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Antimicrobial susceptibility tests are used to determine which specific antibiotic/antifungal a particular bacteria or fungus is sensitive to.

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Antimicrobial susceptibility tests are used to determine which specific antibiotic/antifungal a particular bacteria or fungus is sensitive to.

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1) State 3 examples of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) .
2) State the differences btween Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test.

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Biological samples were taken from a patient suspected of bacterial pneumonia. 

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Biological samples were taken from a patient suspected of bacterial pneumonia. 

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1) State 2 examples of biological samples for the above condition.
2) State the staining method for the identification of causative microorganisms.

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A 69 year old man is brought into A&E by his son after he has been vomiting, complaining of neck stiffness and not liking the lights being on.Lumbar puncture done and picture shows the results of india ink stain. What is the likely diagnosis?

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A 69 year old man is brought into A&E by his son after he has been vomiting, complaining of neck stiffness and not liking the lights being on.Lumbar puncture done and picture shows the results of india ink stain. What is the likely diagnosis?

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a) Bacterial meningitis
b) Viral meningitis
c) Fungal meningitis

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Refer to video 2 and answer the following questions .

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Refer to video 2 and answer the following questions .

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1) State the objective of performing blood culture.
2)State the staining method used to observed the causative microorganism.
3)Name 2 agar types used to culture the bacteria in this video.
4) State type of haemolysis produces by S.pneumoniae.
5) State the serological test mentioned in the video.

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Refer to video 3 and answer the following question .

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Refer to video 3 and answer the following question .

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1) List techniques/tests showed in the video for diagnosis of the viral samples.

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1) Infectious agent: The SARS-CoV-2 virus.
2) Reservoir: Where the virus lives and replicates- humans and animals.
3) Portal of exit: Droplets from mouth and nose when coughing, sneezing, talking.
4) Mode of transmission: Direct contact with droplets or aerosolized particles from infected person. Can also from indirect contact with contaminated hands, surfaces and objects.
5) Portal of entry: Mouth, nose and eyes.
6) Susceptible host: Anyone. Some are more vulnerable to become very ill, especially older adults and those with pe-existing medical condition.

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COVID-19 chain of infection involves agent, host, way of entry, transmission, way out and reservoir. It will normally attack those who are unable to fight the infection, making them susceptible individuals such as children and elderly. The Face Mask mandate is recommended as the virus could spread via coughing and sneezing. In a care home setting, more individuals may get infected as they have close living arrangements. One may get infected if an infected person touches and equipment after sneezing or coughing without practising hand hygiene.

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1.i.Minimum Inhibitory Concentration(MIC) & Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). ii. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer Method). iii. E-test.
2.i. E-test uses paper strips impregnated with known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic while Kirby-Bauer test uses antibiotic-impregnated disc. ii. E-test inhibit microbial growth in elliptic zone, Kirby-Bauer inhibit in varying degrees by the antibiotic diffusing from the disc(susceptible, intermediate or resistant to concentration of an antibiotic).

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b

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1. minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)
2. disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer method)
3. E test

Difference between Kirby Bauer Method and E Test
-Kirby Bauer method uses a dispenser antibiotic impregnated discs are placed onto agar surface
-E Test uses an impregnated paper strip with known concentration gradient of antibiotic that diffuses across agar surface

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1. Virus propagation in cell cultures.
2. Plaque assay.
3. Quantification of virus infectivity

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1. Blood culture taken when patient signs and symptoms suggest possibility pf either bacteremia or septicemia.
2. Gram staining.
3. Chocolate agar and blood agar.
4. Alpha hemolytic.
5. Optochin test.

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1. Sputum and blood sample.
2. Gram staining

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1. blood sample and sputum
2. gram staining

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objectives
1. have a culture result
2. presumptive identification of pathogen
3. antibiotic susceptibility result

staining method is heat-fixed smear gram staining

two agar types
1. chocolate agar
2. blood agar

hemolysis of S.Pneumoniae is Alpha hemolytic colonies in blood agar sensitive to optochin

serological test
1. direct latex test
2. direct antibiotic susceptibility test

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1. Blood sample and sputum
2. Gram staining

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B (viral meningitis)

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1. molecular method by amplification (i.e PCR test) and hybridization using primers
2. cell cultures
3. virus quantification in plaque assay
4. immunofluorescence fluroscopy

