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Lecture 1 :   Chapter 1  : From the beginning of time.  Open the link and read the lesson

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Lecture 1 :   Chapter 1  : From the beginning of time.  Open the link and read the lesson

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https://schools.aglasem.com/ncert/ncert-books-class-11-history-chapter-1/

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The advent of human being and human civilization on earth is a very interesting story.
Most of the historians are of the  opinion that humans appeared on the  earth 56 lakhs years ago .

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Fossils : the remains of ancient plant, animals and humans impression on the rocks.
Species : A group of organisms that can breed to produce healthy and fertle offspring.
Primates ;  they are the subgroups of larger  groups of mammals, and have a lond gestation.period  followed by birth, mammary glands, different types of teeth and ability to maintain a constant temperature .
Anthropology : A branch of science which deals with human culture and evolutionary aspects  of human biology.
Ethnography : The study of contemporary ethnic group. It studies the modes of livelihood, gender , political institutions, social customs, etc.

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36-24 mya:  Primates; monkeys in Asia & Africa.
24 mya :. Hominoids, Gibbons,Asia Oraguttan and African apes .
6.4 mya;.   Branching out of Hominoid  &  Homonids.
5.6 mya ;.  Australopithecus
2. 6- 2.5 mya :  cooling and drying of Africa resulting in decrease in Woodlandands, and increase in  grasslands.
2.5 - 2.0 mya :   Homo
2.2 mya   ;.    Homo Habilis
1.8  mya. ;.    Homo Eructus
1.3 mya. ;.     Extinction of Australopithecus
0.8 mya. :.      Archiac Sapians, Homo heidelbergensis.
0.19- 0.16 mya. :.  Homo sapiens ( Modern -  Humans ).

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhyay a Sanatan Dharma vidyalaya, Azaad Nagar , Kanpur  208002 

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhyay a Sanatan Dharma vidyalaya, Azaad Nagar , Kanpur  208002 

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Std : 11th (Humanities). Worksheet 1
Topic : From the beginning of time.  Chapter 1
General Instructions : This worksheet  has been divided  three sections . Attempt all the questions .
Section' A'  ( Answer the following in very short):
1) Which sources enable us to  understand the history  of early humans?
2)What do you know about Carl Fuhlrott?
3) Name the book published by Charles Darwin. When was it published and what did he argue in it?
4)Define fossils?
5) How is the Archaeological dating done under the Carbon -14 method?
6) How does Anthropology helps us in reconstructing the pre historical period history  ?
7)What do you mean by the term Species?
8) How does archaeology helps in understanding the early  cultures?
9) Who were Primates? When did they come into existence?
10)What is meant by Australopithecus? Why are the earliest humans called so?
11) When and where were the  traces of  earliest Australopithecus found?
12) Who were Hominoids?
Section B ( Answer the following in short ):
13)  Who were Hominoids? When did they come into existence? Write their two unique characteristics?
14)When and where do we get earliest  evidence of bipedalism  ? What are the benefits of bipedalism?
15) Explain the similarities and differences  in behaviour and  anatomy between human and monkeys .
16) Write  a short  note on Neanderthals.
Section' "C" ( Answer the following in detail ) :
17) Write description about the Origin of human beings .
18) How did  early  man procure his food? Explain.

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I) Where were the fossils of Australopithecus discovered? Who discovered it?
ii) When did they (Australopithecus)  originate and become extinct ?
iii) Describe any three features of Australopithecus.

Prepared by :
Ms. Komal Jain
PGT.  (  History)

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Section' A ( very short answers)
1)The sources for studying the history of early humans are, fossils , stone tools and Archaeological evidences.
2)Carl Fuhlrott was a teacher and natural histrian in Germany Dusseldorf.He studied the skull and some skeletal fragments handed over to him by the workmen whobwere engaged in quarrying work.
3)The origin of species was the book , published by Charles Darwin andit was published on 24th November 1859.
4)The word fossils is used to describe the remains of the very old plants , human beings or animals which have left their marks on the rock.
5) All things such as charcoal, wood, seeds, plant and remains and human or anial bones have carbon -14 in a specific quantity.After the death of the plants and living organisms,accumalated 14 Carbon starts decaying.Thus by measuring it's present concentration.The age organisms can be determined.
6) Anthropology tells us as to how the  eary man underwent changes with the passage of time  by studing their way of life , culture and society. it tells about the cultural patterns, food habits and communication methods of man.
7) Species is a group of organisms that can breed to produce fertile offspring . Members of one species cannot matewith those of other species to produces fertile offspring.
8) Archaeology helps us to know about the materials r3mainsof the  early man.The archaeolgists collecting the artefacts and materials remains of that period and analysing them within the immediate environments provide information about the early cultires.
9) Primates are the subgroup of  large mammals, i.e monkeys , apes and humans.The Primates came into existence  in about 36 mya ( million years ago ).
10) The word ' Australopithecus ' is derived from the Latin word 'Austral' means southern and agr3k word , pithicos meaning ,'apes' . Hence the word southern apes The earliest man resembles him that is why it is caled Australopiicus.
11).The earliest traces of Australopithecus were found in Olduvai Gorge by Marie and Louis Leakey on 17 Th July, 1959..
12) Hominoids belonged to Hominidae family.
The existence of Hominoids can be traced to about  24  mya . Apes comes under Hominoids and  had comparitively smaller brain. Hominoids are quadrupeds i.e they walk in their four legs.

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Lecture 1: Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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Lecture 1: Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-cXAIYEPR5IZk_MvIUX4P-g3tvhjonou/view?usp=drivesdk

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Click on the link below to listen to my audio  recorded  Lecture .

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Click on the link below to listen to my audio  recorded  Lecture .

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https://youtu.be/1CP3OTfZLWg

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The origin of human beings can be divided into many stages.
Subgroups of a larger group of mammals is known as Primates .
About 36- 24 mya , Primates existed in Asia and Africa.
The existence of Hominoids can be traced by about 24 mya.
Apes came under Hominoids and had smaller brains.
Hominoids had four legs. They were not able to walk erect.
Homonids belong to Hominidae family.
Hominids are further subdivided into branches known as genus.
Homo is originally a Latin word which means man.  Homo came into existance approximately in 2.5 mya   their  fossils date back to 2.2  mya  to 1.8 mya.
Homo Habilis were more intelligent in comparison to Australopithecus.
Homo eructus were familiar with the art of walking.
In many parts of Asia  and Africa, fossils of Homo  eructus have been found.
Homo Sapiens were the modern man .They were intelligent and wise .
Homo sapiens came into existence between 0.19 to 0.16mya.
Fossils of Homo Habilis have been found at Omo in Ethiopia  and at Oldivai Gorge in Tanzania.The fossils of Homo Eructus have been found in Africa and Asia.
Homo Sapiens were quite intelligent. They used. Sophisticated tools and languages.
Homo Neanderthalensis were also. called Neanderthal men , because their fossils have been found in Neander valley in Germany .
Terra Amata in  southern France gives the most important evidence .The hit was made of thatch.
The life of Early men underwent a change due to the discovery of fire.
Chesowanja in Kenya and Swartkarnas in South Africa are the places where the traces of the use of fire have been found .
The tools of early  men were made of stones.They were  hand axes, choppes  and flake tools.
The earliest evidence of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and Kenya .
About 21,000 years ago,. Sewing needle was invented.
The art of speech helped the man to develop culturally.
Paintings were done on the walls and  roofs of the caves. Altamira, Lascaux and Chaubey are considered to be the earliest  famous cave paintings.
The Hadza were also found of hunting and lived around the salty lake, Lake Eyasi.
Altamira  is a cave site in Spain.
Marcelino Sanz deSautla and his daughter  into notice the cave paintings.
Mary and Louis Leakey identified Otduvai.
Some Historians think that  ethnographic data cannot be used  with out understanding of the past society.
Ethnography stands for the analytical study of contemporary ethnic society.
The early  humans were completely dependent on nature.
They gathered food  by  fishing and hunting .
Hooks and Harpoons were used to gather small and later in huts.
Early men lived on trees, in caves and later on huts .
Early men began to live in caves around 400,000 years ago .
Cave Lazarate is the earliest example of cave dwelling .It is in Southern France.

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Lecture 2: Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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Lecture 2: Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-cXAIYEPR5IZk_MvIUX4P-g3tvhjonou/view?usp=drivesdk

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Lecture 2:  Topic 1 Introductio of the Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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Lecture 2:  Topic 1 Introductio of the Click on the llink given below and view my My reorded audi clip from  Theme 1 : From the beginning of time .( Introduction of the lesson ).

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-cXAIYEPR5IZk_MvIUX4P-g3tvhjonou/view?usp=drivesdk

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Lecture 2 :  To listen  to my audio lecture , click on the link  given below on the lesson 1 From the beginning of time

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Lecture 2 :  To listen  to my audio lecture , click on the link  given below on the lesson 1 From the beginning of time

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https://youtu.be/4S2mJI2qW2Y

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lecture 2 lick on the link to listen to my lecture on  the lesson from the beginning of time.

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lecture 2 lick on the link to listen to my lecture on  the lesson from the beginning of time.

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https://youtu.be/1CP3OTfZLWg

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Lecture 2  Click  on the link to my audio 

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Lecture 2  Click  on the link to my audio 

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https://youtu.be/R4HjLhXHYdU

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Lecture2 To listen to rcorded audio lecture , click on the link on the given below.

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Lecture2 To listen to rcorded audio lecture , click on the link on the given below.

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https://youtu.be/R4HjLhXHYdU

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Full Chapter1 From the beginning of time.  Open the link and read the lesson

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Full Chapter1 From the beginning of time.  Open the link and read the lesson

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https://schools.aglasem.com/ncert/ncert-books-class-11-history-chapter-1/

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhyay a Sanatan Dharma vidyalaya, Azaad Nagar , Kanpur  208002 

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhyay a Sanatan Dharma vidyalaya, Azaad Nagar , Kanpur  208002 

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Std : 11th (Humanities)
History worksheet-2
Topic : From the beginning of time.  Chapter 1
General Instructions : This worksheet  has been divided  three sections . Attempt all the questions .
Section' A'  ( Answer the following in very short):
1)Write  any two evidences that Hominoids have African origin.
2)What are Genus ? Name two important geuus of  Hominoids.
2)What do you know about Carl Fuhlrott?
3) Name the book published by Charles Darwin. When was it published and what did he argue in it?
4)Define fossils?
5) How is the Archaeological dating done under the Carbon -14 method?
6) How does Anthropology helps us in reconstructing the pre historical period history  ?
7)What do you mean by the term Species?
8) How does archaeology helps in understanding the early  cult
Section B ( Answer the following in short ):
13)  Who were Hominoids? When did they come into existence? Write their two unique characteristics?
14)When and where do we get earliest  evidence of bipedalism  ? What are the benefits of bipedalism?
15) Explain the similarities and differences  in behaviour and  anatomy between human and monkeys .
16) Write  a short  note on Neanderthals.
Section' "C" ( Answer the following in detail ) :
17) Write description about the Origin of human beings .
18) How did  early  man procure his food? Explain.

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Lecture 3: Full Chapter Uploaded  :  Writing and city life. (  Theme -2).

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Lecture 3: Full Chapter Uploaded  :  Writing and city life. (  Theme -2).

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https://schools.aglasem.com/ncert/ncert-books-class-11-history-chapter-2/

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Chapter-2: Writing and city life class

Important  Notes from the chapter

I. Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography:

City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning river.)

It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq.

In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture

Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE.

Soil was very fertile here but agriculture was threatened because of natural causes.

Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of its important cities.

The excavation work started 150 years ago.

Urbanisation

Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan.

Cities and towns are develop when an economy develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in towns.

Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services.

There is social organisation in place

Helpful for the city manufacturers.

The division of labour is a mark of urban life.

Movement of Goods into cities

Writing and city life class 11 Notes History

II. Mesopotamian & Writing  Modern Writing

1. Mesopotamian Writing:

The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.

Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods

Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

2. Modern Writing: The greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics, calender.

III. Political Factors

From about 1100 BCE, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, the region became known as Assyria. The first known language of the land was Sumerian.

Writing was used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land.

It can be inferred that in Mesopotamian understanding it was kingship that organised trade and writing.

Religious Factors

Early settlers (their origins are unknown) began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Temples were the residences of various gods.

Temples were centres of religious activities. They were dedicated to different gods and goddess.

(5000 BCE – Settlements began to develop in southern Mesopotamia)

Writing and city life class 11 Notes History

IV. Social Factors

1. Life in the City – Mesopotamian society the nuclear family was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family.

A ruling elite had emerged

Had a major share of wealth

Followed nuclear family system and  patriarchal system

Condition of women

System of marriages

2. Ur  – was a town, one of the earliest cities. It is often compared with Mohenjodaro

3.In Mesopotamian tradition, Uruk was the city par excellence, often known simply as The City.

V. Economic Factors

Urbanism

Trade

Record of transaction

Writing began in Mesopotamia in 3200 BCE.

Writing became as a records of transactions

2600 BCE the letters became cuneiform and language was Sumerian

VI. Cultural Factors

1. System of Writing:

Writing was skilled craft

It conveyed in visual form of system of sounds of a particular language

2. Literacy:

Writing reflected the mode of speaking

King and very few could read

Official letter from a king could be read

3. Uses of Writing:

Connections between city life trade and writing is brought out.

It has brought out in a long Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar (king)

Kingship was able to organise trade and writing

4. Inter Mixture culture:

Mesopotamian society and culture were open to different people and cultures.

Thus the vitality of the civilisation was of course – an intermixture culture

Cuneiform Script

1. Meaning: It is a script of Mesopotamia. The word ‘Cuneiform’ is derived from the Latin words cuneus, meaning ‘wedge’ and forma, meaning ‘shape’. Cuneiform letters were wedge shaped, hence, like nails.

2. Uses: By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000 years.

VII. Sources

i. Tables (Written around 32000 BCE)

ii. Bible (Old Testament)

iii. British Museum

iv. Texts

VIII. Greatest Legacy of Writing

1. Scholarly tradition of time reckoning

A. Calendar

Division of years

Division of Months

Division of Weeks

Division of Days

Division of Hours

Division of Minutes

Division of Seconds

B. Recorder of Modern world Phenomenon past

C. Literature: Gilgamesh, which was written on twelve tablets, was the famous epic of Mesopotamia.  It was the work of Uruk who was the ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE.

2. Mathematical contribution

Tables with multiplication and division

Square

Square route tables

Tables of compound interest

Problem regarding

A field of area

Volume of water

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To veiw and listen to the audio video  of this lesson , click on the link given below.

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To veiw and listen to the audio video  of this lesson , click on the link given below.

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https://youtu.be/dSTsscuw9Rg

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1) Mesopotamia: the land between two rivers. It is made of greek words ' Mesos ' meaning middle and ' Potamos' meaning river.
2) Division of labour: In this system, each labour/ person is given a particular part of work in which he is skilled.
3) Nuclear family:  A very small family consisting of husband, wife and their children.
4) Cuneiform: The wedge- shaped symbol which represents the syllables and sound of a word.
5) Steles : Stone slabs with inscriptions or carvings.

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Years related to the events.
C.7000 -6000. B.C.E.  -  Beginning of
Agriculture   n the northern Mesopotamia plains .
C. 5000 BCE - Earliest temples in Southern Mesopotamia built.
C. 3200 BCE - first writing in Mesopotamia
C. 3000 BCE - Uruk develops into a huge city , increasing use of bronze tools .
C. 2700-2500 BCE - Early kings , including, possible, the legendary ruler Gilgamesh
C. 2600 BCE - Development of the Cuneiform script.
C. 2400 BCE- Replacement of Sumerian by Akkadian .
2370 BCE - Sargon , king of Akkad .
C. 2000 BCE - Spread of cuneiform writing to Syria , Turkey and Egypt ; Mari and Babylon emerge as important Urban centres.
C. 1800 BCE - Mathematical texts composed; Sumerian no longer spoken.
C. 1100 BCE - Established of the Assyrian kingdom .
C. 1000 BCE - Use of iron.
720-610 BCE - Assyrian empire.
688-627 BCE - Rule of Assurbanipal.
331 BCE - Alexander conquers Babylon .
C. 1st century CE- Akkadian and cuneiform remain in use.
1850s - Decipherment of the Cuneiform script.

