentence

first words often exhibit the same structure as babbled syllables, with a CV (consonant-vowel) syllable used as a word

continue to develop their abilities to produce more and more individual sound segments

4. Two Word Stage

18-24 months (1½ or 2 years) and continues for several months

increase the repertoire of sounds and vocabulary they can produce

Overextensions

meaning plugs a hole until the child can learn the proper word

Underextension

a child uses a word for too many different cases

Contextual clues

attaching meaning in this stage

5. Telegraphic Stage

occurs around the age of 2 1/2 years

children begin stringing more than two words together

this stage resembles the way of writing that used to be used in telegrams

6. Beyond the Telegraphic Stage

age of 3 years and continues into fully developed language skills

a similar pattern of overgeneralization is used (use of -ed in making a verb past tense)

Critical Period Hypothesis

Eric Lenneberg promoted the idea that language is innate

Lenneberg suggested that although the capability for language is innate, it must be triggered by the environment

a child must be in an environment that includes human language in order to acquire it comes from cases of feral, isolated, and neglected children who demonstrate little or no language use and who learn little or no language

Second Language

Language accommodated by the person after learning L1

Refers to the language the person is currently learning

Product of language learning

Learned by choice, consciously by guidance, and instruction in a constant effort.

The ability of a person to use a second language will depend on his or her family’s ability to speak more than one language.

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