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1. State 3 examples of AST
i) Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests
ii) E-test
iii) Disk Diffusion test (Kirby-Bauer Method)

2. State the differences of Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test
i) Kirby-Bauer Method uses antibiotic impregnated disks while E-test is also impregnated with antibiotics but with a varying degree of concentration along the strips
ii) E-test is able to identify the sensitivity and MIC of the microorganism towards the antibiotics, while Kirby-Bauer method is able to identify sensitivity but not able to determine the MIC

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objective
-when patient sign and symptoms suggested to bacteremia or septicemia
-identification of bacteria

staining method
-heat-fixed gram staining

types of agar
-chocolate agar
-blood agar

type of haemolytic
- alpha-haemolytic colonies on blood agar that sensitive to optochin

serological test
-direct latex test
-direct antibiotic susceptibility test

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-cell culture
-virus quantification in plaque assay
-immunofluorosence microscopy
-amplification technique (PCR)

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1) Infectious agent: The SARS-CoV-2 virus.
2) Reservoir: Where the virus lives and replicates- humans and animals.
3) Portal of exit: Droplets from mouth and nose when coughing, sneezing, talking.
4) Mode of transmission: Direct contact with droplets or aerosolized particles from infected person. Can also from indirect contact with contaminated hands, surfaces and objects.
5) Portal of entry: Mouth, nose and eyes.
6) Susceptible host: Anyone. Some are more vulnerable to become very ill, especially older adults and those with pe-existing medical condition.

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1.i.Minimum Inhibitory Concentration(MIC) & Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). ii. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer Method). iii. E-test.
2.i. E-test uses paper strips impregnated with known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic while Kirby-Bauer test uses antibiotic-impregnated disc. ii. E-test inhibit microbial growth in elliptic zone, Kirby-Bauer inhibit in varying degrees by the antibiotic diffusing from the disc(susceptible, intermediate or resistant to concentration of an antibiotic).

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1. Sputum and blood sample.
2. Gram staining

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b

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1. Blood culture taken when patient signs and symptoms suggest possibility pf either bacteremia or septicemia.
2. Gram staining.
3. Chocolate agar and blood agar.
4. Alpha hemolytic.
5. Optochin test.

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1. Virus propagation in cell cultures.
2. Plaque assay.
3. Quantification of virus infectivit

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There is 6 component for a chain of infection for Covid-19 involved which includes infection agent, reservoir, the portal of exit, mode of transmission, the portal of entry and susceptible host. For each component's details are as follows:
1. Infectious agent: (microorganism) SARS-Cov- 2 virus
2. Reservoir : (Germ lives and grows) person and animals respiratory tract
3. Portal of exit : (germs way out from infected person) through the nose and mouth droplets during talking, sneezing coughing, and breathing.
4. Mode of transmission : (the germs spread out) through droplets and airborne (delta variant) transmission.
5. Portal of entry : (entry of germs to another person) entering nasal or oral mucosa.
6. Susceptible host : (person who is at risk of infection) it may infect everyone, with more susceptible of having a more severe effect on elderly, a person with comorbidities associates and immunosuppressed person.

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1. Three examples of AST :
i. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bacterial Concentration (MBC)
ii. Disk Diffusion Method ( Kirby-Bauer Method)
iii. E-test

2. Differenced between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test:
i. Kirby-Bauer uses antibiotic-impregnated disc while E-test uses paper strips impregnated with known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic.
ii. Kirby-Bauer inhibit microbial growth by antibiotic diffusing from the disc, while E-test inhibit microbial growth from the paper strip in elliptical zone

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1. Sputum and blood sample
2. Gram staining

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C) Fungal meningitis

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Chain of infection means the several correlated stages or steps which are describe the pathogen movement.	The Covid-19 is the illness caused by the virus which is CoronaVirus, specifically SARS-CoV2 virus. The virus lives and grows in the respiratory tract. However, the virus also able to survive on the surface outside the body for 3 hours to 3 days of period. The virus leaves the body through coughing, sneezing, exhaling, and talking via an infected droplets. This infected droplets contaminate the open surface. The transmission mode of the virus from one person to another can be direct or indirect contact. Someone can direct with the droplets or aerosolized particles from the infected person; or indirect contact with the contaminated hands, surfaces, and objects. The virus enter new host via nose, mouth or eye into the respiratory system. New infected person can be at any age. However, older adult, young children and person with severe underlying medical condition are more susceptible to get infected (high risk).