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Lecture 4 : Theme 2 Writing and city life . To veiw and listen to the audio video  of this lesson , click on the link given below.

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Lecture 4 : Theme 2 Writing and city life . To veiw and listen to the audio video  of this lesson , click on the link given below.

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https://youtu.be/dSTsscuw9Rg

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https://youtu.be/lp_uNty4dWY

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My recorded audio lecture  on The introduction of Central Islamic lands.

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My recorded audio lecture  on The introduction of Central Islamic lands.

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https://youtu.be/P7BKkAXLNsE

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Sources to understand the  History of Central Islamic lands.

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Sources to understand the  History of Central Islamic lands.

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Sources to understand the History of central Islamic land

1.  Semi-historical works, such as biographies, records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir) are also available.

2.  The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper. The authenticity of each report was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission and established the reliability of the narrator.

3.  Christian chronicles, written in Syriac are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems.

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Sanatan Dharm Vidyalaya. 

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Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Sanatan Dharm Vidyalaya. 

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History Worksheet -7

Topic : Theme 4 : The Central Islamic Lands.
General Instructions: This worksheet has been divided  into three sections. Attempt all the questions  of all the three sections.

Section A  : Very short answer type questions:
1) Before the rise of Islam , Arabia was dominated by which tribe?
2) Who was the founder of Islam?
3) Name the two main sects of Muslim .
4)What is the core area of Islamic civilisation ?
5)What is tawarikh?
6)Who was Ignaz Goldzihar?
7) Who were Orientalists?
8)Who were umma?
9) What was the profession  of Muhammad?
10)Which period was considered as an origin of Islam ?
11) When did Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger God?
12)When was Muhammad forced to migrate with his followers to Mecca and what this event came to be known as?
13)When and where was Prophet Muhammad born?
14) When did Prophet Muhammad declared himself the result ( messanger) of God?

Section B ( Answer  the following in short ):
15) What do you know about Arab tribe? Write in short.
16)  Write in short  on the early life of Hazrat Muhammad.
17) Describe the main teachings of Islam.

Section  C  ( Answer the following in detail ):
18) Write in detail about the  sources which help us to trace the history of Islam?

Prepared by:
Ms.Komal Jain.

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1.  The Prophet Muhammad was an Arab by language and culture and a merchant by profession. The Arabs were divided into tribes each led by a chief whowas chosen partly on the basis of his family connections but more forhis personal courage, wisdom and generosity.

2.  Each tribehad its own god or goddess, who was worshipped as an idol in a shrine. Many Arab tribes were nomadic (Bedouins), moving from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food and fodder for their camels.

3. Muhammad’s own tribe, Quraysh, lived in Mecca and controlled the main shrine there, a cube-like structure called Kaba, in which idols were placed.

4.  Even tribes outside Mecca considered the Kaba holy and installed their own idols at this shrine, making annual pilgrimages to the shrine. Mecca was located on the crossroads.

5.  Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshipped. The worship involved simple rituals, such as daily prayers, and moral principles, such as distributing alms and abstaining from theft.

Islamic Calendar

1.  The Hijri era was established during the caliphate of Umar, with the first year falling in 622 CE. A date in the Hijri calendar is followed by the letters AH.

2. The Hijri year is a lunar year of 354 days, 12 months (Muharram to Dhul Hijja) of 29 or 30 days. Each day begins at sunset and each month with the sighting of the crescent moon.

3. The Hijri year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. Therefore, none of the Islamic religious festivals, including the Ramazan fast, Id and hajj, corresponds in any way to seasons

4. There is no easy way to match the dates in the Hijri calendar with the dates in the Gregorian calendar (established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE).

5. One can calculate therough equivalents between the Islamic (H) and Gregorian Christian (C) yearswith the following formulae:(H × 32 / 33) + 622 = C  OR (C – 622) × 33 / 32 = H.

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Lecture 8:  My recoded audio on the origin of  Islam

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Lecture 8:  My recoded audio on the origin of  Islam

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https://youtu.be/T7BpzBB1Ino

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My recoded audio on the expansion of Caliphate.

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My recoded audio on the expansion of Caliphate.

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https://youtu.be/TWYHnZ-Kvn4

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Topic : The Central Islamic  lands.
General Instructions  : This worksheet has been divided  into three sections.  Attempt all the questions from each section:
1) When did Muhammad marries Khadija?
2) When did Muhammad has its  first revelation?
3) What is Zakat?
4)What is Jaziya?
5) Who were Dhimmis?
6)What are Synagogues?
7)When did Prophet Muhammad die?
8) What was the alms tax known as?
9)What was Kaba?
10) Who established  the Hizri Era?
11) Who was Amir-al-mumin?
12) Name the first caliph ? What was his contribution?
13)What is Sharia?
14) Between whom the battle of camel was fought?
15) Who was the last Khalipha  of Ummayad dynasty?

Section B ( Answer the following  in short):

16)Name four Caliphs .How did they  justify their power?
17) Why did Prophet Muhammad migrate  to  Mecca?
18)What were the  twin objectives of Caliphate?
19)What are the five pillarsor Islam?
20) Descibe the main teachings of Islam?
21) Descibe in brief how Prophet Muhammad 'a religion was a responsible  factor  in the growth of Arab unity?
22) Write any four factors  responsible  for the rise of Arab empire?

23)) Why did the early  caliph follow an expansionist policy ? What factors contributed to their success?
24) Descibe some features of Administrative  structure  of Arab  under the early Khalifa?
25) List the responsible factors which enabled Umayyad  to come to power?
25) During  Abbasids the Arabs  influence  began to decline. Why?

Section "C" ( Answer  the  following  in  detail ):

26) What was the centre of Abbasid uprising?
Why did it take place?  Give  reasons?
27)  Write your arguement  to justify  the  following  statement:
" Prophet Muhammad  laid down the  new political  structure ".

Section " D" ( Map based question):
On the  world map  locate the  following  :
Fustat, Nishapur, Baghdad, Constabtiniple and Medina.

Prepared by: Mrs . Komal Jain .

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Audio and video lecture of the topic : The Crusades ( Lecture 9 )

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Audio and video lecture of the topic : The Crusades ( Lecture 9 )

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https://youtu.be/cWBudFZjmuw

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Identify the following  picture and write its name.

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Identify this building and write it's name.

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Identify this painting of MichealAnglo and write it's name.

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The three orders

( Theme 6 )

Due to socio-economic and political changes, Western Europe society was divided into three orders between the ninth and sixteenth centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire, many groups of Germanic People occupied the regions of Italy, Spain and France.

The three orders are three social categories: Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants.The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

The Three order

First Order

Priests (The Clergy)

– The Catholic Church

– Europe guided by bishops and clerics.

– Pope lived in Rome

– Women could not be become priests

– Monks – The church and Society

Second Order

Nobles

– Vassals of the king

– They enjoyed a privileged status

– Absolute control over property

– Could raise troops

– Even coin his own money

Third Order

– Peasants

– Free peasants and serfs

– Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord.

A Manorial Estate: refer to page No. 136. of the textbook.

Explanation:

1. THE CLERGY

Church was a powerful institution. The Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, lived in Rome. Bishops were religious nobility.

The church played a major role in influencing the Medieval European society.

They collected the tithe, a tax from the peasants.

Church ceremonies copied several formal feudal customs.

Some Christians chose to live in isolation in abbeys. (‘Abbey’ is derived from the Syriac abba, meaning father. An abbey was governed by an abbot or an abbess)

2. NOBILITY

The word ‘Feudalism’ is derived from the German word ‘feud’ which means ‘a piece of land’. Feudalism was a division of society that initially developed in medieval France, then in England and southern Italy.

It was a kind of agricultural production relationship between lords and peasants.

The nobility had a privileged role in the social process with absolute control over his land. They raised troops that were called ‘Feudal Levies’. The King of France was linked to his people through the system of ‘vassalage’. The King was accepted as Seigneur, i.e. lord. The nobility lived in manor houses.

The cavalry and peasant soldiers were called knights. Minstrels and bards toured France, singing tales of brave kings and knights.

3. THE PEASANTRY

Peasants and Serfs were two kinds of cultivators in medieval Europe.

Free peasants laboured for cultivating the lord’s fields to provide labour rent. They paid a direct tax, called taille, to the king. European monarchs were called New Monarchs.

The Anglo-Saxons had a Great Council, which the king consulted before imposing any tax. This developed into the Parliament, with the House of Lords (its members – the lords and the clergy), and the House of Commons. The English monarch, Charles the First, ruled England from 1629 till 1640 without calling the Parliament.

Factors affecting Social and Economic Relations.

i. The Environment

ii. Land use

iii. New Agricultural Technology

iv. Urbanisation

.Cathedral – Towns:

From the twelfth century, large churches – called cathedrals – were being built in France. These belonged to the monasteries. Cathedrals were built of stone. The area around the cathedrals became more populated and they became centres of pilgrimage. Small towns developed around them. Stained glass was used for windows of the Cathedrals. During the day the sunlight would make them radiant and after sunset the light of candles would make them visible to people outside. The stained glass narrated the stories in the Bible through pictures.

Two of the more well-known monasteries were those established by St Benedict in Italy in 529 and of Cluny in Burgundy in 910.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century

In Europe economic expansion slowed down. This was due to three factors:

1. In Northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers. Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a month.

2. Trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia. This forced government to reduce the silver content of the currency and to mix it with cheaper metals.

3. Ships carrying goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. The ships came with rats carrying deadly bubonic plague infection (the Black Death).

Political Changes:

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, European kings strengthened their military and financial power. The new monarchs, Louis XI in France, Maximilian in Austria, Henry VII in England and Isabelle and Ferdinand in Spain were absolutist rulers, who started the process of organising standing armies.

Decline of feudalism and lordship in the sixteenth century paved the way for the rise of nation-state in Europe.

French, German and Russian Revolutions took place in 1789, 1848 and 1917 CE respectively. These revolutions inspired the people across the world and gave a rich legacy of liberty and equality to reconstruct the society in a new way.

Rise of ‘Fourth Order’ – New Towns and Townspeople

Expansion in agriculture was accompanied by growth in three related areas: population, trade and towns.

The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and ruined after its fall. But from the eleventh century, as agriculture increased and became able to sustain higher levels of population, towns began to grow again

Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the lord’s control, for young people from peasant families.

The bigger towns had populations of about 30,000. They could be said to have formed a ‘fourth’ order.

GUILD: The basis of economic organisation was the guild. Each craft or industry was organised into a guild, an association which controlled the quality of the product, its price and its sale. The ‘guild-hall’ was a feature of every town; it was a building for ceremonial functions, and where the heads of all the guilds met formally.

Sources:
Hever Castle in England, Salisbury Cathedral in England, Nemours Castle in France, Canterbury Tales written by Chaucer.

Key Words

Feudalism, Abbey
Doon de Mayence: A thirteenth century French poem to be sung recounting the adventures of Knights.
Monastery: The word ‘monastery’ is derived from the Greek word ‘monos’, meaning someone who lives alone.
The Black Death: Ships with rats carrying the deadly bubonic plague infection in Western Europe between 1347 and 1350.
Fourth Order: The bigger towns had populations of about 30,000. They could be said to have formed a ‘fourth order’.

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CHANGING CULTURAL TRADITIONS.    THEME-7

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CHANGING CULTURAL TRADITIONS.    THEME-7

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Significant changes took place in Europe from fourteenth to seventeenth centuries which influenced the cultural traditions of Europe. From the nineteenth century, historians used the term ‘Renaissance’ to describe the phenomenon that mark this change of cultural traditions of the period.

Meaning of Renaissance

The term ‘Renaissance’ literally means ‘rebirth’, this French word was first used by a Swiss scholar, Jacob Burckhardt, in 1860. During the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, a new humanist culture popularised the idea that man is an individual. Italian universities were centres of legal studies .
Renaissance meant revival of the ancient Greek and Latin culture. It first began in Italy, followed by Rome, Venice and Florence.
The term ‘Renaissance Man’ is often used to describe a person with many interests and skills, because many of the individuals who became well known at this time were people of many parts. They were scholar-diplomat-theologian-artist combined in one.
Renaissance aroused the spirit of equality among the people and attacked on the superstitions and rituals prevailing in the society.
Social, political and economic life of the people were deeply affected by Renaissance.
Causes of Renaissance

Contact of the East and the West: With the expansion of trade between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic countries, the ports on the Italian coast revived. From the twelfth century, as the Mongols opened up trade with China via the Silk Route and as trade with western European countries also increased, Italian towns played a central role. They no longer saw themselves as part of a powerful empire, but as independent city-states.
Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks: In 1453 Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople. In the late fourteenth century, long-distance trade declined, and then became difficult after the Turks conquered Constantinople. Italians managed to do business with Turks, but were now required to pay higher taxes on trade. The possibility that many more people could be brought into the fold of Christianity made many devout Christian Europeans ready to face adventure.
Crusades: The ‘Crusades’ against the Turks began as a religious war between Christians and Muslims.
Decline of Feudalism: By the end of sixteenth century, feudalism began to decline paving the way for new order in the society.
Rise of new towns & trade: Expansion in agriculture was accompanied by growth in three related areas: population, trade and towns. From the fourteenth to the end of the seventeenth century, towns were growing in many countries of Europe. A distinct ‘urban culture’ also developed. Towns – particularly Florence, Venice and Rome – became centres of art and learning. One of the most vibrant cities was Venice, another was Genoa.
Rise of the new middle class: With the downfall of feudalism a mew middle-class emerged which mainly comprised the townspeople. They began to think of themselves as more ‘civilised’ than rural people.
Rise of nations: A new concept of nation-state emerged as people were more inclined to a liberal society based on equality and freedom. King was no more the supreme authority. Nation-state received more power and vigour from ‘Reformation;.
Effects of Renaissance

(a) BEGINNING OF MODERN AGE

i) Humanism: Humanism was one of the movements that started in Italy in fourteenth century. Italian universities were centres of legal studies. Francesco Petrarch is known as ‘Father of Humanism’. He suggested a shift from the study of law to the ancient Roman culture and texts. The term ‘humanism’ was first used by Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. Humanists thought that they were restoring ‘true civilisation’ after centuries of darkness, for they believed that a ‘Dark Age’ had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The period from the fifth to fourteenth centuries was the Middle Ages, and the Modern Age started from fifteenth century.

Humanistic art: In the fifteenth century, Florence was recognised for its  wo prominent Renaissance men. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), an eminent poet and philosopher of Italy who wrote on religious themes (he is known for his classic ‘The DIvine Comedy‘), and Giotto (1267-1337), an artist who painted lifelike portraits, very different from the stiff figures done by earlier artists. From then it developed as the most exciting intellectual city in Italy and as a centre of artistic creativity.
Humanistic literature, Humanities stream: By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. The Latin word humanitas, from which ‘humanities’ was derived, had been used many centuries ago to mean culture. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, and emphasised skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate. Giovanni Boccaccio was the greatest writer and humanist who wrote Decameron. The universities of Padua and Bologna had been centers of legal studies.
Humanists reached out to people in a variety of ways. Though the curricula in universities continued to be dominated by law, medicine and theology, humanist subjects slowly began to be introduced in schools, not just in Italy but in other European countries as well.

