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The history of plants reaches as far back as the beginning of time; they are producers of energy, air and long time aids of ailments and illnesses. Throughout this course I’ve learned of the sheer importance of plants in our world; and I believe that it’s one of the keys to stopping or at least slowing global warming.

Studies show that there was a 12% increase in photosynthesis which translates to 14 petagrams of additional carbon taken out of the atmosphere by plants each year, this is roughly the equivalent of the carbon emitted worldwide from burning fossil fuels in 2020 alone.

This is a very large increase in photosynthesis, but it’s nowhere close to removing the amount of carbon dioxide we’re putting into the atmosphere,” said Berkeley Lab scientist Trevor Keenan, lead author of the study. “It’s not stopping climate change by any means, but it is helping us slow it down.”

https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2021/12/08/plants-buy-us-time-to-slow-climate-change-but-not-enough-to-stop-it/

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People from all continents have used hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, for treatment of various ailments dating back to prehistory.

However, today the plants’ role in medicine is a bit more obscure. For example, morphine- a drug used to relieve moderate to severe pain is derived from the Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum).  It may also be used before or during surgery with an anesthetic (medicine that puts you to sleep) and belongs to the group of medicines called narcotic analgesics (pain medicines).
https://www.theenglishgarden.co.uk/plants/5-drugs-derived-from-plants/

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Plant domestication still occurs to this day through various forms and techniques. A current practice in plant domestication we’ll focus on today is hybridization.

Hybridization is the process of interbreeding between individuals of different species.

There are two methods of hybridization- interspecific and intraspecific hybridization, and offspring produced by hybridization may be fertile, partially fertile, or sterile .

Attached is an example of hybridization (intraspecific) where a Grapefruit and tangerine create a tangelo fruit. Another example not pictured is the plum it.

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Plant domestication is known to be a turning point, marking the beginning of agriculture as we know it and the permanence of civilization.

“Hemp, one of the most ancient plants domesticated in India, is an example of a multipurpose plant: oil is obtained from its seeds, fibres from its stalk, and the narcotic hashish from its flowers and leaves.”

Plant domestication allows fewer people to produce more food, essentially acting as a stable source of resources.

Attached is a video going into more detail on plant domestication.

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DOMESTICATION IN PLANTS- Principles of Plant Breeding Series

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It is important to know about the affect that biomes have on plant diversity.

Due to the factors that characterize a biome such as climate, weather patterns, and soil quality- plants evolve adaptations that help them survive.

These conditional adaptations lead to differences in the plant from biome to biome, and can affect the yield, size, and shape of the plant. This is why the mango tree growth rate, mango tree growth stages, and mango tree height vary based on soil and weather conditions. Furthermore, this explains why mangoes grown in tropical climates like Puerto Rico are very different from mangoes grown on your back porch in Georgia.

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The Amazing Mango Tree - Mangifera Indica

The amazing mango tree (Mangifera Indica) is much more than just a source of mangos. It's a beautiful, living thing that gives back so much to the planet and the people who tend it.

Where do mango trees grow? The mango tree growing zone is limited to tropical climates. Extended exposure to temperatures below 30°F can kill or severely damage a mango tree, as mango tree cold tolerance is low. So, in the U.S. the mango tree growing zones are the southernmost portions of Florida and California plus Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Fortunately, while mango tree cold tolerance isn't one its strong suits, mangos are cultivated in mango tree growing zones all around the globe and Americans can enjoy the delicious fruit year 'round.

How fast do mango trees grow and what is the average mango tree height? A mango tree can grow fairly quickly and quite large, reaching a height of 100 feet or more with a canopy of 35 feet or more. Of course, mango tree growth rate, mango tree growth stages, and mango tree height vary based on soil and weather conditions.

The average mango tree height for those in cultivation is generally much shorter as this makes for a more manageable harvest. But these trees shouldn't be confused with dwarf mango trees. Dwarf mango tree varieties have naturally small to medium-size trees.

The large leaves of a mango tree are leathery, 5 to 16 inches in length, and remain on the tree for a year or more. Flowers are produced in terminal panicles or clusters 4 to 16 inches long. Each flower is small with white petals and a mild sweet aroma. The flowers are pollinated by insects and less than 1 percent of the flowers will mature to form fruit. A mango fruit tree in full flower in the optimal mango tree growing zone is a beautiful sight indeed.