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Chain of infection means the several correlated stages or steps which are describe the pathogen movement.	The Covid-19 is the illness caused by the virus which is CoronaVirus, specifically SARS-CoV2 virus. The virus lives and grows in the respiratory tract. However, the virus also able to survive on the surface outside the body for 3 hours to 3 days of period. The virus leaves the body through coughing, sneezing, exhaling, and talking via an infected droplets. This infected droplets contaminate the open surface. The transmission mode of the virus from one person to another can be direct or indirect contact. Someone can direct with the droplets or aerosolized particles from the infected person; or indirect contact with the contaminated hands, surfaces, and objects. The virus enter new host via nose, mouth or eye into the respiratory system. New infected person can be at any age. However, older adult, young children and person with severe underlying medical condition are more susceptible to get infected (high risk).

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The examples are bacterial sputum culture and blood culture.

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The examples are bacterial sputum culture and blood culture.

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a.The objective of performing the blood culture is to determine whether the microorganism have invade the bloodstream of the patient or not.	b.Heat-fixed gram staining method. c.Chocolate agar and blood agar. d.Alpha-haemolysis. e.	Optochin test.

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a.The objective of performing the blood culture is to determine whether the microorganism have invade the bloodstream of the patient or not.	b.Heat-fixed gram staining method. c.Chocolate agar and blood agar. d.Alpha-haemolysis. e.	Optochin test.

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-Molecular method by amplification and hybridization.	-Serology test	-Virus propagation in the laboratory and subsequent detection via the toxic effect in the host.

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-Molecular method by amplification and hybridization.	-Serology test	-Virus propagation in the laboratory and subsequent detection via the toxic effect in the host.

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Fungal infections

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1) Infectious agent : SARS- CoV 2 Virus
2) Reservoir : human and animals
3) Portal of exit : Aerosol from coughing and sneezing
4) Mode of transmission : physical contact with the droplet, inhalation aerosolized droplet, direct impact of large particle from sneeze or cough of infected person.
5) Portal of entry :mucous membrane of respiratory tract ; nose, mouth, eye
6) Susceptible host : any people , more vulnerable person include Comorbid patient and elderly people

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1. sputum and blood sample
2. gram staining

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fungal meningitis

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1. Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing

a) Minimum Inhibitory Concentration and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration
b) Disk Diffusion Method (Kirby Bauer Method)
c) E test

2. E test determine antimicrobial sensitivity by placing strip impregnated with antibiotic  meanwhile Kirby Bauer method use antibiotic impregnated disc onto agar plate.

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Antimicrobial susceptibility tests are used to determine which specific antibiotic

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1.  Blood culture is taken when patient have sign and symptom that suggest possibility of bacteremia or septicemia.

2. Gram staining

3. Chocolate agar and blood agar

4. alpha hemolytic colony

5. Optochin Sensivity test

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1. virus propagation in cell culture
2. plaque assay and the quantification of virus infectivity
3. detection of virus proteins using specific antibodies with the example of immunofluorescence microscopy
4. nucleic acid amplification like PCR and RT-PCR.

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·       Viral propagation in cell culture

·       Plaque assay and the quantification of virus infectivity

·       Detection of virus proteins using specific antibodies (immunofluorescence microscopy)

·       Nucleic acid amplification (PCR and RT-PCR)

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1) State the objective of performing blood culture.
To identify the pathogen in patients potentially having bacteraemia or septicaemia

2)State the staining method used to observed the causative microorganism.
Gram stain

3)Name 2 agar types used to culture the bacteria in this video.
Blood agar and chocolate agar

4) State type of haemolysis produces by S.pneumoniae.
Alpha hemolysis

5) State the serological test mentioned in the video.
direct latex test (antibody agglutination test)

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1. a)minimun inhibitory concentration (MIC) & minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)
b) disk diffusion method (kirby-Bauer    Method)
c) E-test

2. the differences between Kirby- Bauer Method & E-test are
a) Kirby-Bauer using dispenser of specific concentration of antibiotic-impregnated disks while E- test using paper strip impregnated with a known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic

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1) sputum and blood sample
2) gram staining

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1) the objective of performing blood culture is when patients have the sign or symptoms of possibility of bacteremia or septicemia.
2) the stain method is gram staining
3) 2 agar types used to culture bacteria in this video are
a) chocolate agar
b) blood agar
4) type of haemolysis produce by S.pneumoniae is Alpha hemolytic colony
5) the serological test mentioned is Optochin test