The revival of Italian cities: Western Europe was being reshaped by feudal bonds and unified under the Latin Church and Eastern Europe under the Byzantine Empire, and Islam was creating a common civilisation further west, Italy was weak and fragmented. The ports on the Italian coast were revived. From the fourteenth to the end of the seventeenth century towns were  growing in many countries of Europe. A distinct ‘ Urban Culture’ also developed Florence, Venice and Rome became centers of art and learning. The invention of printing at the same time made books and prints available to many people. A sense of history also developed in Europe. Religion came to be seen as something which each individual should choose for himself. The church’s belief was overturned by scientists. (refer to the Map at page 153)

Printing Press:

Johannnes Gutenberg invented the first printing press in 1455.
The first printing press was set up by Caxton in 1477 in Europe.
The invention of printing press increased the volume of books. It also helped in the spread of education.
The Arab’s Contribution: In the fourteenth century, Arabs translated Ancient Greek and Roman n texts. They called Plato as Aflatun and Aristotle Aristu in Arabic. Noted Muslim writers during this time were Ibn Sina (‘Avicenna’ in Latin) and Ibn Rushd (‘Averroes’ in Latin), Ptolemy wrote in Greek Almagest on astronomy. Muslim writers were regarded as men of wisdom in the Italian world.

ii) Rationalism

Viewpoint: It developed the ideas among the people and they abandoned the superstitious beliefs and rituals that prevailed in the entire society. It paved the way for new invention which changed the way of life.
Rationalist art: A thousand years after the fall of Rome, fragments of art were discovered in the ruins of ancient Rome and other deserted cities. Their admiration for the figures of ‘perfectly’ proportioned men and women sculpted so many centuries ago. Artists’ concern to be accurate was helped by the work of scientists. To study bone structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical schools. The anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’ and which continued till the nineteenth century.
Rationalist Literature:  The greatest revolution of the sixteenth century was the mastery of the technology of printing. For this, Europeans were indebted to other peoples – the Chinese, for printing technology, and to Mongol rulers because European traders and diplomats had become familiar with it during visits to their courts. (This was also the case with three other important innovations – firearms, the compass and the abacus.)
Knowledge of geometry helped them understand perspective and that by noting the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three –  dimensional quality. Anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’.
iii) Scientific viewpoint

Viewpoint: Scientific Revolution was another characteristic of this era. Not the God, but the nature- the source of all creation – was a revolution in thought. People became more rational and scientific in their approach towards life of mankind during Renaissance movement. Scientists used the method of experimentation, observation and new thoughts, which was just contrary to the Christian beliefs.
Development of Science: Scientific discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Issac Newton brought about new changes in the world. Copernicus asserted that the earth rotates around the sun. The revolution in science reached at its climax with Newton’s theory of gravitation. The theory of earth as a part of the sun centred system was made popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery.
Art: Donatello made many life-like statues in 1416. Vesalius, a Belgian professor of medicine, was the first to dissect the human body. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) had an amazing range of interests from botany and anatomy to mathematics and art. He painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.  Michelangelo Buonarroti painted the Sistine chapel, made the sculpture of the Pieta and the Dome of St. Peter’s Church.
Aspirations of women – The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from aristocratic families dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their families. A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive about the importance of a humanist education. Women’s writings revealed their conviction that they should have economic power, property and education to achieve an identity in a world dominated by men

(b) REFORMATION MOVEMENT

The church mainly influenced the life of people a lot. Reformation movement was a protest movement that took place in the sixteenth century against the church and the pope. In 1517, a young German monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a campaign against the Catholic Church. He asked his followers to have complete faith in God, for faith alone could guide them to the right life and entry into heaven. This movement – called the Protestant Reformation – led to the churches in Germany and Switzerland breaking their connection with the Pope and the Catholic Church.

Causes of Reformation Movement: Autocracy of the Church and Catholic Corruption

Luther argued that a person did not need priests to establish contact with God.  In 1517 he wrote the ‘Ninety-Five Theses’, challenging the authority of the church.
However, Luther did not support radicalism. The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began to reform itself from within.
William Tyndale (1494-1536), an English Lutheran who translated the Bible into English in 1506, defended Protestantism. He said that clergy had forged the process, order and meaning of the ancient texts particularly because it was in Greek and Latin, inaccessible to the common man.
Consequences of Reformation

Niccolo Machiavelli wrote about human nature in the fifteenth chapter of his book, The Prince (1513). Machiavelli believed that ‘all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature partly because of the fact that human desires are insatiable’. The most powerful motive Machiavelli saw as the incentive for every human action is self-interest.
Counter Reformation Movement came into being as a result of Reformation Movement. Many defects had come into Catholicism but Roman Catholic did not pay heed to it. According to this movement, the church tried to reform itself of some of its objectionable practices. For instance, the Bishops were now appointed on the basis of their ability.
Result of Renaissance

An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the ‘private’ and the ‘public’ spheres of life began to become separate: the ‘public’ sphere meant the area of government and of formal religion; the ‘private’ sphere included the family and personal religion. The individual had a private as well as a public role. He was not simply a member of one of the ‘three orders’; he was also a person in his own right. An artist was not just a member of a guild, he was known for himself.
In the eighteenth century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a political form, in the belief that all individuals had equal political rights.
Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have their separate sense of identity, based on language.
Timeline: Refer to  page no. 155 & 165
Keywords: Renaissance, Machiavelli, Reformation, Rationalism, Petrarch, Humanism, Martin Luther, Gutenberg, Tyndale

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Paintings of Micheal Anglo

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History worksheet no  12
General Instructions: This worksheet has been divided into four sections. Attempt all the questions from each sections.

SECTION A  ( ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN VERY SHORT)

Questions 1.
Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the 14th and 15th centuries ?
Answer:

Questions 2.
Compare details of Italian architecture of this period with Islamic architecture.

Questions 3.
Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?

Question 4.
Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France.

Question 5.
What were the features of humanist thought?

Question 6.
Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth century Europeans.

Question 7
What do you mean by Renaissance? From where did it start?

Question 8
Who made the first Printing press?

Question 9
Who was ‘Renaissance Man’?

Question 10
Mention a few reasons that were responsible for the emergence of Renaissance.

Question 11
What was the status of women in business families?

Question 12.
Name a few who played a crucial role in bringing Renaissance movement.

Question 13.
Who was Martin Luther?

Question 14.
How did the invention of printing press prove a deciding factor for the Renaissance movement?

Question 15.
Who was Michelangelo?

Question 16.
Who was Ibn Rushd?

Question 17.
What had the students in universities to do prior to the starting of printing?

Question 18.
Who was Andreas Vaselius?

Question 19
What do you understand by realism?

Question 20
What was the name of the book composed by Jacob?

Question 21
When was humanism adopted in curriculum of the universities in Italy?

Question 22.
What do you understand by classical architecture?

Question 23.
Who was Thomas Moore?

Question 24.
What do you know about Ptolemy’s ‘Almagest’?
Answer:

Question 25.
Write any two features of humanist thought.

Question 26.
What kind of impression do you get about the status of women in business families?

Question 27.
What were the thoughts of Balthasar Castiglione?

Question 28.
What was the view of German reformers in regard to salvation?

Question 29.
What was the view of the Christians about the earth?

Question 30.
What was the declaration of Copernicus about the earth?

Question  31..
What was the concept of Humanism?

Question 32.
Who propounded the theory of earth as part of solar system?

Question 33
Who was the leader of the Protestant Reformation Movement? What were its chief gospels?

Question 34.
Define ‘Document of Indulgences’.

Question  35.
What virtues were equally necessary for both men and women as per Castiglione?

Question 36.
Which factors took Italian cities and courts beyond the world?

SECTION B  ( ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN SHORT)

Question 37
Mention a few characteristics of Venice and Genoa cities.

Question  38
Which factors were responsible for the widening of European skills? (HOTS)

Question 39
Do you think that the Renaissance started a new age?

Question 40
What was the view of Leon Batista Alberti on architect?

Question  41
What did William Tyndate say in favor of Protestantism?

Question 42
What was the contribution of Galileo?

Question  43
Discuss the important changes that took place during Renaissance.

Question 44
Write a note on the following:
(i) Spirit of Inquiry
(ii) Spirit of Humanism
.
Question 45
What was Counter Reformation Movement?

Question  46
Italian towns were the first to experience the ideas of humanism. Why?

Question 47
What was the political system that emerged in nation-states?

Question 48
What were the effects of Glorious Revolution?

Question 49
Nation-states marked a step forward in man’s progress. Discuss.

Question 50
Write the contributions of Leonardo-da-Vinci.

Question 51
Discuss the underlying principles of presumptions constituting independent city states in Italy.

SECTION C  ( ANSWER THE FOLLOWING IN DETAIL)

Question  52
Discuss the different scientific aspects reflected in the works of sixteenth century Italian artists.

Question  53
What were the demerits of the nation-states?

Question 54
Describe the changes brought by the Renaissance in the contemporary life of the people.

Question  55
How did the Italian culture revive after the fall of Western Roman empire?

Question  56.
The seventeenth century Europeans witnessed the world as different. Explain. (HOTS).

Question 57.

What were the causes of Renaissance in Western Europe?

SECTION D   (Passage Based Questions):

Question 58 :Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:

Passage 1.

Niccolo Machiavelli wrote about human nature in the fifteenth chapter of his book, The Prince (1513).So, leaving aside imaginary things, and referring only to those which truly exist, I say that whenever men are discussed (and especially princes, who are more exposed to view), they are noted for various qualities which earn them either praise or condemnation. Some, for example, are held to be generous, and others miserly. Some are held to be benefactors, others are called grasping; some cruel, some compassionate; one man faithless, another faithful; one man effeminate and cowardly, another fierce and courageous; one man courteous, another proud; one man lascivious, another pure; one guileless, another crafty; one stubborn, another flexible; one grave, another frivolous; one religious, another sceptical; and so forth. Machiavelli believed that ‘all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature partly because of the fact that human desires are insatiable’. The most powerful motive Machiavelli saw as the incentive for every human action is self-interest.

Questions
(i) Who was Niccolo Machiavelli?
(ii) Why was he famous for?
(iii) What did Niccolo Machiavelli believe in?

Passage 2.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-94), a humanist of Florence, wrote on the importance of debate in On the Dignity of Man (1486). For [Plato and Aristotle] it was certain that, for the attainment of the knowledge of truth they were always seeking for themselves, nothing is better than to attend as often as possible the exercise of debate. For just as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise, so beyond doubt in this wrestling-place of letters, as it were, energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous.’

Questions:
(i) What do you know about Giovanni Pico della Mirandola? What did he write?
(ii) What did he say about the importance of debate in ‘On the Dignity of Man’?
(iii) Name the two spheres in which Renaissance brought about revolutionary changes.

Passage 3.

William Tyndale (1494-1536), an English Lutheran who translated the Bible into English in 1506, defended Protestantism thus: ‘In this they be all agreed, to drive you from the knowledge of the scripture, and that ye shall not have the text thereof in the mother-tongue, and to keep the world still
in darkness, to the intent they might sit in the consciences of the people, through vain superstition and false doctrine, to satisfy their proud ambition, and insatiable covetousness, and to exalt their own honour above king and emperor, yea, and above God himself… Which thing only moved me to translate the New Testament. Because I had perceived by experience, how that it was impossible to establish the lay-people in any truth, except the scripture were plainly laid before their eyes in their mother- tongue, that they might see the process, order, and meaning of the text.’

Questions
(i) What do you know about William Tyndale?
(ii) What were his objectives to translate the Bible into English?
(iii) What were the issues on which the Protestants criticised the Catholic Church? Write any two issues.

Passage 4.

This self-portrait is by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who had an amazing range of interests from botany and anatomy to mathematics and art. He painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. One of his dreams was to be able to fly. He spent years observing birds in flight, and designed a flying machine. He signed his name ‘Leonardo da vinci, disciple of experiment’.

Questions
(i) Who was Leonardo da Vinci?
(ii) Mention the names of two paintings made by Leonardo da Vinci.
(iii) What was the area of interest of Leonardo da Vinci?

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My audio lecture related to Changing cultural traditions ( Theme 7 ) Part 1

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My audio lecture related to Changing cultural traditions ( Theme 7 ) Part 1

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Industrial Revolution
Notes History

Meaning & Background

The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars – George Michelet in France and Friedrich Engles in Germany.
It refers to the great change in the field of industries when the production of goods by hand in the houses were replaced with the help of machines in factories.
The transformation of industry and the economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is called the ‘first industrial revolution’.
It was used for the first time in English by the philosopher and economist Arnold Toynbee (1852-83), to describe the changes that occurred in British industrial development between 1760 and 1820. These dates coincided with those of the reign of George III.
It revolutionised the techniques and organisation of production in the later half of the eighteenth century.
CAUSES

(i) Economic – There was remarkable economic growth from the 1780s to 1820 in the cotton and iron industries, in coal mining, in the building of roads and canals and in foreign trade.

(ii) Political – The series of incidents occurred in British industrial development between 1760 and 1820. These dates coincided with those of the reign of George III.

** Why Britain?:

It had been politically stable since the seventeenth century, with England, Wales and Scotland unified under a monarchy. This meant that the kingdom had common laws, a single currency and a market that was not fragmented by local authorities. Besides, England had great domestic and international market under its control which helped in the growth of Industrial Revolution.

Towns – From the eighteenth century, many towns in Europe were growing in area and in population. Population of most of the European cities doubled between 1750 and 1800. The largest of them was London, which served as the hub of the country’s markets, with the next largest ones located close to it. London had also acquired a global significance.
Finance – The Bank of England was founded in 1694.
Coal & Iron – Coal and Iron ore were important raw materials. Abraham Darby invented the blast furnace in 1709. World’s first iron bridge was built during this period
Agricultural Revolution – In the eighteenth century, England had been through a major economic change, later described as the ‘agricultural revolution’. This was the process by which bigger landlords had bought up small farms near their own properties and enclosed the village common lands. The agricultural revolution laid down the foundation of the Industrial Revolution.
(iii) Geographical –

In the seventeenth century, Wales and Scotland were unified. London was the largest city as well as a city of global trade. England had a number of colonies in Asia, Africa and Europe. These helped in obtaining the raw material for industries.
By the eighteenth century, the centre of global trade had shifted from the Mediterranean ports of Italy and France to the Atlantic ports of Holland and Britain.
CONSEQUENCES

(i) Positive Effects

The onset of textile industry also helped in the emergence of Industrial Revolution.

(a) Invention of Machines in Cotton Industry:

The flying shuttle loom invented by John Kay in 1733 revolutionsed the textile industry.
The spinning jenny
The water frame
The mule
Powerloom
Road Map of Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution class 11 Notes History

(b) Increase in Production

(c) Introduction of Railways & Canals

Railways took the industrialization to the second stage.

Thomas Savery built a model steam engine the Miner’s Friend in 1698.
Another steam engine was built by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The steam engine had been used only in coal mines until James Watt developed a perfect steam engine in 1769 and established the Soho Foundry in Birmingham.
James Brindley built the First English Canal in 1761. The ‘canal mania’ prevailed from 1788 to 1796.
The first steam locomotive, Stephenson’s Rocket, appeared in 1814.
Richard Trevithick devised an engine – the ‘Puffing Devil’ in 1801 and a locomotive – ‘The Blutcher’ in 1814.
The First railway line ran between Stockton and Darlington..
The ‘little railway mania’ prevailed from 1833 to 1837 and the bigger ‘mania’ from 1844 to 1847.
Advantages and Disadvantages  – In the 1830s, the use of canals revealed several problems. The congestion of vessels made movement slow on certain stretches of canals, and frost, flood or drought limited the time of their use. The railways now appeared as a convenient alternative. About 6,000 miles of railway was opened in Britain between 1830 and 1850, most of it in two short bursts. During the ‘little railway mania’ of 1833-37, 1400 miles of line was built, and during the bigger ‘mania’ of 1844-47, another 9,500 miles of line was sanctioned.

(d) Changed life

Profits: Some rich individuals who took risks and invested money in industries in the hope that profits could be made, and that their money would ‘multiply’. In most cases this money – capital – did multiply. Wealth, in the form of goods, incomes, services, knowledge and productive efficiency, did increase dramatically.
Huge population: The number of cities in England with a population of over 50,000 grew from two in 1750 to 29 in 1850. This pace of growth was not matched with the provision of adequate housing, sanitation or clean water for the rapidly growing urban population.
(ii) Negative Effects

(a) Condition of workers: There was, at the same time, a massive negative human cost. This was evident in broken families, new addresses, degraded cities and appalling working conditions in factories. The condition of workers was quite miserable. They became victims of restlessness, epidemics and diseases.

