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A mask hides part or all of the face. Most modern western productions don't use masks, but some genres of work still do. Commedia dell'arte , a traditional Italian form of physical comedy, uses masks and often they appear in Elizabethan and Restoration comedies, where a character might use one as disguise.

In Greek theatre the actors all wore exaggerated masks to communicate character. These were made of wood or leather and amplified the voice so that actors could be heard in the immense Greek amphitheatres . The symbol often used to represent drama, two masks, one depicting tragedy and the other depicting comedy, was inspired by Greek theatre.

Modern day mask work

Some modern theatre companies regularly use masks. Punchdrunk's production of The Drowned Man: A Hollywood Fable , for example, insisted that audience members wore masks.

Companies like the Trestle Theatre Company and Vamos Theatre also use mask work. This clip from the Vamos Theatre's production of Finding Joy shows the exaggerated body movements required when using masks on stage (subtitles are available).

If you're using masks in your performance remember that your facial expressions can't be seen so:

your body language has to be extremely clear

your movement and gestures need to be exaggerated to show emotions

you must bring your whole body into the performance

Difficulties using masks

There are difficulties involved in using masks on stage. The actor has to keep the mask facing front because if it is angled upstage, the illusion is lost. The actor also needs to share every gesture clearly with the audience to ensure the meaning is clear. Each performer must give and take focus, so the audience know where to look. Staring out directly at the audience to share a reaction is called 'clocking the audience'.

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Drama medium - Revision 3 - GCSE Drama - BBC Bitesize

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Page 3of 12 A mask hides part or all of the face. Most modern western productions don't use masks, but some genres of work still do.

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Masks and ritual
The Greek term for mask is persona and was a significant element in the worship of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the Pronomos vas, which depicts actors preparing for a Satyr play. No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated to the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.
Mask details
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like mask, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth, as well as an integrated wig. It is interesting to note that these paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance; they are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance, that liminal space between the audience and the stage, between myth and reality. ] This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role. Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.

The mask-makers were called skeuopoios or "maker of the properties," thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair. Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orientate and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth to be seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s. Greek mask-maker, Thanos Vovolis, suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.
Mask functions
In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, the classical masks were able to bring the characters' face closer to the audience, especially since they had intensely over-exaggerated facial features and expressions.

They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character's appearance, ie. Oedipus after blinding himself. Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus' Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides' The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group.
COSTUME DETAILS.
Actors who played tragic roles wore boots called cothurneses that elevated them above other actors.

When playing female roles, the male actors donned a ' prosterneda' which is a wooden structure infront of the chest to imitate breasts.

There are little information on theatrical costumes. This is due to the perishable materials they have been made of. Still we have some information drawn from depictions on ancient pottery (see some pictures below).

Costumes have been a very important factor of the production, because they could determine the characters by gender or social status. In the early productions actors have been using body painting. Little by little they started using animal skins, ears, even feathers (see Aristophanes' Birds).

When the poets introduced real costumes, they imitated the contemporary dressing : the "chiton" and the "hemateon". The chiton was made of linen or silk and it was worn long. The hemateon was an exterior cloth, worn over the shoulders. It was usually made of wool. Both chiton and hemateon were decorated depending on the occasion. For theatrical use the clothes have been more decorated than usually.

In order to play female roles, since the actors were always men, they were wearing a "prosterneda" (in front of the chest, to imitate female breasts) and "progastreda" in front of the belly.

The actors used to put on ordinary shoes, such us loose fitting boots and laced boots. Is some scholars' opinion, the actors used shoes with high heels ("kothornoi"). We cannot be sure about that, because we do not have a clear evidence from the pottery. In the later years (2 nd century BC), it is sure that these shoes with high heels ("kothornoi") have been introduced.
Use of costume in Athenian tragedy.
Some authors have argued that use of costume in Athenian tragedy was standardized for the genre.[1] This is said to have consisted of a full-length or short tunic, a cloak and soft leather boots, and may have been derived from the robes of Dionysian priests or invented by Aeschylus. Brockett, however, disputes this, arguing that the evidence we have is based on archaeological remains, some few references in the texts, and the writings of later authors. As far as the vase paintings are concerned, most of these are dated later than the 5th Century BCE and their relationship with theatrical practice is unclear. One of the earliest examples is a red-figure vase painting c. 500-490 BCE that shows a tragic chorus invoking a ghost, on a crater (bowl) in the Antikenmuseum in Basle.[2]