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techniques/test showed in the video are
1) virus quantification in cell culture
2) immunofluoracent microscopy
3) plaque assay

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1) infection agent: SARS- CoV-2 virus
2) Reservoir:  Human & animals
3) Portal of exit: Droplet from mouth or nose such as during coughing, talking or sneezing.
4)  Mode of transmission: Direct droplet transmission
5) Portal of entry: Mouth, nose or eyes
6) Susceptible host: elderly, children, chronic systemic disease patient

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1) Infectious agent: Coronavirus specifically SARS-CoV-2 virus.
2) Reservoir: In respiratory system of humans
3) Portal of exit: Droplets through coughing and sneezing
4) Mode of transmission:
-Direct transmission through direct physical contact or contaminated droplets
- Indirect transmission through airborne
5) Portal of entry: Mucosa of the mouth, nose and eyes.
6) Susceptible host: Geriatric and pediatric patient and those with comorbidity

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1. Sputum and blood sample
2. Gram stain

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1) State 3 examples of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) .
-Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC)
- Disk Diffusion Method (Kirby-Bauer Method)
- E-test
2) State the differences between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test.
Kirby-Bauer Method:
- Using antibiotic-impregnated disks
- Inhibit bacterial growth in varying degrees
- Zone diameter  allow the designation of organism as susceptible, intermediate or resistant to an antibiotic
E-test:
- Using paper strip impregnated with antibiotic
- Inhibit microbial growth in an elliptical zone
- The MIC is read off on the printed strip make it a reliable interpretation (at the point at which the zone intersects the strip)

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Bacterial meningitis

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1) State the objective of performing blood culture.

- to determine whether the microorganisms have invaded the bloodstream of the patient

2)State the staining method used to observed the causative microorganism.

- Gram stain (showed gram positive diplococci)

3)Name 2 agar types used to culture the bacteria in this video

- Chocolate agar

- Blood agar

4) State type of haemolysis produces byS.pn eumoniae.

- Alpha hemolysis

5) State the serological test mentioned in the video

- Latex agglutination test (Direct serological test)

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virus culture and isolation - plaque assay

detection of viral antibody / serology

detection of viral antigen - Immunofluorescence microscopy

detection of viral DNA or RNA - PCR

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1. 3 types of Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing are :

a) Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration(MBC)
b) Disk Diffusion Method (Kirby-Bauer Method)
c) E-test

2. Kirby-Bauer Method uses antibiotic-impregnated disk placed on agar surface and bacteria are inhibited to varying degrees then measured by zone diameter while E-Test uses a paper strip impregnated with a known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic, inhibiting microbial growth in an elliptic zone.

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1.
-Sputum sample
-Blood sample
2. Gram staining

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Covid-19 chain of infection

1) Infectious agent: Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2 virus)
2) Reservoir: In respiratory system of humans
3) Portal of exit: Droplets from mouth and nose through coughing and sneezing.
4) Mode of transmission:
-Direct transmission through direct physical contact or contaminated droplets
- Indirect transmission through airborne
5) Portal of entry: mouth, nose and eyes.
6) Susceptible host: Geriatric and pediatric patient and those with comorbidity and immunosuppressed.

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c) Fungal meningitis

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1. Sputum and blood sample
2. Gram staining

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c) fungal meningitis

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1. Blood culture taken when patient sign and symptoms suggest possibility of bacteremia or septicemia
2. Gram staining
3. Chocolate agar and blood agar
4. Alpha haemolytic colonies
5. Direct latex test

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1. Cell culture
2. Plaque assay and the quantification
3. Immunofluorescence microscopy
4. Nucleic acid amplification (PCR and RT-PCR)

# data[].attributes.body
COVID-19 chain of infection
1) Infectious agent : SARS- CoV 2 Virus
2) Reservoir : human and animals
3) Portal of exit : Aerosol from coughing and sneezing
4) Mode of transmission : physical contact with the droplet, inhalation aerosolized droplet, direct impact of large particle from sneeze or cough of infected person.
5) Portal of entry :mucous membrane of respiratory tract ; nose, mouth, eye
6) Susceptible host : any people , more vulnerable person include Comorbid patient and elderly people

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1) State 3 examples of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) .
- Minimum Inhibitory Concentration(MIC) and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MBC)
- Disk Diffusion Method - Kirby-Baeur Method
- E-test
2) State the differences between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test.
-Kirby Baeur Method using different impregnated antibiotics  disks onto surface agar, while E-test use a paper strip  impregnated with continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic that diffuse across agar surface
- Kirby Baeur Method analyze zone diameter to determine the designation of an organism (as susceptible, intermediate,or resistant) while E-test would analyze inhibition of microbial growth in elliptic zone, where MIC is read over the intersection point between the paperstrip and the inhibition zone.