(b) Employment of Women and Children in industries: The Industrial Revolution was a time of important changes in the way that children and women worked. The earnings of women and children were necessary to supplement men’s meagre wages. Factory managers considered child labour to be important training for future factory work

(c) Protest Movement

Meaning: Industrialisation led to greater prosperity for some, but in the initial stages it was linked with poor living and working conditions of millions of people, including women and children. This sparked off protests, which forced the government to enact laws for regulating conditions of work.
Luddism – Luddism (1811-17) fought for the workers affected by new machines. It was led by the charismatic General Ned Ludd. Its participants demanded a minimum wage, control over the labour of women and children, work for those who had lost their jobs because of the coming of machinery, and the right to form trade unions so that they could legally present these demands.
Result: The government reacted by repression and by new laws that denied people the right to protest. For this reason they passed two Combination Acts and supported Corn Laws. Through the Act of 1833 more children were put to work in coal mines.
Reform laws

Laws were passed in 1819 prohibiting the employment of children under the age of nine in factories and limiting the hours of work of those between the ages of nine and sixteen to 12 hours a day
The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under 10 and women from working underground.
The Ten Hours’ Bill was introduced in 1847, after more than 30 years of agitation. It limited the hours of work for women and young people, and secured a 10-hour day for male workers.
Fielder’s Factory Act in 1847 prohibited children and women from working more than 10 hours a day.
In eighteenth century, England witnessed the “Agricultural Revolution and the process of ‘enclosure’.
THE DEBATE

Until the 1970s, historians used the term ‘industrial revolution’ for the changes that occurred in Britain from the 1780s to the 1820s. From then, it was challenged, on various grounds. Industrialisation had actually been too gradual to be considered a ‘revolution’. It carried processes that already existed towards new levels. England had changed in a regional manner, prominently around the cities of London, Manchester, Birmingham or Newcastle, rather than throughout the country.
Indicators of economic change occurring before and after 1815-20 suggest that sustained industrialisation was to be seen after rather than before these dates.
The word ‘industrial’ used with the word ‘revolution’ is too limited. The transformation extended beyond the economic or industrial sphere and into society and gave prominence to two classes: the bourgeoisie and the new class of proletarian labourers in towns and in  cities.

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This worksheet has been divided into five sections.
Attempt all the questions from each section  of the worksheet.

Section A (Very short answer type questions) :

1) What do you to understand by industrial revolution ?
2) Who was Abraham Darby?
3) Write the names of some new machineries and technologies.
4) Who was Arnold toynbee.
5) Who coined the term industrial Revolution first? 6) Who designed flying shuttle loom?
7) Who invented water frame?
8) What do you mean by coasters?
9) Write the use of coaster.
10) Who was Thomas newcomen?
11) Which machine was devised to be used by child workers?
12) When was con law passed in Britain ? What was its main objective?
13) What do you mean bye by Luddism?
14) Write any two provisions of factory act of 1809 and 1833.
15) Who wrote the novel hard times?
16) By  whom and when was  Worsely canal constructed? When was it opened?

Section-B ( Answer the following in short)
17)  Industrialisation has affected farming transportation , communication
and trade in many ways how?
18) Why did industrial revolution first occur in England? Give reasons.
19) What were the main features of the industrial Revolution in England?
20) Describe the conditions that denote Industrialisation .
21) Discuss the conditions of workers in England in context of  Industrial revolution?
22) What do you know about Luddism? Explain.
23)What was the opinion of Karl Marx about socialism.

Section C. ( Answer the following in  detail):

23)  What were the relative advantages of canal and railway transportation?
24) Which factors were responsible for industrial revolution in England? Explain.
24) Discuss the social economic effects of the industrial revolution.
25)How did the industrial revolution in England affect India's economy?
26) What srts of reforms through laws were made by the British government to improve the condition of workers ?What were the weaknesses of these measures?
27) Do you think that industrialisation effects farming transportation communication and trade?
28)  What were the most favourable conditions for industrialization?
29) Discuss the development that took place in Britain and in other parts of the world in the eighteenth century that encouraged industrialisation.
30) What are trade unions ?Discuss its aim for which they  were formed?
31) The invention of  the of steam power  are very helpful in the industrialisation of Britain . How?

Section D  ( Passage based questions):
32) Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow:

In his novel (Hard times ) Charles. Dickens (1812 -70)
Perhaps the most severe contemporary critic of the horrors of industrialisation for the poor wrote a fictional account of an industrial town that aptly called coketown ,it was a town of red brick or a break that would have been read if the smoke and ashes had allowed it but as matters is that it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage it was a town of machinery and tall chimneys out of which interminable serpents of smoke trail themselves forever and ever and never got uncoiled it had the black candle in it and the river that ran purple with ill smelling die and was files of building full of Windows where there was a rattling and the trembling all day long and where the piston of the steam engine work monotonically up and down like the head of an elephant in a stare of melancholy Madness.

Questions:
I) Who was Charles Dickens ?
it) About which period and the country  he is talking about in this passage?
iii) Highlight any four social problems mentioned here.

33)Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:.
D.H L Lawrence ( 1885-1930), British essayist and novelist writing 70 years after Dickens, describe the change in a village in the coal belt, change which he had not experienced but about
which he had heard from older people.
Eastwood....... , Must have been or a tiny village at the beginning of the 19th century a small place of cottages and fragment 3 rows of little 4 Room 2 - dwellings the home of the old colliers but somewhere about 1820 "s the company must have sunk the first big shaft and installed the first machinery of the real industrial colliery...,... Most of the little rows of dwellings were pulled down and the little shops began to rise along the Nottingham road while on the down slope......the company elected what is still known as the new buildings..,....Little four rooms houses looking outworld into the grave blank Street and the back looking into the desert of the square shut-in like a barracks enclosure very strange.

Questions:
I) What do you know about DH Lawrence what did he describe?
ii) Which particular class he is referring to?
iii) Write a few effects of early industrialisation on villages and towns.

Section E ( Map based questions) :
On the given map of Britain ,mark and locate the following iron and coal manufacturing areas :
I) Leeds. ii) Sheffield iii) Liverpool IV) Bristol and v) Swansea.

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Displacing  indigenous peoples.               

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Displacing  indigenous peoples.               

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( Theme 10)

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Displacing Indigenous PeopleNotes

SNIPPETS FROM THE CHAPTER

Sources

Oral History of natives
Historical and fiction work written by natives
Galleries and Museums of native art
Why Weren’t We Told? by Henry Reynolds
EUROPEAN IMPARTATION

The American empires of Spain and Portugal did not expand after the seventeenth century.
During that time other countries like France, Holland and Britain began to extend trade activities and establish colonies in America, Africa and Asia.
Ireland also was virtually a colony of England, as the landowners there were mostly English settlers.
Prospect of profit drove people to establish colonies.
Nature of the control on the colonies varied.
Trading companies became political power in South Asia, defeated rulers, retained administrative system.
Collected taxes and built railway to make trade easier, excavated mines and established big plantation.
Africa was divided as colonies among Europeans.

Settlers & Natives

The word ‘Settler‘ is used for Dutch in South Africa, the British in Ireland. New Zealand and Australia and Europeans in America.
The native people led a simple life. They did not clam their rights over land.

NORTH AMERICA: The Native Peoples

The inhabitants might have come from Asia through a land bridge across the Bering straits, 30000 years before.
They used to live in groups along river valley before the advent of Europeans.
They ate fish and meat, and cultivated vegetables and maize.
Goods were obtained not by buying, but by gifts. They believed in subsistence economy.
They spoke numerous language but those are not available in written form.
They were friendly and welcoming to Europeans.
The Europeans gave the them blankets, iron vessels, guns, which was a useful supplement for bows and arrows to kill animals, and alcohol in exchange of local products.
The natives had not known alcohol earlier, and they became addicted to it, which suited the Europeans, because it enabled them to dictate terms of trade. (The Europeans acquired from the natives an addiction to tobacco.)
Comparative Study between American natives and Europeans

(a) Natives

They were uncivilized ‘noble savage’.
To the natives, the goods they exchanged with the Europeans were gifts, given in friendship.
They were not aware of the market.
They were not happy with the greed of the Europeans.
The natives were afraid that the animals would take revenge for this destruction as  the Europeans slaughtered hundreds of beavers for fur.
They identified forest tracks invisible to the Europeans.
Accounts of historical anecdotes were recorded by each tribe.

(b) Europeans

They were civilized in terms of literacy, an organised religion and urbanism.
Gift, were commodities which they would sell for a profit.
They assessed everything with the value in the market.
To get furs, they had slaughtered hundreds of beavers.
They killed wild animals to protect farms.
European imagined the forest to be converted into green cornfields.
THE GOLD RUSH AND GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES

In the 1840s, traces of gold were found in the USA, in California. This led to the ‘Gold Rush’, when thousands of eager Europeans hurried to America in the hope of making a quick fortune.
This led to building of railway lines across the continent.
Industries developed to manufacture railway equipment.
To produce machinery which would make large-scale farming easier
Employment generation led to growth of towns and factories.
In 1860, the USA was an undeveloped economy, but within 30 years, in 1890 it was the leading industrial power in the world.
Natives Constitutional Rights in North America

**British colonies in America declared a war against England in 1776 to gain independence.The War of Independence of the colonies continued till 1783.

Democratic Rights: The ‘democratic spirit’ which had been the rallying cry of the settlers in their fight for independence in the 1770s, came to define the identity of the USA against the monarchies and aristocracies of the Old World. The natives were denied the democratic rights (the right to vote for representatives to Congress and for the President), because it was only for white men.
Right to Property: The concept of private property emerged and people wanted that their constitution included the individual’s ‘right to property’, which the state could not override. But this right was exclusive only to the Whites.

Winds of change

From 1920s, things began to improve for the native peoples of the USA and Canada.
White Americans felt sympathy for the natives. In the USA, the Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934, which gave natives in reservations the right to buy land and take loans.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the US and Canadian governments thought of ending all special provisions for the natives in the hope that they would ‘join the mainstream’.
In 1954, in the ‘Declaration of Indian Rights’ prepared by them, a number of native peoples accepted citizenship of the USA.
In Canada, the Constitution Act of 1982 accepted the existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the natives.
American President Abraham LIncoln played a key role in the abolition of the slavery.
AUSTRALIA

Backgroud:

Dutch explorer Williem Jansz reached Australia in 1606.
A.J Tasman followed the route of Jansz and found New Zealand. The Tasmanian islands are named after him.
British explorer, James Cook, reached the island of Botany Bay in 1770 and named it New South Wales.
The ‘aborigines’ (a general name given to a number of different societies) began to arrive from New Guinea, which was connected to Australia by a land-bridge on the continent, over 40,000 years ago.
In the late eighteenth century, there were between 350 and 750 native communities in Australia each with its own language.
There is another large group of indigenous people living in the north, called the Torres Strait Islanders. The term ‘Aborigine’ is not used for these as they are believed to have migrated from elsewhere and belong to a different race.
Early Settlers:

Early settlers were convicts deported from England.
When their jail term ended, were allowed to live as free people in Australia on condition that they did not return to Britain.
Since they had no other alternative but to stay there, they felt no hesitation about ejecting natives from land they took over for cultivation.
Natives were employed in farms under conditions of work so harsh that it was little different from slavery.
Later, Chinese immigrants provided cheap labour but they did not want to depend on non-whites for they banned Chinese immigration.
Till 1974, such was the popular fear that ‘dark’ people from South Asia or Southeast Asia might migrate to Australia in large numbers that there was a government policy to keep ‘non-white’ people out.
Things changed

In 1968, people were electrified by a lecture by the anthropologist W.E.H. Stanner, entitled ‘The Great Australian Silence’ – the silence of historians about the aborigines.
From 1974, White Australia’ policy ends, Asian immigrants allowed entry. Since then a ‘multiculturalism’ has been official policy in Australia, which gave equal respect to native cultures and to the different cultures of the immigrants from Europe and Asia
In 1992,  the Australian High Court declares that terra nullius was legally invalid, and recognised native claims to land from before 1770
In 1995, the National Enquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families.
Agitations led to a public apology for the injustice done to children in an attempt to keep ‘white’ and ‘coloured’ people apart. On 26 May, 1999  ‘a National Sorry Day’ was observed as an apology for the children ‘lost’ from the 1820s to the 1970s.
TImeline: Refer to page 217, 219, 220, 226, 228.
Keywords: Tera Nullius (a policy that implies that recognizing one’s right over a given piece of land), colonial, gold rush, aboriginals, natives, indigenous, multiculturalism.

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T of listen to my audio lecture,click on th link given below.

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T of listen to my audio lecture,click on th link given below.

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https://youtu.be/bf4imHoHSKc

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• A great civilization flourished in Mesopotamia around 5000 BCE.
• Originally Mesopotamia is a Greek word which means the land between two rivers.
• Tigris and Euphrates were the two rivers between which the Civilisation of Mesopotamia flourished.
• Mesopotamia is a flat plain. The excavation work started here about 150 years ago.
• Summer region was the lower part of the Mesopotamia civilization .
• It was the heart of the Civilization.
• Sumerians were the first to develop a civilization in Mesopotamia . That is why the Civilization has been named after them, i.e Sumerian civilization.
• As per excavations, there were three types of cities in Mesopotamia. They were religious, commercial and royal cities .
• Ur, Lagash, kish, Uruk and Mari were some of the most important cities of Mesopotamian civlization.
• Soil of Mesopotamia was very fertile but agriculture was threatened because of natural causes. The crops grown were wheat , barley, peas and lintel.
• Mesopotamia civilization was based on a definite plan .
• There were three kinds of slaves that  existed in Mesopotamia society. They were war  prisoners, children sold by their parents and those who failed to pay their  debt . They were I'll treated .
• Mesopotamia society consisted of three classes , i.e. Upper class, Middle class and lower class.
• Ruling class , the nobles , the royal people and the high officials belonged to the upper class.
• Members of the upper class led a luxurious life.
• Merchants, traders , landlords, artisans, craftsmen belonged to the second class .
• Slaves belonged to the lower class.
• Cows , goats, oxen and sheep were the main animals of domestication.
• Hammurabi , the great, was the rular of Mesopotamia during the period of 2067-2025 BCE .
• Code of conduct was the greatest contribution of Hammurabi. They were 282 In numbers and covered every aspect of life.
• Cuneiform script was the script of Mesopotamia.
• Mesopotamia had great interest in literature also. Gilgamesh was their famous epic . It was the work of Uruk who was the ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE .
• Mesopotamia were interested in mathematics too.
• Sixty important numbers have been found in their numerals.
• Babylonia had an important role in the history of Mesopotamia.
• Temples of Mesopotamia also had much importance in the history of Mesopotamia Temples were centres of religion activities. These temples were dedicated to Different gods and goddesses

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Worksheet on Displacing Indigenous peoples.  ( Theme 10 )

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Worksheet on Displacing Indigenous peoples.  ( Theme 10 )

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This worksheet has been divided into six sections.
Attempt all the questions from each section.