The tragic actors were certainly heavily disguised. This had a religious purpose, for the actor was supposed to give up his identity in order to let another speak and act through him. Indeed, the dramas were performed in honour of Dionysus, the God of Ecstasy, which means "standing outside oneself"[2]. Actors therefore had to renounce their individuality. The actors thought that the mask itself contained the character and are said to have prayed before putting on their masks. The costume was probably an elaborately-decorated version of everyday clothing worn in the 5th Century BCE. The garments included:

· chiton (robe or tunic)

· chlaina (overgarment)

· chlamys (short cloak)

· kothurnus (short lace-up boots)

· himation (overgarment)

· peplos (cloak)[3].

The chiton worn by the actors differed from that worn in everyday life because it incorporated sleeves, which were coloured and patterned. The sleeves may in fact have been part of an undergarment. Long white sleeves were worn by the (male) actors for female roles, and indeed, in vase paintings females are usually painted with lighter skin.

The costumes worn for the performances of Alcestis, for example, were iconographic, and symbolised the opposition of light and dark.[4] In the play, life is evoked as the act of seeing the sun. Death - the son of Night in Greek mythology - wears a black peplos and terrifying black wings. Apollo wears white, representing the sun. Admetus contrasts the black of the funeral procession with the white of the funeral procession. The corpse of Alcestis is dressed as a bride, in accordance with Greek tradition and Herakles wears a bearskin and carries a club.

The costumes worn gave the audience an immediate sense of character-type, gender, age, social status and class.[5]

Around the time of Aeschylus, the boots or buskins worn by the actors were flat. The actors had the same "status" as the chorus. In the 3rd Century BCE, the actors were raised to the status of heroes and "platform" soles began to be used, together with a head-dress called an onkos. The raised soles may have induced a stylised way of walking, suited to the rhythm of tragic verse, and the onkos made the actors taller, enhancing visibility. Their bodies were padded so that they did not look too slim.[6] However, some authors believe that this happened later than the 3rd Century BCE. It is also thought that the "teetering gait" is a misapprehension.[7]

The masks were the most striking feature of the costume worn by the Athenian actors. Facial expression was lost anyway due to the huge size of the Greek theatres, but the masks were also a means of blotting out expression, so visual meaning was expressed by the entire body. The actors were seen as silhouettes, or integral bodies, rather than faces. The masks themselves were made of stiffened linen, thin clay, cork or wood, and covered the whole head and had hair.

Attempts have been made in modern times to investigate the use of masks in Athenian tragedy through practice research.[8] These explorations conclude that masks may lead to a more demonstrative style of acting, with declamatory delivery of the lines substituted for intimacy. They also found that the mask could impede the projection of sound. The Greeks are said to have overcome this in various ways. Initially, the mouth apertures were small, but later this became a "wide-open" mouth. Some authors believe that the mouth was shaped like a "mouth-trumpet" and had an amplifying effect.[9] Certainly, the use of a mask covering the whole produces an enhanced resonating effect, which serves dramatic delivery.

Performances therefore had to be more physical. Peter Arnott states that the Greeks thought good acting and a good voice were synonymous. This was achieved through athletic training, voice exercises and diet.

Experiments have shown that unaccustomed actors suffer disorientation and restriction when masked. The Greeks countered this through a vocabulary of gesture known as cheironomia (gesticulation). Aristotle says that in his day excessive gestures were used - leading to overacting - compared with the older tradition.

Masks can also be used as a dramatic tool, e.g. lowering the masks shows reflection, raising the mask shows a challenge or superiority. The Greeks called these physical stances schemata (forms).

Silent masks were used to great effect, particularly on child actors, expressing powerlessness, bewilderment, vulnerability, etc.