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1) State 2 examples of biological samples for the above condition.
- Blood culture
- sputum sample

2) State the staining method for the identification of causative microorganisms.
- Gram staining

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1) State the objective of performing blood culture.
-  A blood culture consists of a blood sample from a patient,who suspected to have a  n bloodstream infection. The blood culture would be incorporated and amplified to make visible bacterial growth and further test such as gram stain to be done. (Front Med (Lausanne) 2019)
2)State the staining method used to observed the causative microorganism.
- Gram staining
3)Name 2 agar types used to culture the bacteria in this video.
-Chocolate agar
-Blood agar
4) State type of haemolysis produces by S.pneumoniae.
Alpha-hemolytic
5) State the serological test mentioned in the video.
- latex agglutination test

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List techniques/tests showed in the video for diagnosis of the viral samples.
1. Virus propagation in cell culture
2. Plaque assay and the quantification of virus infectivity
3. Detection of virus proteins using specific antibodies with the example of immunofluorescence microscopy
4. Nucleic acid amplification like PCR and RT-PCR.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Covid-19 chain of infection is made up of six links. Each link must align in order for an infection to occur, The final link is a susceptible host. This is a person who is not immune to or is otherwise susceptible to the infectious agent they are exposed to. In essence, since COVID-19 is caused by a new strain of Coronavirus, we all are susceptible hosts to some degree.

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The Covid-19 chain of infection is made up of six links. Each link must align in order for an infection to occur, The final link is a susceptible host. This is a person who is not immune to or is otherwise susceptible to the infectious agent they are exposed to. In essence, since COVID-19 is caused by a new strain of Coronavirus, we all are susceptible hosts to some degree.

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1. Infectious agent such as SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19.

2. Reservoir for the infectious agent. Reservoirs can include people, environmental surfaces, water, air, and so on.

3. Portal of exit for the pathogen from its reservoir. An example of a portal of exit would be the respiratory tract of a coughing patient infected with COVID-19.

4. Mode of transmission. This is how the infectious agent or pathogen is carried from one place or person to another.  For example, COVID-19 is spread in the droplets of saliva or mucous coughed out from an infected person. And if those droplets land on and contaminate an environmental surface, the virus can potentially be transmitted by touching that surface and then rubbing one’s eyes or nose.

5. Portal of entry. This is how the pathogen enters its host or a susceptible person. The portal of entry for the COVID-19 virus is when a susceptible person breathes in the virus carried in droplets from an infected person coughs, sneezes, sings, or talks.

6. Susceptible host. This is a person who is not immune to or is otherwise susceptible to the infectious agent they are exposed to. In essence, since COVID-19 is caused by a new strain of Coronavirus, we all are susceptible hosts to some degree.

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Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) is to test the effectiveness of antibiotic against bacteria and to identify bacterial antibiotic resistance patterns

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Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) is to test the effectiveness of antibiotic against bacteria and to identify bacterial antibiotic resistance patterns

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1. 3 example of AST are:
- Minimum inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC)
- Disk Diffusion Method (Kirby-Bauer Method)
- E-test

2. Differences of Kirby-Bauer Method & E-test
Kirby-Bauer Method:
-using a dispension, antibiotic -impregnated disks are placed onto the agar surface

E-test :
- uses a paper strip impregnated with a known continuous concentration gradient of antibiotic that diffuses across the agar surface, inhibiting microbial growth in an elliptic zone

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1. 2 example of biological sample for above condition

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1. 2 example of biological sample for above condition

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- stool sample
- blood sample

2. Staining method for the identification of causative organism
- gram-staining

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1. To detect the presence of bacteria or fungi in the blood, to identify the type present, and to guide treatment. It is taken when patient have sign & symptoms that suggest possibility of bacteremia and septicemia