Section A ( Answer the following in very short ):

1) Define the term Native.
2) Which three European Nations began to increase their trading activities after 17th century?
3)  Explain the term  "settler".
4) Which names were given by Europeans to the countries of the new world?
5)  Where did John Cabot reach?
6) List the items of exchange between the natives and the Europeans.
7) Why did the Europeans consider natives of America as uncivilized?
8) What enabled the Europeans to dictate  their terms to the natives of South America?
9)  When did Britain recognise the USA as an
independent country?
10)  Name the crops grown by Europeans on their land in America. Why ?
hy did the race them?
11 )  Why did the British and the French come to settle in America in the 19th century?
12) Who made the historic declaration regarding slavery ?
13)  What do you know about gold Rush ?
14)  Discuss any two reasons to show that gold Rush prove to be a blessing for the USA?
15) Discuss a few objectives for the development of industries in North America.
16) By which name, wild buffaloes were known in the USA when birthday completely exterminated?
17)  What was the aim of Indian organisation act ?when was it implemented ?
18) Name the various terms used for the native peoples of North and South America and the Caribbeans ?
19)  Why was the Indian reorganization act of 1934 considered as a landmark in the history of USA?
20) When and by whom was declaration of Indian rights prepared?  What was its significance?
21) What did the term join the mainstream imply?
22) What is the significance of the declaration of Indian rights ? When was it prepared?
23) Define the concept of " Aborigins ".
24) How many native communities were in Australia in the late 18th century?  What was their unique quality?
25) Why are centuries called the dream time in contest to Australia?
26) Who were Torres strait islanders ?
27) When was Canberra made the capital of Australia? What was it called before becoming the Australian capital?
28) Who was Judith Wright?
27)  What do you know about W.E.H Tanner?
28) Who was  Cherokees?

Section 'B,' (Answer the following in short):.

29) What do you understand by imperialism .Name a few countries who encouraged imperialism.
30) Discuss the physiographic features of the continent of South America.
31) What do you know about the earliest inhabitants of North America ?
32) How did the exchange of goods between the European traders and the natives of North America proved beneficial for the Europeans?
33) Why did the Europeans start to come and settle down in America during 19th century? Write any three reasons behind it.
34) How will you justify that the Europeans and the native of America had different perceptions regarding forest and agriculture ?
35) How did the Europeans justify the displacement of the natives ?
36) Write on the following :
1) The gold Rush.
11) Position of natives in Australia.
37)  Why did the relations between the Europeans and native australians became strained.
38) Discuss the contribution of W.H.O Stammer in understanding the culture of the natives.
38) Discuss the beginning of economic development in Australia with the establishment of European colonies.
39) What do you understand by Terra nullius ?

Section c ( long answer type questions)

40) Discuss the features of the lifestyle of the native people of North America.
41) What do you know about the slavery system in the USA? How was it abolished? Discuss.
42) Write description about the winds of change in Australia.

Section D  ( Passage based questions):

41. Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow :

Thomas Jefferson, third President of the USA and a contemporary of Wordsworth spoke of the natives in world's that would lead to a public outcry today :
This unfortunate ways which we have been taking so much pains to civilize...... have justified extermination.

Questions:
1) Who was Thomas Jefferson?
11) Why was Thomas Jefferson known for?
111) What were his views about the native Americans ?

42)  Read the passage  and answer the questions that follow:
It is interesting to note that another writer ,Washington Irving , much younger than Wordsworth and who had actually met native people described them quite differently.
" The Indians I have had an opportunity of seeing in real life are quite different from those described in poetry...........Taciturn they are it is true when in company with white men whose Goodwill they distrust and whose language they do not understand but the White man is equally taciturn under like circumstances. .When the Indians are among themselves they are great mimics and entertain themselves excessively at the expense of the whites.........
Who have been supposed them impressed with profound respect for their grandour and dignity......... The white men( as a have witnessed) are prone to treat the poor Indians as little better than animals.'

Questions:
1) Who is the author of this passage? How did he describe a native?
ii) How did William Wordsworth and French philosopher Rousseau view the natives differently ?
iii) What are the different names used in English to describe native peoples of New world?

43) Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow:

Karl Marx ( 1818- 83) , the great German philosopher described the American frontier as the last positive capitalist utopia....... The limitless nature and space to which the limitless thirst for profit adapts itself."
Bautiat andCarey'. Grundrisse.

Questions:
1) Who was Karl Marx?
11) what made him popular?
11)  what was his opinion about the American frontier?

44)   Section E ( Map based question) :
On the map of Australia mark and locate the following:
I) Perth ii)Sydney. iii) Adelaide. IV Darwin
V. Melbourne vi. Canberra.

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Continued from the previous worksheet.

45)  mark and locate the following on the map of USA:
Michigan , Ohio , North and South California, Kentucky, New Mexico territory, Texas, Missouri , Louisiana, Georgia, Mississippi, Indiana, Florida, NewMexicp territory, Verginia and New York.

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Lecture 5 An Empire across three continents (Theme -3 )

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Lecture 5 An Empire across three continents (Theme -3 )

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Important notes of the lesson :

Topic 1 : Political history of Roman Empire:
The Roman empire was spread over a vast region. It was spread into three continents— Europe, West Asia and North Africa.
Many languages were spoken by the people of the Roman empire. Officially Latin and Greek languages were patronised by the empire.
The political evolution of the Roman empire resembles an interesting novel, which no reader wants to leave in-between. It is divided into two parts—early empire and late antiquity.
Roman empire was founded by Augustus who ruled from 27 BCE to 14 CE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in the Roman empire.
During Augustus’ reign, Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature. He gave a new look to the Roman army which played an important role in expanding the Roman empire.
The economic reforms introduced by Augusts, not only made the people of Roman empire prosperous but also helped in strengthening the very foundation of the empire.
Augustus appointed Tiberius his successor who ruled from 14 to 37 CE.
Trojan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding the frontier of Roman empire.
The first and the second centuries were known for a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion but the third
century brought the first major signs of internal strain.
Shapur I, the Iranian ruler had eradicated the Roman army and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
At the same time a whole series of Germanic tribes began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the entire period saw repeated invasions of a whole line of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany.

Topic 2: Roman society :
In Roman society there was system of the nuclear family. The family was used to be patriarchal in nature. The literacy rate was casual. The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways.
There were some regional languages spoken as Aramaic in the near East, Coptic spoken in Egypt, Punic and Berber in North Africa, Celtic in Spain and the north-west.

Topic3:  Economic structure of the Roman empire :
The empire had a significant economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Production was traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain.

Topic 4:  Religious Life of the Roman Empire:
The Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
One of the most important religious sects of Roman empire was Mithraism. The otherpopular sect ‘Judaism’ was worshipped by Jehova. The Judaism considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.

Topic 5 :  Condition of slaves prevailing during  Roman Empire:
Slavery was a tradition in the Mediterranean and in the near east, as warfare became less widespread. With the establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding.
The position of the slave in the Roman empire was very miserable. They were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours a day.

Topic 6: The  Late Antiquity :
The late Roman aristocracy was extremely wealthy but not more powerful than the military leaders who came almost entirely from non-aristocratic backgrounds. The middle class was made of large mass of persons connected with grand service in the bureaucracy and also with prosperous merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces.
The monetary system of the empire broke with the silv er-based currencies of the first three centuries. The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.
Large expansion of Roman territory was in a less advanced state. Transhumance was spread in the countryside of Numidia. These pastoral and semi-nomadic communities were often on the move, carrying their oven-shaped huts (called mapalia). As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were hugely reduced and their movements more tightly regulated. Even in Spain the north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called castella.
The Emperor Constantine decided to make Christianity the official religion in the fourth century and the Emperor Diocletian (284-305) fortified the frontiers, reorganized provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military functions, granting greater autonomy to the military commanders.
The traditional religious culture of the classical world, both Greek and Roman, had been polytheist.
The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between 711 to 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms foreshadowed the beginning of a different kind of world that is usually called ‘medieval’.
Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series of stunning confrontations. Those conquests, extended upto Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began in fact with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islamic state.

Important terms:

Caliphate: Islamic state led by a supreme religion
Annals: Record of events year by year.
Papyrus: A reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the river Nile from which paper is made.
Mediterranean: A sea connected to the Atlantic ocean.
Aristocracy: A form of government in which power lies in the hands of a small ruling group who are bom in a highest social class.
Conscription: The compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service.
The Euphrates:The longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.
Denarius: A small silver coin first minted about 211 BC.
Barbarians: Person who is perceived to be uncivilized.
Aramaic: The language spoken by a large group of the north-east.
Coptic: The language spoken in Egypt.
Punic: The language spoken in North Africa
Berber: The language spoken in North Africa
Celtic: The language spoken in Spain and the north-west.
Dressel 20: A container carried the Spanish olive oil.
Amphorae: The large storage container capacities between one-half and two and one half tons
Draconian: Severity
Frankincense: An aromatic resin obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia
Echelon: A rank/position of an authority in an organisation.
Intelligentsia: A social class of people engaged in complex mental labour aimed to spread culture and are interested in politics, literature, etc.
Authoritarian: The authoritarian believes that people should obey his authority and rules even if he is wrong.
Antiquity: Any period before the Middle Ages (476-1453) or ancient past.
Archaeological: The study of cultures of the past, and the periods of history by examining the remains of buildings and objects.
Polytheist: The worship of or belief in many Gods.
Principate: The first period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE – 284 C.E.

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Theme 6 : The three orders

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
This worksheet has been divided into four sections.  Attempt all the questions from each sections

Section A:  ( Answer the following in very short):

Q1. Describe two features of early feudal society in France.

Q 2.  How did long-term changes in population levels affect economy and society in Europe?

Q 3.  Why did knights become a distinct group and when did they decline?

Q 5..  Imagine and describe a day in the life of a craftsman in a medieval French town.

Q6.   What do you know about Friars?

Q 7. What was Taille?

Q 8.  Write a few restrictions that were imposed on the serfs.

Q 9. What were the duties of the serfs?

Q 10. What was the basis of economic organisation?

Q 11. Discuss a few advantages of feudal system.

Q 12. What were the drawbacks of feudal system?

Q13  .What were cathedral towns?

Q4.  W hat was Manar?

Q5.  Dscuss any four factors responsible for the decline of feudalism.

Q16.  The monks living in St. Benedict monastery followed some rules. Enumerate two of them.

Q 17. Where was shortage of silver felt in 14th century? Did it have any affect on the trade?

Q 18 .Discuss any two factors that were responsible for the rise of nation-state during 16th cent

Q 19. What were the causes of the growth of towns in Europe during the middle age?

Q 20. What do you understand by vassalage?

Section  B: ( Answer the following in  short ):

Q  21  Describe the life of Christian monks in a monastery during the medieval period of Europe.

Q22. . What was the position of Pope in the medieval Europe?

Q.  23. What is the political importance of the feudal system?

Q 24.  Describe the merits and demerits of feudal system.

Q.25.    How did plague affect trade and cities?

Q  26.  Why did the rich people donate their money to churches?

Q 27.    What do you understand by Guild?

Q.28.   Which values enhanced the status of nobility?

Q  29  Knights became a distinct group under medieval European society. Why?

Q 30   Enumerate the two merits and demerits of medieval monasteries in Europe.

Q  31  Discuss the impact of environment on European agriculture.

Q 32  Discuss the social changes that had taken way to the development of monarchy-feudal system.

Q 33.  Discuss the growth of town after the decline of Roman empire.

Q  34. Agricultural technology was very primitive. Why?

Q  35 Describe a few characteristics of feudal system.

Section  C  ( Answer  the  following  in  detail  ) :
Long Answer Type Questions

Q.36    Discuss the following:
(i) Serf
(ii) Monk
(iii) Cathedrals

Q  37 . Why do you think the people of new towns were considered of fourth order? Explain.

Q.38.  How did technological changes affect agriculture during 11th century?

Q. 39. Discuss the achievements of the nation-states.

Q. 40. What were the causes that led to the decline of feudalism in Europe?

Q 41.  Discuss in detail about the emergence of cathedrals.

Q  42.“ Why did Europe’s economic progress slow down by the early 14th century”? Give reasons?

Section  C:

Passage  based questions  :

Read the passage  given below and answer the questions  that follow :

Passage 1.

In Benedictine monasteries, there was a manuscript with 73 chapters of rules which were followed by monks for many centuries. Here are some of the rules they had to follow:
Chapter – 6 : Permission to speak should rarely be granted to monks.
Chapter – 7 : Humility means obedience.
Chapter – 33:No monk should own private property.
Chapter – 47: Idleness is the enemy of the soul, so friars and sisters should be occupied at certain times in manual labour, and at fixed hours in sacred reading. Chapter-48:The monastery should be laid out in such a way that all necessities be found within its bounds: water, mill, garden, workshops.

Questions:
1. What does humility’ mean?
2. What does chapter 47 say?
3. What sort of values are reflected in this chapter?

Passage 2

We also caused to be painted, by the exquisite hands of many masters from different regions, a splendid variety of new windows… Because these windows are very valuable on account of their wonderful execution and the profuse expenditure of painted glass and sapphire glass, we appointed an official master craftsman for their protection, and also a goldsmith—who would receive their allowances, namely, coins from the altar and flour from the common storehouse of the brethren, and who would never neglect their duty to look after these

Questions:
1. Who was appointed for the protection of windows?
2. Windows were precious. How?
3. Who would receive their allowances, namely coins?

SECTION  E   ( MAP BASED QUESTION) :

On the map of Western Europe mark and locate the following extent of feudalism:
(i) St. Denis
(ii) Bingen
(iii) London
(iv) Rome
(v) Vienna.

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Important Revisionary notes containing the content of full lesson of (The  Central Islamic lands). Theme 4

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Important Revisionary notes containing the content of full lesson of (The  Central Islamic lands). Theme 4

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Sources to understand the History of central Islamic land

1.      Semi-historical works, such as biographies, records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir) are also available.
2.      The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper. The authenticity of each report was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission and established the reliability of the narrator.
3.      Christian chronicles, written in Syriac are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems.

The Rise of Islam in Arabia:

1.       The Prophet Muhammadwas an Arab by language and culture and a merchant by profession. The Arabs were divided into tribes each led by a chief whowas chosen partly on the basis of his family connections but more forhis personal courage, wisdom and generosity.
2.       Each tribehad its own god or goddess, who was worshipped as an idol ina shrine. Many Arab tribes were nomadic (Bedouins), movingfrom dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food and fodder for their camels.
3.      Muhammad’s own tribe, Quraysh, lived in Meccaand controlled the main shrine there, a cube-like structure called Kaba,in which idols were placed.
4.      Even tribes outside Mecca considered theKaba holy and installed their own idols at this shrine, making annualpilgrimages to the shrine. Mecca was located on the crossroads
5.      Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah aloneshould be worshipped. The worship involved simple rituals, such asdaily prayers, and moral principles, such as distributing alms and abstaining from theft.

Islamic Calendar

1.      The Hijri era was established during the caliphate of Umar, with the first year falling in 622 CE. A date in the Hijri calendar is followed by the letters AH.
2.      The Hijri year is a lunar year of 354 days, 12 months (Muharram to DhulHijja) of 29 or 30 days. Each day begins at sunset and each month with thesighting of the crescent moon.
3.      The Hijri year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. Therefore, none of the Islamic religious festivals, including theRamazan fast, Id and hajj, corresponds in any way to seasons.
4.      There is no easy way to match the dates in the Hijri calendar with the dates in the Gregoriancalendar (established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE).
5.      One can calculate therough equivalents between the Islamic (H) and Gregorian Christian (C) yearswith the following formulae:(H × 32 / 33) + 622 = C  OR (C – 622) × 33 / 32 = H.

The Caliphate and their contributions

1.      After Muhammad’s death in 632, no one could legitimately claim to bethe next prophet of Islam. As a result, his political authority wastransferred to the (close friends of Ph. Muhammad)elder Muslimswith no established principle of succession.
2.      This created opportunity for innovations .The biggest innovation was the creation of the institution of caliphate, in which the leader of the community became the deputy or khalifaof the Prophet.
3.      The first fourcaliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali justified their powers on the basis of their closeassociation with the Prophet and continued his work under the generalguidelines he had provided.
4.      The twin objectives of the caliphate were a) to retain control over the tribes constituting the community.
5.       To raise resources for the state.