The used of masks enabled the three speaking actors to portray up to eight or nine characters, through multiple role-playing. The same character could therefore be played by different actors, and transitions within a character would be portrayed by the use of different masks.

The wide variety of masks used is attested by Pollux, a rhetorician writing in 2nd Century CE, in hisOnomastikon.[10] He lists 30 different male masks (old age with white or grey hair, the tyrant with thick black hair, a fair, pale masks indicating sorrow or sickness, a boastful soldier, a rustic, servants, a cook, etc.) and 17 female masks (fat and thin old women, two matrons, one virgin, a bawd, a mistress, three courtesans, a lady's maid, etc.).

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Masks Masks and ritual The Greek term for mask is persona and was a significant element in the worship of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from...

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Noh theatre, traditional Japanese theatrical form and one of the oldest extant theatrical forms in the world.

Noh-its name derived from nō, meaning "talent" or "skill"-is unlike Western narrative drama. Rather than being actors or "representers" in the Western sense, Noh performers are simply storytellers who use their visual appearances and their movements to suggest the essence of their tale rather than to enact it. Little "happens" in a Noh drama, and the total effect is less that of a present action than of a simile or metaphor made visual. The educated spectators know the story's plot very well, so that what they appreciate are the symbols and subtle allusions to Japanese cultural history contained in the words and movements.

Noh developed from ancient forms of dance drama and from various types of festival drama at shrines and temples that had emerged by the 12th or 13th century. Noh became a distinctive form in the 14th century and was continually refined up to the years of the Tokugawa period (1603-1867). It became a ceremonial drama performed on auspicious occasions by professional actors for the warrior class-as, in a sense, a prayer for peace, longevity, and the prosperity of the social elite. Outside the noble houses, however, there were performances that popular audiences could attend. The collapse of the feudal order with the Meiji Restoration (1868) threatened the existence of Noh, though a few notable actors maintained its traditions. After World War II the interest of a larger audience led to a revival of the form.

There are five types of Noh plays. The first type, the kami ("god") play, involves a sacred story of a Shintō shrine; the second, shura mono ("fighting play"), centres on warriors; the third, katsura mono ("wig play"), has a female protagonist; the fourth type, varied in content, includes the gendai mono ("present-day play"), in which the story is contemporary and "realistic" rather than legendary and supernatural, and the kyōjo mono ("madwoman play"), in which the protagonist becomes insane through the loss of a lover or child; and the fifth type, the kiri or kichiku ("final" or "demon") play, features devils, strange beasts, and supernatural beings. A typical Noh play is relatively short. Its dialogue is sparse, serving as a mere frame for the movement and music. A standard Noh program consists of three plays selected from the five types so as to achieve both an artistic unity and the desired mood; invariably, a play of the fifth type is the concluding work. Kyōgen, humorous sketches, are performed as interludes between plays. A program may begin with an okina, which is essentially an invocation for peace and prosperity in dance form.

Three major Noh roles exist: the principal actor, or shite; the subordinate actor, or waki; and the kyōgen actors, one of whom is often involved in Noh plays as a narrator. Each is a specialty having several "schools" of performers, and each has its own "acting place" on the stage. Subsidiary roles include those of attendant ( tsure), of a "boy" ( kokata), and of nonspeaking "walk-on" ( tomo).

Accompaniment is provided by an instrumental chorus (hayashi) of four musicians-who play a flute ( nōkan), small hand drum ( ko-tsuzumi), large hand drum ( ō-tsuzumi), and large drum ( taiko)-and by a chorus ( jiutai) consisting of 8-10 singers. The recitation ( utai) is one of the most important elements in the performance. Each portion of the written text carries a prescription of the mode of recitation-as well as of accompanying movement or dance-although application of this may be varied slightly. Each type of dialogue and song has its own name: the sashi is like a recitative; the uta are the songs proper; the rongi, or debate, is intoned between chorus and shite; and the kiri is the chorus with which the play ends.