2. Gram staining

3. Chocolate agar and blood agar

4. Alpha -hemolytic colony

5. Direct latex test (antibody agglutination test)

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Tecniques / tests shown in video for diagnosis of the virus sample

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Tecniques / tests shown in video for diagnosis of the virus sample

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1. Viral propagation in cell culture
2. Plaque assay and the quantification of viral infectivity
3. Detection of virus protein using specific antibodies (immunoflourescent microscopy)
4. Nucleic acid amplification (PCR & RT-PCR)

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In general, chain of infection can be described as series of steps for an infection to be passed from one person to another. It constitute:-

1. The reservoir of the virus itself,
2. Portal of exits for the pathogens to leave its host,
3. Modes of transmission of the virus
4. Portals of entry
5. Host susceptibility to the pathogens

In the case of Covid-19 virus (the agent):-

1. Reservoir : Person who become infected with the virus.
2. Portal of exits : Droplets from the mouth or nose during the course of speaking, sneezing  and coughing.
3. Modes of transmission: Directly in contact with the droplets or aerosolised particles from the infected person, indirectly via contact on contaminated surface with hands, objects and surfaces.
4. Portals of entry : Mouth, nose and eyes
5. Host susceptibility : Any person of any age are susceptible to get infected with the virus however in older individuals and those having pre-existing medical problems are susceptible to develop severe complications from the virus.

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AST examples and differences between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-Test

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AST examples and differences between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-Test

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1. 3 examples of AST
A. Broth dilution test or tube-dilution method
B. Antimicrobial gradient method (E-Test)
C. Disk diffusion test (Kirby-Bauer)

2. Differences between Kirby-Bauer method (Disk diffusion test) and E-Test (Antimicrobial gradient)
A. Kirby-Bauer - applying up to 12 commercially prepared paper antibiotic discs with a fixed concentration on the inoculated surface of Mueller-Hinton agar
B. E-test - apply as many as 5 or 6 strips that are impregnated on the underside with dried antibiotic concentrated, to the inoculated surface with the standardized organism suspension in a radial fashion.

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1. Can be retrieved from sputum or blood samples
2. Gram-staining

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A. Bacterial meningitis

India ink stain is used to stain encapsulated species in this case bacteria.

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1. Blood culture is performed when patients with signs and symptoms that highly suggestive of bacteraemia or septicaemia.

2. Staining method used is Gram staining

3. Chocolate and blood agar

4. Alpha-hemolytic colonies

5. Optochin susceptibility test

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1. Host-cell culture
2. Plaque assay
3. Immunofluorescent study
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reversed-PCR

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3 examples of AST
Anti Microbial Sensitive Testing are use to determine the effectiveness of antibiotic against bacteria. Examples of AST are :
i- Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
ii- Disk Diffusion Method (Kirby-Bauer Method)
iii- E-test

Difference between Kirby-Bauer Method and E-test
i-  Kirby -Bauer Method using disk while E-test using paper strip containing antibiotic
ii- Kirby-Bauer method will show sensitive and resistance by zone of inhibition while E-test inhibiting microbial growth in an elliptical zone and the MIC is read at the point which zone intersect the strip
iii- E test applicable to organism require special media

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1. 2 examples of samples : blood and sputum
2. Gram staining

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Fungal meningitis

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1. Objective of blood culture
- To detect bacteria in the blood
- identify causes of of patient signs and symptoms suggested bacteremia or septicimea

2. Staining method
- Gram staining

3. Chocolate agar and blood agar
4. alpha-homolysis
5. Direct latex test

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1. Virus propagation in cell culture
2. Plaque assay
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction

# data[].attributes.body
Infectious agent : SARS-CoV-2
Reservoir: Human or Animal
Portal of exit : Virus laden fluid particle from droplets in human
Mode of transmission : Droplet, airborne, fomite, fecal-oral, bloodborne, mother-to-child, and animal-to-human transmission
Portal of entry in : Respiratory system
Susceptible host : someone at risk of infection

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1. Infectious agent: SARS-CoV-2 virus
2. Reservoir: human and animals
3. Portal of exit: droplets from mouth and nose
4. Mode of transmission: direct contact with infected droplets or aerosols
5. Portal of entry: respiratory system through mouse and nose
6. Susceptible host: anyone who is a close or direct contact espescially those vulnerable group: unvaccinated, older age, immunosuppressed person.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Sputum and blood sample
2. Gram staining

# data[].attributes.body
Fungal meningitis