Abu Bakr

1.      Following Muhammad’s death, many tribes broke away from theIslamic state. The first caliph, Abu Bakr, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns.
Umar
1.      The second caliph,Umar, shaped the Muslim’s policy of expansion of power.
2.      He realised that rich booty could be obtained from expeditionary raids, the caliph andhis military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquered lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the SasanianEmpire in the east.
3.      Inthree successful campaigns Umar brought Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the control of Arabs. Military strategy, religiousfervour and the weakness of the opposition contributed to the successof the Arabs.
Uthman

1.      The third caliph,Uthman, to extend the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of thedeath of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vastterritory between the Egypt and Afghanistan.
2.      The third caliph, Uthman also a Quraysh by birth. He packed his administration with his own men to secure greatercontrol. This further intensified the Meccan character of the state andthe conflict with the other tribesmen.
3.      Opposition in Iraq and Egypt, combined with opposition in Medina, led to the assassination ofUthman.

Ali
1.      With Uthman’s death, Ali became the fourth caliph.The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61) fought two wars against those who represented the Meccan aristocracy.
2.      Ali’ssupporters and enemies later came to form the two main sects of Islam: Shias and Sunnis.
3.      Ali established himself at Kufa and defeated an army led by Muhammad’s wifein the Battle of the Camel.
4.       He wasnot able to suppress the faction led by Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of Syria.
5.      Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa. After his death, his followers paidallegiance to his son, Hussain, and his descendants.
6.      Muawiya madehimself the next caliph in 661, founding the Umayyad dynasty whichlasted till 750.

Administrative changes introduced  by the Caliphs in the newly conqured territories

1.      In all the conquered provinces, the caliphs imposed a newadministrative structure headed by governors and tribal chieftains.
2.      The central treasury obtained itsrevenue from taxes paid by Muslims as well as its share of the bootyfrom raids.
3.      The caliph’s soldiers, mostly Bedouins, settled in camp cities at the edge of the desert, such as Kufa and Basra, to remainwithin reach of their natural habitat as well as the caliph’s command.
4.      The ruling class and soldiers received shares of the booty and monthly payments.
5.      The non-Muslim population retained their rights toproperty and religious practices on payment of taxes

The Umayyads and the changes introduced by Umayyads in Politics or Administration

1.      The first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya, moved his capital from Medina to Damascus.
2.       Headopted the court ceremonies and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire.
3.      He also introducedhereditary succession (family succession) and persuaded the leading Muslims to accepthis son as his heir.
4.      The Umayyad state was now an imperial power, no longer baseddirectly on Islam but on statecraft and the loyalty of Syrian troops.
5.      There were Christian advisers in the administration, as well asZoroastrian scribes and bureaucrats. However, Islam continued toprovide legitimacy to their rule. The Umayyads always appealed forunity and suppressed rebellionsin the name of Islam.

Changes introduced by Abdal-Malik

a.       Abd al-Malik adopted Arabic as the language of administration.
b.      He introduced an Islamiccoinage. The gold dinar andsilver dirham that had beencirculating in the caliphate werecopies of Byzantine and Iraniancoins
c.       Abdal-Malik also made a highly visible contribution to the development of anArab-Islamic identity, by building the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

The Abbasid Revolution  and changes introduced by Abbasids

1.      The Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. The Abbasids portrayed the Umayyad regime as evil and promised a restoration of the original Islam of the Prophet.
2.      The Abbasid uprising broke out in the distant region of Khurasan which  had a mixed Arab-Iranian population which could be mobilised for various reasons
3.      The Arab soldiers in Khurasan were mostlyfrom Iraq and resented the dominance of the Syrians.The civilian Arabs of Khurasandisliked the Umayyad regime for having made promises of tax concessions and privileges which were never fulfilled.
4.      A well-organised movement, called dawa, brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids, in 750.
5.      Their army was led by an Iranian slave, Abu Muslim, who defeated the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan, in a battle at the river Zab.

Administrative changes introduced by Abbasids

1.      Under Abbasid rule, Arab influence declined,while the importance of Iranian culture increased.
2.      The Abbasids changed their capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
3.      The army and bureaucracy were reorganised on a non-tribal basis to ensuregreater participation by people of Iraq and Khurasan.
4.      TheAbbasid rulers strengthened the religious status and functions of the caliphate andpatronised Islamic institutions andscholars.
5.      They maintained the magnificent imperial architecture and elaborate court ceremonials of the Umayyads.

Causes for the Break-up of the Caliphate

1.      In 810, a civil war broke out between supporters of Aminand Mamun, sons of the caliph Harun al-Rashid, which deepened thefactionalism and created a new power bloc of Turkish slave officers.
2.      A number of minor dynasties arose, such as the Tahirids and Samanids in Khurasan and Transoxiana andthe Tulunids in Egypt and Syria. Abbasid power was soon limited tocentral Iraq and western Iran.
3.      In 945 theBuyids, a Shiite clan from the Caspian region of Iran capturedBaghdad. Theykept the Abbasid caliph as the symbolic head of their Sunni subjects.
4.      The Fatimids, the descendantsof Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter claimed that they are the sole rightful rulers of Islam. From their base in North Africa,they conquered Egypt in 969 and established the Fatimid caliphate.
5.      TheTurks were nomadic tribes from the Central Asian steppes who gradually converted to Islam. They were skilledriders and warriors and entered the Abbasid, Samanid and Buyidadministrations as slaves and soldiers, rising to high positions onaccount of their loyalty and military abilities.
The Rise of Sultanates

1.      The Ghaznavid sultanatewas established by Alptegin (961) and it was consolidated by Mahmud ofGhazni. Ghaznavids were a militarydynasty with a professional army of Turks and Indians.
2.      The Abbasidcaliphs were not rivals but a source of legitimacy for Ghaznavids.Mahmudof Ghazniwasconscious of being the son of a slave and was especially eager to receivethe title of Sultan from the caliph.
3.      The caliph was willing to supportthe Sunni Ghaznavid as a counterweight to Shiite power.The Saljuq Turks entered Turan as soldiers in the armies of theSamanids and Qarakhanids. They later established themselves as a powerful group under theleadership of two brothers, Tughril and Chaghri Beg.
4.       Takingadvantage of the chaos following the death of Mahmud of Ghazni,the Saljuq Turks conquered Khurasan in 1037 and made Nishapur theirfirst capital. The Saljuqs next turned their attention to westernPersia and Iraq (ruled by the Buyids) and in 1055, restored Baghdadto Sunni rule.
5.      The caliph, al-Qaim, conferred on Tughril Beg thetitle of Sultan in a move that marked the separation of religious andpolitical authority. The two Saljuq brothers ruled together inaccordance with the tribal notion of rule by the family as a whole.

Causes for the Crusade Wars

1.      Jerusalem was conquered by the Arabs in 638 but it was ever-presentin the Christian imagination as the place of Jesus’ crucifixion andresurrection. Christians wanted to recover Jerusalem and this was an important factor for the Crusade wars.

2.      Normans, Hungarians and Slavs (People of Eastern Europe) hadbeen converted to Christianity, and the Muslims alone remained as the main enemy of Christians.

3.       There was also a change in the social and economicorganisation of the Western Europe in the eleventh century whichcontributed to the hostility between Christian and the Islamicworlds. Christians established political stability through economic growth based on agriculture and trade. But Muslims tried the same through violence and plunder.

4.      The deathof MalikShah in 1092 (the sultan ofBaghdad) was followed by thedisintegration of his empire.This offered the Byzantineemperor, Alexius I, a chanceto regain Jerusalem, Asia Minor andnorthern Syria.

5.       For PopeUrban II, this was anopportunity to revive the spiritof Christianity. In 1095, thePope joined the Byzantineemperor in calling for a war inthe name of God to liberate theHoly Land.

What are Crusade Wars?
Between 1095 and1291, EuropeanChristians foughtwars against Muslim of the eastern Mediterranean to recapture Jerusalem. These wars were later designated as Crusades. According to some sources Pope Urban II gifted cross to all the Christian soldiers to fight in the war that is why the war was named so.

I, II and III Crusade wars

1.      In the first crusade (1098-99), soldiers from France and Italycaptured Antioch in Syria, and claimed Jerusalem. Their victorywas accompanied by the slaughter of Muslims and Jews in the city, settled by both Christians and Muslims.
2.      The Franks quickly established four crusader states inthe region of Syria-Palestine. Collectively, these territories wereknown as Outremer(crusader states).
3.      When the Turkscaptured Edessa in 1144, an appeal was made by the Pope for asecond crusade (1145-49). A combined German and French armymade an attempt to capture Damascus but they were defeated andforced to return home.
4.      After this, there was a gradual erosion of thestrength of crusader states. Salah al-Din (Saladin) created an Egypto-Syrian empire and gave the call forjihad or holy war against the Christians, and defeated them in 1187.He regained Jerusalem, nearly a century after the first crusade.
5.      The loss of the city Jerusalem prompted a third crusade in 1189, but thecrusaders gained little victory in Palestineand got free access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims. The Mamluks,the rulers of Egypt, finally drove the crusading Christians from allof Palestine in 1291. Europe gradually lost military interest in Islamand focused on its internal political and cultural development.

Impacts of Crusade wars

1.      The Crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim statetowards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bittermemories of the conflict as well as the needs for security in areas ofmixed populations.
2.      The other was the greater influence of Italianmercantile in the tradebetween the East and the West even after the restoration ofMuslim power.

Agricultural Development in Arabia

1.      Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled populations inthe newly conquered territories. Land was owned by big and small peasants and, in some cases,by the state. The estate owners collected taxes on behalf of the state. Land which was conquered by the Muslims was handed over mainly to the members of the caliph’s family.
2.      The state had overall control of agricultural lands, deriving the bulkof its income from land revenue once the conquests were over. Thelands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the ownerswere subject to a tax, whichvaried from half to a fifth of theproduce, according to the conditionsof cultivation.
3.       On land cultivated by Muslims, the tax leviedwas one-tenth (ushr) of the produce. On land cultivated by non-Muslims, the tax levied was half of the total produce.
4.      When non-Muslims started to convertto Islam to pay lower taxes, thisreduced the income of the state. ToControl this, the caliphs firstdiscouraged conversions and lateradopted a uniform policy of taxation.
5.      From the tenth century onwards, thestate authorised its officials to claimtheir salaries from agriculturalrevenues from territories, called iqtas.Agricultural prosperity went handin hand with political stability.
6.       Inmany areas, the state supported the construction of dams and canals, and the digging of wells etc. Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought waste land under cultivation. Through peasant initiatives and state support,cultivable land expanded and productivity rose, even in the absence ofmajor technological changes.
7.      Many new crops such as cotton, oranges,bananas, watermelons, spinach and brinjals (badinjan) were grownand even exported to Europe.

Urbanisationin Arabia

1.      Islamic civilisation flourished as the number of cities grew and many new cities such as Kufa and Basra in Iraq, Fustat and Cairo in Egypt were founded, mainly to settle Arabsoldiers who formed the backbone of the local administration. The population of Baghdad had reached around 1 million.
2.      The older towns such as Damascus, Isfahan and Samarqand received a new lease of life. Their size andpopulation increased, supported by an expansion in the production offoodgrains and raw materials such as cotton and sugar for urbanmanufactures. A vast urban network developed, linking one town withanother and forming a circuit.
3.      At the heart of the city were two building complexes radiating culturaland economic power: the mosque, bigenough to be seen from a distance, and the central marketplace with shops in a row, merchants’ lodgings and the office of themoney-changer.
4.       The cities were homes to administrators, scholars and merchants who lived close to thecentre. Ordinary citizens and soldiers had their living quarters in theouter circle, each fitted with its own mosque, church or synagogue, subsidiary market and public bath.
5.       At the outskirts were the houses of the urbanpoor, a market for green vegetables and fruits brought from thecountryside, caravan stations and ‘unclean’ shops, such as those dealingin tanning or butchering. Beyond the city walls were inns for people torest when the city gates were shut and cemeteries.

Commerce in Arabia

1.      Political unification and urbandemand for foodstuffs and luxuriesenlarged the circuit of exchange.Geography favoured the Muslimempire, which spread between thetrading zones of the Indian Ocean andthe Mediterranean.
2.      High-value goodssuitable for long-distance trade, such asspices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder,were shipped from India and China tothe Red Sea ports of Aden and Aydhaband the Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra.From here, thegoods were carried overland in camel caravans to the warehouses of Baghdad, Damascus and Aleppo forlocal consumption or onward transmission.
3.      The caravans passingthrough Mecca got bigger whenever the hajj coincided with the sailingseasons in the Indian Ocean.At the Mediterranean end of these trade routes, exports to Europefrom the port of Alexandria were handled by Jewish merchants, someof whom traded directly with India.
4.      From the tenth century,the Red Sea route gained greater importance due to the rise of Cairo asa centre of commerce and power and growing demand for easterngoods from the trading cities of Italy.
5.      Towards the eastern end, caravans of Iranian merchants set outfrom Baghdad along the Silk Route to China, via the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarqand, to bring Central Asian andChinese goods, including paper. Islamic coins were used for the payment of these goods.
6.      The fiscal system and marketexchange increased the importance of money in the central Islamiclands. Coins of gold, silver and copper were minted andcirculated, often in bags sealed by money-changers, to pay for goodsand services.
7.       Gold came from Africa and silver from CentralAsia.  Precious metals and coins also came fromEurope, which used these to pay for its trade with the East. The greatest contribution of the Muslimworld to medieval economic life was the development of superiormethods of payment and business organisation. Letters of credit(cheque) and bills of exchange (draft) wereused by merchants and bankers to transfer money from one placeor individual to another.
8.      Although it was customary for merchants to set up familybusinesses or employ slaves to run their affairs, formal businessarrangements were also common in which sleepingpartners entrusted capital to travelling merchants and shared profitsand losses in an agreed proportion.
9.       Islam did not stop people frommaking money so long as certain prohibitions were respected. Forinstance, interest-bearing transactions were unlawful, althoughpeople circumvented usury in ingenious ways such asborrowing money in one type of coin and paying in another whiledisguising the interest as a commission on currency exchange.
10.  Many tales from the Thousand and One Nights give us a picture of medieval Islamic society, featuring characterssuch as sailors, slaves, merchants and money-changers.