About 2,000 Noh texts survive in full, of which about 230 remain in the modern repertoire. Zeami (1363-1443) and his father, Kan'ami Kiyotsugu (1333-84), wrote many of the most beautiful and exemplary of Noh texts, including Matsukaze ("Wind in the Pines") by Kan'ami and Takasago by Zeami. Zeami also formulated the principles of the Noh theatre that guided its performers for many centuries. His Kakyō (1424; "The Mirror of the Flower") detailed the composition, the recitation, the mime and dance of the performers, and the staging principles of Noh. These constituted the first major principle of Noh, which Zeami described as monomane, or the "imitation of things." He advised on the selection of properly classical characters to be portrayed, from legend or life, and on the proper integration of the visual, the melodic, and the verbal to open the eye and ear of the mind to the supreme beauty he crystallized in the second main principle, yūgen. Meaning literally "dark" or "obscure," yūgen suggested beauty only partially perceived-fully felt but barely glimpsed by the viewer.

Two factors have allowed Noh to be transmitted from generation to generation yet remain fairly close to earlier forms: first, the preservation of texts, containing detailed prescriptions of recitation, dance, mime, and music, and, second, the direct and fairly exact transmission of performing skills. On the other hand, Noh was subject to the changing preferences of new audiences, and new styles and patterns inevitably evolved. Further, there was constant refinement of received forms to express more clearly or intensely the objectives of Noh, but these were always only minor deviations from traditional form. Even the differences between the five schools of shite performers represent only slight variations in the melodic line of the recitation or in the patterns of the furi or mai mime and dance.

In the 20th century some experimentation took place. Toki Zenmaro and Kita Minoru produced Noh plays that had new content but adhered to traditional conventions in production. Mishima Yukio, on the other hand, took old plays and added new twists while retaining the old themes. Experiments to elaborate the humorous kyōgen interludes and the attempt to add (in the manner of Kabuki theatre) a long passage onto the stage through the audience and a spotlight on the shite received little public acceptance. Instead, Noh has been sustained in the postwar period by theatregoers who have come to enjoy it not simply for its status as a "classic theatre" or because of innovations but as a perfected and refined contemporary stage art.

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Noh theatre | Traditional Japanese Drama & Performance Art

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Noh theatre, traditional Japanese theatrical form and one of the oldest extant theatrical forms in the world. Noh-its name derived from nō, meaning "talent" or "skill"-is unlike Western narrative drama. Rather than being actors or "representers" in the Western sense, Noh performers are simply

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As Noh is an art form that utilizes masks, there is a great variety of them. There were originally about 60 basic types of noh masks, but today there are well over 200 different kinds in use.

Covering the face with a mask is much like wearing makeup. However, noh performers feel that the noh mask has a certain power inherent in it which makes it much more spiritual than a prop used to change ones appearance. Taking into account the status of a certain noh, the noh performer will carefully choose a noh mask, known also as a noh-men or omote. In most cases, the exact mask is not predetermined, but depending on which noh is being done, the shite has a variety to choose from. In the end, it is up to the shite to make the final determination as to which mask is chosen.

Origin of the Noh Mask

Exactly when the noh mask came into being is not entirely clear however it is believed that masks, and their names still used today, were developed from the mid to latter part of the Muromachi period (1392-1573). Previous to that time, the mask conventions were not entirely set and masks themselves had stronger religious connotations. It was during the Muromachi period that the religious significance of the masks began to wane and they took on more human characteristics. It is thought that as performers started to think more about the use of yūgen (mysterious beauty) and profundity, they felt they needed to hide the unattractive aspects of their own faces and concentrate on making the beauty of noh stronger.

Between the end of the Muromachi period and the modern age the art of making noh masks was established as a hereditary art with a long lineage. Two examples are the Deme family from Echizen (present day Fukui prefecture) and the Iseki family from Ohmi (present day Shiga prefecture). Following the establishment of noh mask making families, the stylization of noh masks significantly advanced. Even today there are many independent mask makers. While some nohgaku performers still make their own masks, the performance world and the mask-making world are essentially independent of each other.