Certain mangos on each tree will receive more sunlight than others, with some fruit staying shaded within the tree's canopy. In certain varieties, the mangos that receive the most sunlight will develop a red blush at the stem end. This red blush is not an indicator of maturity, quality or ripeness.

In terms of mango tree growth stages, it takes approximately four months for the mangos to mature on the tree before they're ready for harvest. During that time, the fruit-laden branches of the mango tree may bow under the weight of the developing mangos. Each fruit is harvested by hand, providing jobs for local workers and a safe passage to the packinghouse for the mangos.

Another important piece of mango tree information is that its growth causes a process called carbon sequestration or carbon uptake. The tree absorbs carbon dioxide from the environment in mango tree climate zones around the world, using it to form the trunk, branches, leaves and fruit of the mango tree. The tree produces oxygen and releases it into the environment during this process.

Meanwhile, the process of growing, harvesting and transporting the mangos to the retailer in the U.S. generates greenhouse gases that are released into the environment.

The mango tree produces the delicious mango fruit, while absorbing carbon dioxide, producing oxygen, and supporting the livelihoods of thousands of workers. It really is the amazing mango tree.
Check out the 100 Year Old Mango Tree!

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The Amazing Mango Tree - Mangifera Indica The amazing mango tree (Mangifera Indica) is much more than just a source of mangos. It's a beautiful, living thing that gives back so much to the planet and the people who tend it. Where do mango trees grow?

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Adaptations make it easier for plants to survive in their specific habitat, and reproduce, passing those traits on to their offspring.

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The city of Austin, Texas has a guide for native and adapted plants to help citizens protect and preserve the city’s water resources with less intensive plants. These native and adapted plants “tend to be drought-tolerant; need little if any supplemental fertilizer; are resistant to many diseases and pests; and many provide habitat and food sources for local wildlife.”

“The environmental conditions across Austin vary quite a bit, so it is critical to evaluate your specific site conditions. For example, consider the soil type and depth, sun and shade patterns, and microclimate factors.

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Unit 2/ The importance of Plant Growth Knowledge

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Unit 2/ The importance of Plant Growth Knowledge

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It is important to know about plant growth and how to identify the conditions that enable plants to grow because it is essential to a plant’s survival. Farmers need to be knowledgeable about plant growth and conditions required for a good planting season and to be able to feed their family and others around the nation. Linked below is an article detailing the processes of plant growth and it’s importance.

“Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration are the three major functions that drive plant growth and development (Figure 24). All three are essential to a plant's survival. How well a plant is able to regulate these functions greatly affects its ability to compete and reproduce.”

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Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration are the three major functions that drive plant growth and development (Figure 24). All three are essential to a plant's survival. How well a plant is able to regulate these functions greatly affects its ability to compete and reproduce.

Photosynthesis

One of the major differences between plants and animals is plants' ability to manufacture their own food. This process is called photosynthesis, which literally means "to put together with light." To produce food, a plant requires energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil. During photosynthesis, it splits carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen, adds water and forms carbohydrates (starches and sugars). Oxygen is a byproduct.

The formula for photosynthesis can be written as follows:

After producing carbohydrates, a plant either uses them as energy, stores them or builds them into complex energy compounds such as oils and proteins. All of these food products are called photosynthates. The plant uses them when light is limited, or transports them to its roots or developing fruits.

Photosynthesis occurs only in the mesophyll layers of plant leaves and, in some instances, in mesophyll cells in the stem. Mesophyll cells are sandwiched between the leaf's upper and lower epidermis and contain numerous chloroplasts, where photosynthesis takes place. Chloroplasts are incredibly small. One square millimeter, about the size of a period on a page, would contain 400,000 chloroplasts.

Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes leaves green, is found in the chloroplasts. It is responsible for trapping light energy from the sun. Often chloroplasts are arranged perpendicular to incoming sun rays so they can absorb maximum sunlight. If any of the ingredients for photosynthesis - light, water and carbon dioxide - is lacking, photosynthesis stops. If any factor is absent for a long period of time, a plant will die. Each of these factors is described below.