Learning in Arabia(Religious)

1.      For religious scholars of Islam knowledge is derived from theQuran and the model behaviour of the Prophet was the onlyway to know the will of God and provide guidance in this world.
2.      Theulamas,religious scholars of Islamin medieval times devoted themselves to writing interpretation for Quran anddocumenting Muhammad’s authentic hadith. Some went on toprepare a body of laws or sharia to govern therelationship of Muslims with God through rituals and withthe rest of the humanity through social affairs.
3.       When life had becomeincreasingly complex with urbanisation which led tothe formation of four schools of law in the eighth and ninthcenturies. These were the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii and Hanbalischools,each named after a leading jurist.
4.      The sharia provided guidance on all possible legal issueswithin Sunni society, though it was more precise on questions ofpersonal status such as marriage, divorce and inheritance than oncommercial matters or penal and constitutional issues.
5.      A group of religious-minded people in medieval Islam, known asSufis, sought a deeper and more personal knowledge of God throughasceticism and mysticism. The more society gave importance to material pursuits and pleasures, the more the Sufis sought torenounce the world and rely on God alone.
Learning in Arabia(Secular)
1.      An alternative vision of God and theuniverse was developed by Islamicphilosophers and scientists under theinfluence of Greek philosophy andscience. In the schools of Alexandria, Syria and Iraq, Greek philosophy,mathematics and medicine were taught along with other subjects.
2.      The study of new subjects promoted critical inquiry and had aprofound influence on Islamic intellectual life. Scholars and Philosophers posed wider questions on Islam and provided freshanswers.
3.      IbnSina a doctor by profession and a Philosopherdid not believe in the resurrection of the body on the Day of Judgement.IbnSina’s medicalwritings were widely read. The most influential book was Canon of Medicine, a million-word manuscript that lists 760 drugssold by the pharmacists of his day and includes notes on his ownexperiments conducted in hospitals.
4.      In medieval Islamic societies, fine language and a creative imaginationwere among the most appreciated qualities in a person. Adabforms of expressions included poetry and prose which were meant to be memorised and used whenthe occasion arose.
5.      Abu Nuwas, who was of Persian origin,broke new ground by composing classical poetry on new themes suchas wine and male love with the intention of celebrating pleasuresforbidden by Islam.
6.      By the time the Arabs conquered Iran, Pahlavi, was in decay. A version of Pahlavi, knownas New Persian, with a huge Arabic vocabulary, soon developed. Rudaki wasconsidered the father of New Persian poetry, which included new formssuch as the short lyrical poem (ghazal) and the quatrain (rubai). The rubaiis a four-line stanza in which the first two linesset the stage, the third is finely poised, and the fourth delivers thepoint. The subject matter of the rubaiis unrestricted.
7.      Ghazni became the centre of Persian literarylife. Mahmud of Ghazni gathered around him agroup of poets who composed anthologies and epic poetry. Themost outstanding was Firdausi,who took 30 years to complete theShahnama (Book of Kings), an epic of 50,000couplets which has become a masterpiece ofIslamic literature. The Shahnamais acollection of traditions and legends whichpoetically depicts Iran from Creation to the Arab conquest.
8.      The catalogue of IbnNadimdescribes a large number of works written in prose for themoral education and amusement of readers. The oldest of these is acollection of animal fables called KalilawaDimnawhich is the Arabictranslation of the Panchtantra. The most widespreadand lasting literary works are the stories of hero-adventurers such asAlexander and Sindbad, or those of unhappy lovers known as Majnun or the Madman.
9.       These have developedover the centuries into oral and written traditions. The Thousand andOne Nightsis another collection of stories told by a single narrator,Shahrzad, to her husband night after night. The collection was originallyin Indo-Persian and was translated into Arabic in Baghdad in theeighth century.
10.  From the ninth century onwards, the scope of writing bookswas expandedto include biographies, manuals of ethics, history and geography.For rulers and officials, history provideda good record of the glories and achievements of a dynasty as well asexamples of the techniques of administration. Alberuni’s famous Tahqiq ma lil-Hind (History of India) wasthe greatest attempt by an eleventh-century Muslim writer to lookbeyond the world of Islam.

Art and Architecture in central Islamic land

1.       Religiousbuildings were the greatest externalsymbols of Islamic world. Mosques, shrinesand tombs from Spain to Central Asiashowed the same basic design – arches,domes, minarets and open courtyards –and expressed the spiritual and practicalneeds of Muslims.
2.      In the first Islamiccentury, the mosque acquired a distinctarchitectural form which transcended regionalvariations. The mosque had an opencourtyard where a fountain orpond was placed, leading to a vaultedhall which could accommodate long linesof worshippers and the prayer leader. Two special features were locatedinside the hall: a niche in the wall indicating the direction ofMeccaand a pulpit from wheresermons were delivered during noon prayers on Friday.
3.      The same pattern of construction – of buildings built around acentral courtyard appeared not only in mosques andmausoleums but also in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces. TheUmayyads built ‘desert palaces’ in oases modeled on Roman and Sasanian architecture, were lavishly decorated withsculptures, mosaics and paintings of people.
4.      The rejection of representing living beings in the religious art ofIslam promoted two art forms: calligraphy (the art of beautifulwriting) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs). Small and biginscriptions, usually of religious quotations, were used to decoratearchitecture.
5.      Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscriptsof the Quran dating from the eighth and ninth centuries. Literary workswere illustrated with miniature paintings. Inaddition, a wide variety of illumination techniques were introduced toenhance the beauty of a book. Plant and floral designs, based on theidea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustration.

I have prepared these notes for you all , so that it will be easier for you to under stand the lesson , so kindly go through it.

Prepared  by ;
Mrs . KOMAL  JAIN  .

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Pr. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Sanatan Dharm vidyalaya, Azad Nagar Kanpur-  208002.

Std 12th ( History Worksheet )
( Session 2021 - 22 )

Topic :  Writing and City Life ( Theme 2)

General instructions:
This worksheet has three sections:
A, B and C

Attempt all the questions. All questions are compulsory.

Section A( Very short answer type Questions)

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term Mesopotamia?

Question 2.
What was the land of Mesopotamia civilization at the beginning of recorded history?

Question 3.
When did Babylon become an important city?

Question 4.
Who had released Babylonia from Assyrian domination?

Question 5.
Who was the last ruler of independent Babylon?

Question 6.
Write Geographical feature and extent of Mesopotamia Civilization?

Question 7.
What has been mentioned in the Old Testament about Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Its book of Genesis refers to ‘Shima’ for Sumer i.e. the land of Mesopotamia civilization. This term has meaning therein explained was “a land of brick-built cities”.

Question 8.
Name the crops grown in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Wheat, barley, peas, etc.

Question 9.
Name the industries supported by nature in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were agriculture or farming, animal husbandry (goat and sheep), Dairy, wool, etc.

Question 10.
What is urbanization?
Answer:
A shift of the economy from primary occupations (Agriculture, fishing, herding, forging) to secondary, occupations (manufacturing, processing, trading) and tertiary i.e. a number of services.

Question 11.
Write the names of necessities imported into Mesopotamian cities’?
Answer:
These items were-wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, and various types of stone slabs. These were imported from Turkey and Iran.

Question 12.
What was and is the cheapest mode of transport?
Answer:
It was and is still the transportation over water because it requires nothing to feed while rowing across the river.

Question 13.
What is verbal communication?
Answer:
It consists of spoken sounds through language and writing.

Question 14.
How is writing a specific verbal communication?
Answer:
Spoken sounds are represented in visible signs in course of writing.

Question 15.
What are tablets?
Answer:
Tablets are like written pages with a difference. These were prepared by scribes themselves while writing on them.

Question 16.
What is the style of writing or script used by Mesopotamians?
Answer:
It is a picture like signs and numbers written on clay tablets. Pictures of oxen, fish, grains, number boats, tools, etc are mainly drawn with various signs.

Question 17.
At what point of need, the writing would have begun in Mesopotamian cities?
Answer:
Wiping would have begun when society needed to keep ‘ records of transactions.

Question 18.
To what extent the clay tablet did prove helpful to archaeologists?
Answer:
As written on clay tablets was an easy medium even for a penniless scribe; a giant account of contemporary life, the archaeologists gained through them. This is the reason, more details than Indus Valley Civilization, the archaeologists obtained about the ‘ life of ordinary people in Mesopotamia.

Question 19.
What was the position of literacy in Mesopotamian civilization?
Answer:
As the syllables were used in place of vowels and consonants in cuneiform signs, very few Mesopotamian could read and write. There were hundreds of signs to learn many of these were complex.

Question 20
What is meant by the term Uruk?
Answer:
It means the city par excellence.

Question 21
Apart from being means of storing information and of T sending messages afar what dignity had the writing acquired in a civilization of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
The writing was seen as a sign of superiority of urban culture – apart from being a means of storing information and of sending messages.

Question 22
How many types of settlements formed cities in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
These were of three kinds –

settlements developed artistic temples
settlements developed as centers of trade and
imperial settlement or cities.
Question 23
What were the major hazards to agriculture in Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Frequent floods in quiet channels of the Euphrates (river) and change, of course, causing immersion of agricultural land forever.
Misuse of water by the people living in upstream and villages. Downstream were left without water.
Continuous conflicts among groups of farmers on one or other issues.

Question 24
How do you think the clashes /conflicts between war leaders in Mesopotamia would have checked?
Answer:
It could be possible with the creation of new institutions or practices in society such as the judiciary, the government, etc. A change in the attitude of the community would have checked the clashes between the war leaders. Distribution of water resources later-on reduced the possibility of conflict.

Question 25
Discuss whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals.
Answer:
Actually, city life first starts with the secondary works, and such power of occupation is possible where different tools of carpentry, carving, inscription, etc. are readily available. Again tools can only be made of metals that were imported by the people of Mesopotamia from Turkey and Iran or across the Gulf. Likewise, exchange was possible because people of those countries were in need of food grains as there was less scope for agriculture but plenty of minerals.
On the above premise, we can see that city life in Mesopotamia was impossible without metals which they imported from other countries.

Section B ( Short Answer Type questions):

Question 1.
What are the components that constitute urbanization? Discuss.
Answer:
Urbanization grows only when an economy is developed in spheres other than food production. Urban economics comprise besides food production, trade, manufacturers, and services viz. secondary and tertiary occupations. Again, urbanization takes place only in a.country where the raw material is sufficient, self-sufficiency in food grain production achieved and people generally have come under influence of the countries other than their own where several arts likes, sculpture, handicrafts, masonry, architecture, etc. have grown in fact and the people there are benefited.
One should keep in mind that division of labor is the vital constituent of urbanization. It means, even works is divided into several segments e.g, one will quarry the stone, the other will fetch the same to road or path made for cart or vehicle. Some others will do loading on the car, cart driver will fetch the load to destined place, another person v 11 give it proper shape under the expert guidance of artisan, the sculptor will carve it and then some other person will put the same at an appropriate place. Thus, a single work is divided into a number of units and a particular group of people will act upon it till it is completed. Transport is also a major constituent of urbanization.

Question 2.
How can you say urbanization an agglomeration of distinct artisans, craftsmen, and artists?
Answer:
We hardly see primary jobs like daily, agriculture, etc. in cities. The cities, actually are a grid of craftsmen and traders engaged in secondary and tertiary occupations. Interdependence can be seen in the cities-as city people cease to be self-sufficient and depends on the products or services of other people. For instance, a stone carver requires bronze tools, specific stone slabs, which he would get through traders. On-premises above, we justify the statement that depicts urbanization as an agglomeration of distinct craftsmen and artisans.

Question 3.
Whether city life would have been possible without the use of metals?
Answer:
No, certainly not. Metals are key factors in the formation of urbanization. All arts and artifacts require the use of metal one way or the other. In the case of Mesopotamia cities, the scribes would have not composed epics and other documents had there been no tools for digging soil, sieving the same, kneading. Similarly, a trade would have not been possible without vessels that require carpentry and tools for this craft. The reed used for writing would have not got tip oblique cut, in the absence of a knife made up of iron or bronze.

Question 4.
What, was the importance of writing to city life in Mesopotamia? Explain.
Answer:
We know that all societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain meanings. It is called verbal communication. Writing is also verbal communication but in different ways. In this manner of verbal communication, spoken sounds are represented in visible signs.
Mesopotamia had invented some signs and numbers to convey their messages, to keep a record of transactions in business, and to record events of the contemporary period. It is natural for city dwellers to keep, records of transactions that occurred at different times which involved many people and a variety of goods. Mesopotamia used to write on clay tablets as we find hundreds of written clay tablets in Mesopotamia sites. These tablets were the precious source from which everything pertaining to that period has become apparent before archaeologists.
Subsequently, the writing was used not only for keeping records but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes, a king had made in the customary laws of the land. It was Sumerian language till 2400 BC but replaced then by the Akkadian language. This language continued for more than two thousand years i.e. up to the 1st century CE.
Literature in Sumerian language, we also see; in the form of Epic above – Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk. Thus, we can say that writing became an integral part of Mesopotamians.

Question 5.
What was an urban artifact found in Mesopotamia? Describe the structure, appearance of the same, and the purpose for which it was used.
Answer:
Mesopotamia’s urban artifact was that of seal making. These were made of stone in a cylindrical shape. Every seal has been pierced down at the center and fitted with a stick. Pictures have been carved on these stone seals. People of Mesopotamia used to roll them over wet clay in order to create continuous pictures. Some seals are found with cuneiform writing i.e. the script used by them.
These seals were used for authentication of the purity of contents in bags, sachets, and cloth package. In course of sealing, wet clay would be spread on the package or on the mouth of a pot, and then it would get seal rolled through. the stick fitted with the seal. These seals were used equally on a clay tablet duly engraved with a cuneiform script in order to give it authenticity. Thus, we can state that seal was the mark of a city dweller’s role in public life.

Question 6.
Write about the family norms of Mesopotamia?
Answer:
A nuclear family consisting of a man, his wife, and children was the family norm in Mesopotamia. Married son and his family somewhere often resided with his parents. An offer from the bridegroom party and acceptance of the bride’s party was necessary. Groom’s party would offer gifts to the bride’s party. They would eat together on the wedding day and the offering would be made in a temple. Dowry system was also in vogue there in the form of herds, fields, or in cash.

Question 7.
Describe the settlements and structure of colonies in Mesopotamia as discovered by archaeologists in the 1930’s.
Answer:
The archaeologists excavated ordinary houses in Ur, a town in Mesopotamia during the decade of 1930. They found narrow winding streets and irregular shapes of house plots there. It indicates that no town planning was adopted by those people. Drains and clay pipes were found in inner courtyards and it is thought that house roofs sloped inwards and rainwater was channeled via drainpipes into a basin-like safety tank. There was no light from the front side but it has been guessed that these were backdoors allowing sunlight to enter into rooms.
There has. been seen no provision of windows or ventilation in houses found in these colonies. Archaeologists consider this system would also have given families their privacy. The threshold of these houses was raised and as archaeologists have found, a clay tablet, it says, the raised threshold would bring wealth to the house. The said tablet reveals the front door not opening towards another was considered auspicious. According to archaeologists, these were superstitions prevailing in the populace there. They state further that the cemetery was only for the noble or rich people and ordinary were buried under the floors of ordinary houses.

Question 8.
How skillfully the archaeologists have excavated and traced a small town at Abu Salabikh and what conclusion from the remains had they arrived at?
Answer:
Unlike the excavation of the Indus Valley civilization, the Mesopotamia excavators have a much higher standard of accuracy and care. They have excavated this small town about 10 hectares in an area pertaining to the period of 2500 BCE with a population of less than 10,000. They aptly scraped surfaces and the top few millimeters of the mud and could make out different colors, textures, and rows of brick walls or pits and other features. They sieved tons of earth to recover plants and animal remarks.
Thus, carefully they identified species of plants and animals and charred bones of fish, kitchens were identified because they searched out carbonized seeds and fibers at those places. As they found teeth of young pigs on the streets, it was concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here. Again they found pig bones in a burial. The archaeologists made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed and which were open to the sky.

Question 9.
What source of study does reveal the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of city dwelling? Explain.
Answer:
Mesopotamians had to fight wars from time to time against pastoralists and nomadic communities of the Western desert and thus, the cities destroyed in war; yet they recalled them in their epics namely Gilmesh and Enmerkar. These are in long poems. The former epic says that the ruler of Uruk Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli and precious metals for the beautification of a city temple and had sent his messenger to Aratta, a distant country but he could not convince the ruler of Aratta, he frequently went there and came back to the king. At last, the message was communicated through a letter inscribed on a clay tablet.
The letter epic says that Gilgamesh conquered several kingdoms, but in a historic battle, his fast friend was killed. That event filled his heart with agony so large as he renounced the kingdom and set out to find the secret of immortality. After his journey to far-off places, he at last returned and could console himself by walking along the city wall. He admired the foundations made of fired bricks that he had put into place. He takes consolation in the city that his people had built. This narration confirms the fact that Mesopotamians were proud of their city more than anything else they had.

Question 10.
Narrate how were the Mesopotamians first to calculate time and mathematics.
Answer:
We know that the events and happening may be transmitted to next generations orally and it requires least records to black and white. However, this may not be the case with scientific and mathematical calculations. A written record is a must for the same. As the remains found by archaeologists, we may assume automatically that the greatest legacy of Mesopotamian to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics.
It is surprising to know that around 1800 BCE are tablets with multiplication and division tables, square root tables, and tables of compound interest. The square root of 2 was given as 1+24/ 60+51 /602+10/603. Its answer is 1.41421296 i.e. slightly different from the correct answer 1.41421356. in the urban institution of schools, the students those periods had to solve problems like a field of an area such and such is covered one finger deep in water; find out the volume of water.
We can state in brief that Mesopotamians were known to division the year into 12months, the division of the month into four weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes. The successors of Alexander adopted these time divisions and they transmitted to the Roman world, the world of Islamic, and to medieval Europe in an orderly manner. Archaeologists had concluded on the basis of their finding that Mesopotamians were also known to solar and lunar eclipses, the position of stars, and constellations in the night sky. These all achievements were ascribed to writing. Hence, the writing system was the nucleus around which likewise discoveries had revolved.