Noh Mask Expression: Teru and Kumoru

As it is often difficult to tell the actual feelings expressed in a noh mask, it is said to be made with a "neutral" expression. The mask carver tries to instill a variety of emotions in the mask.

It is up to the performer to imbue the mask with emotion. One of the techniques used in this task is to slightly tilt the mask up or down. With terasu (tilting upwards) the mask appears to be slightly smiling or laughing and the expression lightens somewhat. While kumorasu (tilting downwards), produces a slight frown and can express sadness or crying. Basically, by using minute movements, the performer is able to express very fully.

Putting on a Mask

Noh masks, like costumes and props, are extremely valuable heirlooms and handed down from generation to generation.

After having the costume put on, the shite then goes to the kagami no ma (mirror room) where in front of a mirror, the shite faces the mask. In putting the mask on, the word kaburu (putting on clothing) is not used. Instead the word kakeru (to hang) or tsukeru (to attach) is used. In this way, it is implying that the performer is "becoming" the mask, and its emotions, in order to better express the characters feelings.

In reality, a noh mask does not entirely cover a noh performer's face when it is being worn. In fact, it is thought best if some part of the chin and/or jowls show.

Also, as the eye holes of the mask are very small, the field of vision of the performer is very limited when wearing the mask. Consequently the simple design of the stage and the use of hashira (pillars) assists in helping the performer know their location during a performance.

Hitamen

Not all the main performers on stage wear masks in noh. Usually the shite and the tsure wear masks and occasionally there are instances where the ai will as well. The waki as a rule, playing a character who is living in the present, does not wear a mask. This is called hitamen or a "direct mask."

However, even without wearing a mask, the performer is meant to "make their face a mask." The performer must inject power and emotion into their performance while not using their face to express. In some genzai noh the shite or tsure do not wear masks.

Types of Noh Masks

Okina (Old man masks)

This type of mask originated from sarugaku, the predecessor of noh, in the latter part of the Heian period. This is the oldest type of noh mask.

Jō (Elders masks)

Examples of this type are the Kojō, Asakurajō, Sankōjō and Waraijō masks. These masks are often used in the first half of first or second category noh when the shite is portraying a spirit.

Onna-men (Woman masks)

When most people think of noh these are the masks that come to mind. That being the case, these tend to be the most varied and popular masks. These masks are categorized by age and character.
Examples of beautiful young women masks are the:ko-omote, wakaonna, zō and magojirō. The ōmiona mask also portrays a young woman, but with more of a working class background. Fukai and shakumi masks are both used to play mature, middle-aged woman of elegance and grace however the latter displays a stronger character. The deigan mask has gold rimmed eyes which implies that the character is otherworldly. Examples of masks for playing old women are rōjo and uba.

Otoko-men (Man masks)

Heida, chūjō, jūroku, hatachi-amari, dōji, kasshiki, and yase-otoko are all examples of masks in this category which are classified according to social class and character.

Kishin (Demons)

These masks were developed early in noh's history and are used for portraying demons, goblins or other worldly creatures. This category is divided into two main parts, tobide (fierce gods or demonic spirits) and beshimi (goblins and other creatures).

Onryō (Ghosts and Spirits)

These masks are used for spirits of the dead who have regrets of some kind. In this category there are both male and female masks. Examples of male types are ayakashi, yase-otoko and kawazu. Examples of female types are yamamba, deigan and the famous hannya masks.
For more on noh masks, including pictures and summaries, please go to the Noh Mask Database

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As Noh is an art form that utilizes masks, there is a great variety of them. There were originally about 60 basic types of noh masks, but today there are well over 200 different kinds in use. Covering the face with a mask is much like wearing makeup.

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Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art

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Face Changing - Smithsonian’s National Museum of Asian Art

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Known in Chinese as bian lian, face changing is an important aspect of Chinese Sichuan opera. Faster than the eye can detect, the faces of opera performers may change multiple times during a performance. One technique allows the performer to whisk away one facemask while another is pulled down from the top of the head…

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The Changing Faces of Sichuan Opera · Asian Trails

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Face changing is the highlight performance of the Sichuan Opera. The origins of this performance are linked to an ancient time when people painted their faces to scare and drive away wild animals.