Light

Photosynthesis depends on the availability of light. Generally, as sunlight intensity increases, so does photosynthesis. However, for each plant species, there is a maximum level of light intensity above which photosynthesis does not increase. Many garden crops, such as tomatoes, respond best to maximum sunlight. Tomato production decreases drastically as light intensity drops. Only a few tomato varieties produce any fruit under minimal sunlight conditions.

Water

Water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. It is taken up into the plant by the roots and moved upward through the xylem.

Carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis also requires carbon dioxide (CO ₂), which enters a plant through its stomata (Figure 25). In most plants, photosynthesis fluctuates throughout the day as stomata open and close. Typically, they open in the morning, close down at midday, reopen in late afternoon and shut down for good in the evening.

Carbon dioxide is plentiful in the air, so it is not a limiting factor in plant growth. However, it is consumed rapidly during photosynthesis and is replenished very slowly in the atmosphere. Tightly sealed greenhouses may not allow enough outside air to enter and thus may lack adequate carbon dioxide for plant growth. Carbon dioxide generators are used in commercial greenhouses for crops such as roses, carnations and tomatoes. In smaller home greenhouses, dry ice is an effective source of carbon dioxide.

Temperature

Although not a direct component in photosynthesis, temperature is important. Photosynthesis occurs at its highest rate between 65° and 85°F and decreases at higher or lower temperatures.

Respiration

Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are of value to a plant when they are converted to energy. This energy is used for cell growth and building new tissues. The chemical process by which sugars and starches are converted to energy is called oxidation and is similar to the burning of wood or coal to produce heat. Controlled oxidation in a living cell is called respiration. It is shown by this equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ => 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + Energy
This equation is essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a building process, while respiration is a breaking-down process.

Unlike photosynthesis, respiration does not depend on light, so it occurs at night as well as during the day. Respiration occurs in all life forms and in all cells.

Transpiration

When a leaf's guard cells shrink, its stomata open and water is lost. This process is called transpiration. In turn, more water is pulled through the plant from the roots. The rate of transpiration is directly related to whether stomata are open or closed. Stomata account for only 1% of a leaf's surface but 90% of the water transpired.

Transpiration is a necessary process and uses about 90% of the water that enters a plant's roots. The other 10% is used in chemical reactions and in plant tissues. Transpiration is responsible for several things:

Transporting minerals from the soil throughout the plant.

Cooling the plant through evaporation.

Moving sugars and plant chemicals.

Maintaining turgor pressure.

The amount and rate of water loss depends on factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind or air movement. Transpiration often is greatest in hot, dry (low relative humidity), windy weather.

A balancing act

In order for a plant to grow and develop properly, it must balance photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration. Left to their own devices, plants do a good job of managing this intricate balance. If a plant photosynthesizes at a high rate, but its respiration rate is not high enough to break down the photosynthates produced, photosynthesis will either slow down or stop.

On the other hand, if respiration is much more rapid than photosynthesis, the plant won't have adequate photosynthates to produce energy for growth. Hence, growth either will slow down or stop altogether.

When stomata are open, transpiration occurs, sometimes at a very high rate. A corn plant may transpire 50 gallons of water per season, but a large tree may move 100 gallons per day!

Plants have problems if they lose too much water, so stomata close during hot, dry periods when transpiration is highest. However, CO ₂, which is needed for photosynthesis, also enters the plant through open stomata. Thus, if stomata stay closed a long time to stop water loss, not enough CO ₂ will enter for photosynthesis. As a result, photosynthesis and respiration will slow down, in turn reducing plant growth.

Many herb plants produce lots of high-energy oils, which help them survive in the dry landscapes where they evolved. These oils help them survive extended periods of stomatal closure.

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Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration are the three major functions that drive plant growth and development.

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Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal structure of plants. By educating ourselves on the anatomy of plants, we can collectively improve our food security in the United States- or speaking on a larger scale- the world. Being knowledgeable on not only how plants grow and develop, but also what encourages growth and what goes on inside of them can be a helpful tool in improving the crop supply of the world.

“The fundamental understanding of plant biochemistry, physiology and genetics, along with insights into ecology, plant evolution and the domestication of common crop species will have to serve agricultural applications to ensure that the growing population of our rapidly changing planet will have sufficient food in the coming decades.” (Gross)

I have attached a video explaining the basic anatomy of plants.