Question 11.
Do you think the pre-occupation in the urban world of Mesopotamia is a modern phenomenon? If not so, then why?
Answer:
No, we cannot imagine so because Babylonia acknowledges as the center of high culture by the great Assyrian Kings like Assurbanipal who ruled during 668 – 627 BCE. It is worth mentioning that he had established a Library at his capital in Nineveh. He had collected hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Cuneiform tablets were written as far back as 2000 BCE were intelligible because Sumerian and Akkadian languages till then taught in schools there. Vocabulary texts, sign lists, and bilingual tablets, the archaeologists have found in the above-said library. They have also traced cataloging of the tablets kept in a particular basket in that library.
On the basis of the above, we cannot imagine the occupation with the urban world of Mesopotamia as the work of modern historians there.

Question 12.
Why do you think Assurbanipal and Nabonidus cherished early Mesopotamian traditions?
Answer:
We think so on the basis of the remains of literature available in the library at Nineveh and the accounts given by Nabonidus, the last ruler of independent Babylon, on day tablets. As per discoveries made by archaeologists, Assurbanipal, the last Assyrian king had settled his capital in Nineveh and ruled during 668-627 BCE. Similarly, Nabonidus ruled during 666 – 331 BCE and Babylon was the premier city of the world during his regime. It was spread on land more than 850 hectares with a triple wall, great palaces and temples, a stepped tower, and a professional way to the ritual center.
It has been discovered by the archaeologists that Assurbanipal, above said king, had established a library containing hundreds of clay tablets on history, epics, omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. The king himself had declared that he had checked and collected tablets and stored them all in the library for their use in the future. This declaration itself exhibits his interest to keep alive, the Mesopotamian traditions. In a similar way,’ when we talk about Nabonidus, we find by his own writing how he was interested in giving perpetuity to the religion.
It is plausible to mention that he had appointed his daughter as High Priestess and selected her uniform, as he saw on the carved image of the priestess. Again, his interest to restore continuity to Mesopotamian tradition is ex-facie from repair, he got to be done of the broken statue of Sargon, the king of Akkad who ruled around 2370 BCE. He has himself written on one of the clay tablets that in order to maintain reverence for gods and respect for kingship; he would summon skilled craftsmen and get the statute to be repaired immediately.

Question 13.
Why is Mesopotamia known for city civilization? Discuss the main characteristics of that civilization.
Answer:
In order to answer this question, what needed first is to describe the location of Mesopotamia. In this aspect of the matter, we would like to state that this city presently is part of the Republic of IraQuestion Its geographical location can be represented as under:
Mesopotamia-A land constituting desert, mountains, steppe, and irrigated zone.
As we observe in the map above, there are green plains in the north-east, a stretch of upland i.e. Steppe in the north, tributaries of Tigris in the east, a desert in the south. The desert in the south supports cities because the rivers Euphrates and Tigris carry silt and mud here which has made this desert fertile. Crops grown in this desert are wheat, barley, peas, or lentils. Steppe is the grass-land where cattle like sheep and goats are reared. In its undulating plains, there are trees and wildflowers and this land receives enough rain to grow crops. Tigris and its tributaries provide routes of communication into the mountains of Iran. Assyria, Nineveh, Nimrud, Assur, Baghdad, Babylon, Tell Abusalebikh, Uruk, and Ur were the archaeological sites where this civilization was found.
Mesopotamia thus exists between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and known for its prosperity, city life, rich literature, and its mathematics and astronomy. Eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey followed its writing system after 2000 BCE. The language of this land was Sumerian and Akkadian. It is similar to Hebrew and became widely spoken after 1000 BCE. The important cities were Uruk, Ur, Mari, Abusalebikh, and Assyria.

Question 14.
How the Mesopotamian story and that mentioned in Bible are analogous?
Answer:
God had ordered Noah, a man in course of the water body gobbling-up the entire surface of the earth which was resulting in the destruction of life, that we should do something which might save the complete extinction of life on earth. He took a vast box containing single species each of all species of organisms comprising of both the plants and animal world, making these species seated within, and rowed across the water on a huge boat. Thus, the giant deluge could not destroy the earth. This same story has been restated in the legend of Mesopotamia except for the ‘slight’ change of the man Utanpishtim for Noah in the Bible.

Section C ( Long answer type questions):

Question 1.
Narrate the important characteristics of Mesopotamia civilization and explain how archaeologists could explain so many things about the cities, the culture, society, and family traits of that period.
Answer:
The important characteristics of Mesopotamia’Civilization can be briefed as under –

1. First writing style discovered by archaeologists pertains to the period 3200 BCE. It contains pictures like signs and numbers.

2. It is the first city civilization in the world. It is that of 600 years earlier than the Indus Valley civilization.

3. The first known language here was Sumerian gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 BCE.

4. It was the first civilization where the Cuneiform script was used in writing.

5. It was the civilization of pastoral nomads i.e. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans.

6. The Warka Head i.e. a female head statute exhibits that sculpture had progressed even before 3000 BCE in this civilization. It is a world-famous piece of sculpture admired for its delicate modeling of the woman’s mouth, chin, and cheeks. It was modeled in a hard stone from Turkey. The sculptor has used lapis lazuli, shell, and bitumen decently in order to figurines eyes and eyebrows.

7. This was the .civilization where the first-ever library established by Assurbanipal, an Assyrian king during 668 – 627 BCE. It contained several hundred clay tablets on history, epics, omen- literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Again, it was the first civilization in which scribes were assigned with the work of writing and patronized by the rulers. They valued the writing system very first.

8. Architecture in its most progressed state, we only see, very first in this civilization. The palace of king Zimrilim at Mari is worth seeing. The plan of the palace exhibits how skillfully, the building has been constructed. The entrance gate, audience hall, outer court, inner court, kitchen, courtyard, scribes office, lavatory, and bath are the features of this splendid building. As described in the theme, these all rooms and halls were beautifully paved, and painting on the walls and ceilings is worth seeing. There were 260 rooms and a covered area of 2.4 hectares.

9. The seals here were of splendid shape and size. These were cylindrically fitted with a stick so that they could be rolled on the objects meant for sealing. Cuneiform writing and pictures of various animals, we can see on them. These seals were inscribed on stones; of special kinds perhaps, imported from Iran.

10. It was the first civilization in which the war leaders began to contribute to temple construction. He would send men out to fetch
five stones and metals for the benefit of the god and community and organize the distribution of temple wealth in an efficient way by accounting for things that came in and went out. They began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages. Moon god of Ur or Ivanna (the goddess of love and war) were their main gods.

About cities, the culture, society and family traits-
(a) Cities- Cities began to develop from 5000 BCE in Southern Mesopotamia. These were developed around temples, as a center of trade, and imperial cities. These people first began to build temples. The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. Actually, temples were the center of all activities like oil processing, grain grinding, spanning, and weaving of woolen clothes. Employer of merchants and keeper of written records of distributions and allotments of grains all settled near temples. Thus, activities gradually developed in the premises of temples, and these became the main urban institutions. Mari was a trading town that was made capital by king Zimrilim during 1810 – 1760 BCE. The subjects were the pastoral people here as agriculture and cattle rearing were the main occupations. Another town was Ur where a dense settlement with unplanned construction, the archaeologist have found.

(b) Societies- As we know, geographical conditions determine the eating habits, dress, houses, or shelters of the people living in a particular land. Mesopotamia civilization developed in a place with grasslands, deserts, mountains, and in the proximity of rivers: Euphrates and Tigris. Hence, nomadic and cattle rearing people used to live here. These included the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans. For an instance, the kings of Mari were Amorites whose dress differed from that of the original inhabitants. The society there used to live in unplanned colonies except where a royal palace has existed.

(c) Family traits- There were nuclear family systems openly adopted although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family. As per written documents in the form of clay tablets discovered by Archaeologists, an arranged marriage system was in vogue there. A declaration was made about the willingness to marry, the bride’s parents giving their consent to the marriage. Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. The Dowry system was also in vogue as the bride was given her share of the inheritance by the father at the time of marriage.

Prepared by:
Mrs Komal Jain
H.O.D ( History)

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Lecture 6: Theme 3: An Empire across three Continents: 

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Lecture 6: Theme 3: An Empire across three Continents: 

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Snippets  of the full chapter.

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like – texts, documents and material remains.
1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts

2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts –  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents

3. Aerial Photographs

Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.
The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.
Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists.
Boundaries of Roman Empire
The ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three continents namely – Europe, Asia and Africa.
To the North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers – the Rhine and the Danube.
To the South, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara.
To the East river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean.
This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why Roman Empire is called an Empire across Three Continents.
The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire.
Division of Roman Empire:
The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershed between them.
In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end called the ‘late empire’ or ‘late antiquity’.

THE EARLY EMPIRE

Administration:
i. The Army – ii. The Senate – iii. the Aristocracy – iv. The Emperor – v. Republic – vi. Provincial Territory – vii. Taxation.
Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the officially Latin and Greek were the most widely used.
The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading citizen’, ‘Princeps‘ in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till 14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in Roman empire.
The Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners.
Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional conscripted army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the population for a minimum of 25 years.

The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession.
Emperors:  a) Nero, b) Julius Caesar, c) Octavian Augustus, d) Tiberius, e) Trajan

Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature during Augustan age. Augustus played a significant role in expansion of Roman empire.
The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decades of internal strife and centuries of military conquest.
Augustus appointed Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary.
Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors.
Territories: The Roman Empire had two types of territories – dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million denarii per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year.

A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost always were included.
THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS:  The first two centuries were free from civil war, therefore, it was known as period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century brought in the first sign of internal conflict.

From the 230s, the Roman Empire found itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called the ‘Sasanians’,  emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within 15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
Simultaneously, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the  entire period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond the Danube.

There was a rapid succession of emperors in this century (25 emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period.

Gender, Literacy, Culture :

The system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature. Slaves were included in the family.
Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husbands.
The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between different parts of the empire.
The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways. Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were – Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was invented for them.  Among the above mentioned languages Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century.

A. Sources of Entertainment

Colosseum – Huge place where gladiators fought with beast. It could accommodate 60,000 people.
Amphitheatre – It was used for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers.
Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us that spectacula (shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!

B. CRAFT & INDUSTRY

Minting
Mining
Amphorae
Making Papyrus scrolls
Public baths were a striking feature of Roman urban life
Economic expansion

The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy, where conditions were best for these crops.
Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices.
The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called ‘Dressel 20’.
The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came mainly from numerous estates of these territories.
Diversified applications of waterpower around the Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale on which those mines were worked.
The existence of well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money are all indications of Roman economy.
A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome emperors.
WORKERS:
Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world, both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 7.5 million.
With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding or to cheaper substitutes.
The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour. Columella, a first-century writer who came from the south of Spain, recommended that landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the cost of such items’.
The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.
SOCIAL DIVISION

(A) Presbyterian: (i) The Aristocratic class (ii) Second Class

(B) Plebeian: (i) The lower Class (ii) Slaves

The social structures of the empire as follows: Senators, Equites (horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people (middle class), lower class and finally the slaves.
In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly 1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian families. By the late empire,the senators and the Equites had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy.
The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy. Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively ashumiliores (literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a rural labour force.
The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.  There was a great deal of corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the administration of military supplies.
JEWISH WAR

Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
One of the most important religious sects practiced in the Roman Empire from about the first to the fourth century was Mithraism.
The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism. It considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
But Judaism was not a monolith either, and there was a great deal of diversity within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Thus, the ‘Christianisation’ of the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.
Polytheism did not disappear overnight, especially in the western provinces, where the Christian bishops waged a running battle against beliefs and practices they condemned more than the Christian laity (the ordinary members of a religious community as opposed to the priests or clergy who have official positions within the community) did.
The boundaries between religious communities were much more fluid in the fourth century than they would become thanks to the repeated efforts of religious leaders, the powerful bishops who now led the Church, to rein in their followers and enforce a more rigid set of beliefs and practices.

LATE ANTIQUITY

‘Late antiquity’ is the term now used to describe the final, fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman Empire and refers broadly to the fourth to seventh centuries. The fourth century itself was one of considerable ferment, both cultural and economic.

Cultural features of the Roman world from the Fourth to Seventh Centuries:
Emperors and their Achievements
I. Constantine’s Achievements

a. Overexpansion of the Empire:

b. Capital at Constantinople:  The other area of innovation was division of Roman Empire into east and west and the creation of a second capital at Constantinople (at the site of modern Istanbul in Turkey, and previously called Byzantium), surrounded on three sides by the sea.

c. Christianity was made official religion:  At the cultural level, the period saw momentous developments in religious life, with the emperor Constantine deciding to make Christianity the official religion, and with the rise of Islam in the seventh century.

d. Monetary sphere: Constantine founded the new monetary system on gold and there were vast amounts of this in circulation. Constantine’s chief innovations were in the monetary sphere, where he introduced a new denomination, the solidus, a coin of 4½ gm of pure gold that would in fact outlast the Roman Empire itself. Solidi were minted on a very large scale and their circulation ran into millions.

II. Diocletian’s Achievements

a. Abandons territories of little economic and strategic importance: Overexpansion had led Diocletian to ‘cut back’ by abandoning territories with little strategic or economic value.

b. Duces: Diocletian also fortified the frontiers, reorganised provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military functions, granting greater autonomy to the military commanders (duces), who now became a more powerful group.

III. Justinian’s Achievements:

a. Justinian Code

b. Expansion of Empire: The reign of Justinian is the highwater mark of prosperity and imperial ambition. Justinian recaptured Africa from the Vandals (in 533) but his recovery of Italy (from the Ostrogoths) left that country devastated and paved the way for the Lombard invasion.

c. Monetary Sphere:  Monetary stability and an expanding population stimulated economic growth. Egypt contributed taxes of over 2½ million solidi a year (roughly 35,000 lbs of gold) in the reign of Justinian in the sixth century.

i. Glass factories established

ii. Introduction of Solidus

iii. Urban Prosperity

DOWNFALL OF THE EMPIRE

The general prosperity was especially marked in the East where population was still expanding till the sixth century, despite the impact of the plague which affected the Mediterranean in the 540s.
In the West, by contrast, the empire fragmented politically as Germanic groups from the North (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, etc.) took over all the major provinces and established kingdoms that are best described as ‘post-Roman’
The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between 711 and 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms foreshadowed the beginnings of a different kind of world that is usually called ‘medieval’
By the early seventh century, the war between Eastern Rome and Iran had flared up again, and the Sasanians who had ruled Iran since the third century launched a wholesale invasion of all the major eastern provinces (including Egypt).
Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series of stunning confrontations.
Those conquests, extended up to Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began, in fact, with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islam state.

History worksheet 6
Topic : An empire across three continents
( Theme 3)
General Instructions: Attempt all the questions  given on the  worksheet.

Objective  type questions:
1. Which were the two powerful  empires that ruled over most of Europe?
2.Which sea separates the continents of Europe and Africa?
3. Which rivers made  boundaries  of the Roman empire from the north side?
4.What was Paprus?
5.What was Denarius?
6.Who was Tiberius?
7.Which type of family was in Roman society?
8 Who was Augustine?
9.Which language had been used for translation of the Bible?
10.What was Amphorae?
11.What does "Late antequity" mean?
12. What was exported to Rome by Sicily and Byzancium?
13. What was Dressel 20 in Spain?
14. Who had established the regime in 27  B.C.E.?
15.Which languages were spoken in upper classes in east and west of the early empire of Rome?
16.Who were the main players in the political history of the empire?
17. What were the great urban centres that lined the shores of the Mediterranean?
18. What does Frankincense mean?
19. How had  Emperor Gallienus ruled?
20. What do you mean by Principate?