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Commedia Dell’Arte Performance, “The Good Revenge”

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Mayhem, Madness, Masks and Mimes - Commedia Dell'Arte

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Mayhem, Madness, Masks and Mimes - Commedia Dell’Arte

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A short discussion needs to be given to the difference between these Comedic masks (or Traditional Greek masks in general) and Commedia Dell' Art masks. Prosperi noticed that the audience noticed a similarity to the masks of this ancient Greek Comedy and Commedia Dell' Arte, but there is a major difference between the two. The masks of the Greek Comedy represent "characters, not stereotypes" (Prosperi 1982). This can be seen in the physical design of the masks as well. The Greek masks, as has been mentioned, are large and helmet-like. Prosperi mentions that they are "detailed in physiognomic design and have specific psychological references". The masks of Commedia, on the other hand, are monochromatic and are made of leather, which makes them incredibly light. Commedia masks also do not have eyes, they have holes through which the actors' eyes can be seen. Prosperi states that Commedia masks "give the body the abstract expressiveness of an ideographic pantomime, where the gags are hyperbolic and the buffoonery is as abstract as that of clowns". The Comedic masks are much more naturalistic and are intended to represent specific people, ridiculous and absurd people, but people nonetheless.

Although Commedia is different than the Greek mask, it is still indicative of the use of mask as mediator. Commedia Dell' Arte is the "tap root" of our modern comedy. It was created by street performers who would give performances for their daily bread. In this way, they "eked out a miserable existence" (Dixon and Smith 2000). What is interesting about Commedia Dell' Arte is that the masks they used, just like the Greeks before them, were perfectly suited to the situation in which they were used. They were smaller and lighter, suggesting movement through character, not physical inhibition. They fit just around the eyes, which allowed them to not have to play frontally to the audience, which is probably due to the performance being conducted "in the round" and in an informal venue. The most fascinating thing about Commedia masks is that "The more comic a role the greater part of the face that was covered, with the results being that the servants, with completely concealed faces and small openings for the eyes, made more use of movement in their playing than either of the lovers, who, as serious characters, performed unmasked, or the Dottore, whose mask covered only the forehead and nose" (Dixon and Smith 2000). The greater separation the character had from realism, the bigger the mask they had and the more it covered the face. This is yet another example of the mask mediating a relationship between actor and character.

Back to THEATER

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A short discussion needs to be given to the difference between these Comedic masks (or Traditional Greek masks in general) and Commedia Dell' Art masks. Prosperi noticed that the audience noticed a similarity to the masks of this ancient Greek Comedy and Commedia Dell' Arte, but there is a major difference between the two.

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Java is the home of several mask theatre and dance traditions, which are commonly referred to as wayang topeng ( wayang: shadow or puppet; topeng: mask). They are believed to have evolved from early shamanistic burial and initiation rites. Mask traditions universally contain shamanistic features, for when an actor puts on a mask he gives up his own identity and embodies the character of the mask, usually a mythical being such as a demon, a supernatural hero, or a god.

The Origins and Stories

The earliest known literary reference to wayang topeng is from 1058, and mask theatre is believed to have been very popular in the kingdoms of East Java over the following centuries. This led to the birth of wayang wwang, a spectacular form of court theatre, where some of the characters are believed to have worn masks.

Two main traditions of topeng developed: the impressive dance-drama of the court, and the village traditions, which still contain ancient shamanistic elements. Throughout the history of topeng, the "major" court traditions and the "minor" village traditions have been in a constant state of interaction.

Topeng is often based on the Mahabharata and the Ramayana epics, among other sources, but from a very early stage The Adventures of Prince Panji has been the most popular source of its plot material. This story cycle was created in East Java during the Majapahit dynasty. Its hero, the handsome Prince Panji, combines features of earlier historical and mythical figures.

Prince Panji became the Javanese ideal hero par excellence along with Arjuna of the Mahabharata and Prince Rama of the Ramayana. By the end of the fourteenth century, the Panji romance spread to Bali and other parts of South-East Asia, where it is known in several versions.

Topeng Dances

Full-length topeng performances have become rare, but topeng dance numbers are still often presented. Popular items of the repertoire are the introductory dances of Prince Panji and Princess Candra Kirana, allowing them to display their respective psychological qualities with classical dance patterns. In topeng these are usually faster and more expressive than in other forms of Javanese dance-drama.

An especially popular number is the so-called Kiprah dance of the enamoured King Klana (also Klono, Kelana) with his red mask. It most probably evolved from ancient ritual dances, and is known in several versions throughout the island of Java. For example, in the kraton of Yogyakarta it survives as the classic Klana topeng dance, and on the island of Madura it has its own highly different variants.

The dance expresses the yearning of King Klana, who has fallen in love with Candra Kirana. He imagines meeting his beloved and, with extremely expressive dance movements, enacts all the gestures of a vain man in love: he spruces himself up, arranges his hair, dresses in his best clothes, and plans to give a present to the object of his affections, who never appears. King Klana's dance is usually performed in the energetic dance style of a strong male figure, but it also exists in a noble alus version, where the character is more refined, though still a desperate lover.

Styles of Topeng

The decreased popularity of mask theatre is usually explained by the spread of Islam. When the Central Javanese Mataram kingdom was divided into two in 1755, it was the kraton of Surakarta that inherited the ancient wayang topeng tradition of Mataram and its old masks. In Yogyakarta, wayang wong, which developed in the late eighteenth century, replaced the spectacular mask theatre performances of the court, but the old mask sets are still revered in the kraton as royal pusaka heirlooms.

Today, in the kraton of Surakarta and Yogyakarta, topeng is performed from time to time, although mostly as solo numbers. In addition to the rarely performed court topeng, popular forms of this genre survive and are performed, especially in the villages of western Central Java. East Java and the island of Madura have their own mask theatre traditions.

Topeng mostly thrives in Sunda in West Java, where Cirebon with its small kraton has been the traditional centre of topeng. Alongside the court performances, the villages around Cirebon still have their own vital mask traditions. The folk forms of topeng include topeng batavia, a relaxed variant of topeng with a lot of elements of slapstick comedy. It has been performed in the area of the capital, Jakarta.

The Masks

In all parts of Java the topeng masks share the aesthetics based on the iconography of the wayang kulit and particularly wayang golek puppets. Carved out of wood they also resemble, however, the faces of the three-dimensional wayang golek puppets. Their stylization is almost abstract, and the oval masks in downward tapering form are usually slightly smaller than a human face. The faces of the noble characters are taut, narrowing towards a delicate chin, and the noses are sharply ridged and pointed. The eyes are elongated, and the mouths are small.

Strong characters, such as King Klana, wear energetic masks with upturned noses and wide-open, round eyes. The colour symbolism is the same as in the wayang golek puppets: noble characters have white or golden masks, although Prince Panji's mask is usually green. The masks of the strong characters, like King Klana, are usually red.

The various local traditions clearly differ in style. In Central Java the masks are almost triangular; the masks of east Javanese wayang topeng malang retain their own archaic stylisation; and the masks of Cirebon are perhaps the most abstract with almost symbol-like faces. The mask sets and collections on display in the National Museum in Jakarta, the Museum of Yogyakarta, and in some kraton museums demonstrate not only the local variations in mask styles but also their excellent artistic level.

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Topeng, Mask Theatre | | Asian Traditional Theatre & Dance

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Java is the home of several mask theatre and dance traditions, which are commonly referred to as wayang topeng ( wayang: shadow or puppet; topeng: mask). They are believed to have evolved from early shamanistic burial and initiation rites.

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To do a targeted search for websites from a certain country: type in site:, followed by the two-letter IANA country code before your search term

Sample search for websites from Indonesia with information on Topeng dance: site:id topeng dance

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LibGuides: IB Theatre - Research Presentation (first assessment 2024): Topeng dance, Bali

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This guide provides resources for the Research Presentation external assessment task for IB Theatre (first assessment 2024).