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by Ron Brandt

Outcome-based education has been the topic of acrimonious debates in many states and school systems. The furor surprised some educators who, after years of hearing calls for "results" from political and business leaders, assumed that most parents and citizens would support a move to more definite outcomes and means of assessing them. Perhaps the majority of people do agree with the principles of OBE-or would if they understood them-but highly vocal critics have how raised enough questions about how OBE might work in practice to create doubts among informed members of the public about its desirability.

Should education be outcome-based? Some might argue that it already is, to some extent. Nearly all education institutions have goals that supposedly guide their work. When educators plan curriculums or teachers plan lessons for their classes, they usually start by clarifying the purposes.

Still, advocates of OBE say that traditional schools are really time-based. Teachers and principals may want students to learn something, but they typically allocate a certain amount of time to study of that topic and then move on, whether or not students have mastered it. For schools to be fully outcome-based, they must organize so that outcomes are fixed, and time and other resources needed to achieve the outcomes are variable.

OBE is more of a philosophy than a uniform set of practices. Many states and school systems have adopted the philosophy in part by emphasizing outcomes schools are expected to achieve, but few have changed all of their rules and regulations to be compatible with the notion that every aspect of schooling must be based on outcomes rather than on other considerations, such as length of the school year. Similarly, some programs that are consistent with the OBE philosophy do not use that terminology. Some have no special designation; some are called results-based or performance-based. The programs described below represent some of the varied approaches to OBE.

The Johnson City Model

A well-established example of OBE in actual use is the Johnson City, New York, schools (Vickery 1990). The Johnson City program, called by its developers the Outcomes-Driven Developmental Model or ODDM, was launched by John Champlain in the early 1970s. The program was originally described as a mastery learning program (the term outcome-based was not in use at that time). Al Mamary, former superintendent, says the major difference between mastery learning and ODDM is that ODDM puts increased emphasis on the studentapos;s role. In a mastery learning program, teachers take responsibility for making sure that most students learn. Under ODDM, students are informed of the outcomes and expected to assume responsibility for achieving them (Brandt 1994). ODDM is described as having a strong philosophical and psychological base as well as a technical one.

The High Success Network

Perhaps the best-known model of OBE was developed by Bill Spady and his associates at the High Success Network. Spady lists four principles that he believes should characterize OBE:

Clarity of focus (having specific outcomes gives a strong sense of purpose to everything teachers and students do).

Design down, deliver up (when planning curriculum, educators start with the outcomes and work backwards; when planning instruction, teachers teach what students need to learn to demonstrate the outcomes).

High expectations (OBE departs from traditional education in its assumption that all students can learn well-although not in the same way and not necessarily on the same day), an.

Expanded opportunities (students must be permitted to demonstrate their learning in different ways, and they must have numerous opportunities to demonstrate the outcomes, not just one. Spady calls this "grading in pencil").

Concerned that some people equate outcome-based education with mastery learning, Spady and his colleague Kit Marshall have developed a way of categorizing OBE programs. Mastery learning, they explain, is a technique for insuring that more students learn well, but it applies to any content. Outcome-based education incorporates the principles of mastery learning but goes beyond them to be concerned with what students are to learn and why.

Spady and Marshall use the term traditional OBE for OBE programs in which the outcomes are defined as mastery of traditional subject matter: English, mathematics, science, and so on (Spady and Marshall 1991). Programs with content outcomes but also higher order outcomes such as being able to work with others are transitional. Spady and Marshall advocate transformational OBE, in which outcomes are derived from careful analysis of what students must be able to do to succeed in the future. These transformational outcomes are be demonstrations of life "performance roles" such as problem solver and teacher (Spady 1994). The action planning workbook by Charles Schwahn that follows in this chapter of the ASCD Curriculum Handbook stems from this TOBE approach.

The McREL Model

An approach complementary to OBE that many educators have found to be helpful is the performance assessment system developed by Bob Marzano and associates at the Midcontinent Regional Educational Laboratory (McREL). Responding to educators whose school systems have adopted transitional outcomes and who need a valid way to assess them, the model involves writing performance tasks that specifically include elements of several different outcomes in one challenging task (Marzano, Pickering, and McTighe 1993). Because assessment of student performance is an essential part of OBE, the Marzano model is a useful supplement to transitional OBE programs.

Educators who accept the OBE philosophy begin by involving teachers, parents, citizens, and students in establishing the outcomes students are to demonstrate. These outcomes may be traditional-in terms of subject matter-or may include other outcomes, such as ability to communicate in a variety of forms, or the ability to perform life roles, such as "creators and producers.".

When outcomes have been established, educators should design curriculum to give students the knowledge and skills they need to demonstrate the outcomes. In many cases the outcomes will be such that they can be assessed only with performance assessment, not conventional tests, so the school's assessment processes will need to be different. Finally, educators need to examine every other aspect of the school's operation to determine what changes are needed-in grading policies, for example-to insure that larger numbers of students will in fact be prepared to demonstrate the outcomes.

References

Brandt, R. (1994). "On Creating an Environment Where All Students Learn: A Conversation with Al Mamary." Educational Leadership 51, 5: 18-23.

Spady, W. (1994). "Choosing Outcomes of Significance." Educational Leadership 51, 5: 18-23.

Spady, W., and K. Marshall (1991). "Beyond Traditional Outcome-Based Education." Educational Leadership 49, 2: 67-72.

Vickery, T. R. (1990). "ODDM: A Workable Model for Total School Improvement." Educational Leadership 47, 7: 67-71.

A Word About This Special Topic

If your school or district has already decided to take an outcome-based approach, no matter which model you choose, careful planning is essential to the process. The following section will help you examine your own existing system, determine where you are on the continuum, and lay the foundation for success. Charles Schwahn poses the essential questions and outlines the steps educators need to take in planning to implement outcomes-based education.

This Special Topic takes the form of a workbook excerpted and adapted from a four-part "handbook" Schwahn uses to train districts in Transformational Outcomes Based Education (TOBE). We believe that this section on establishing a purpose is straightforward and self-contained enough to be used independently by schools and districts wanting to begin the first planning phase.

This planning workbook is divided into the following subsections:

The Introduction describes the format and outlines the four processes of this TOBE Action Planning Model.

"Using the Action Planning Workbook" provides an overview of the four steps of the action planning process.

"The Purpose Leadership Arena" contains guidelines and worksheets to be used for the first step: creating a mission statement, student exit outcomes, and a vision statement.

An explanation of next steps describes the remaining processes of this TOBE Action Planning Model.

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by Ron Brandt Outcome-based education has been the topic of acrimonious debates in many states and school systems. The furor surprised some educators who, after years of hearing calls for "results" from political and business leaders, assumed that most parents and citizens would support a move to more definite outcomes and means of assessing them.

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What is Problem-Based Learning? How to use it in your classroom

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).

PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001):

The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.

The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.

The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.

If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.

If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.

The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:

Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work through the problem.

Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line. Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications of the concept being taught.

The problem needs to be introduced in stages so that students will be able to identify learning issues that will lead them to research the targeted concepts. The following are some questions that may help guide this process:

What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What learning issues will be identified?

How will the problem be structured?

How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?

Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the problem?

What resources will the students need?

What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?

Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.

The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important to guide them toward the library as well.

The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same: the real-world problem.

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills.

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How to teach english with technology - Chapter 7 (Part 1)

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Task-Based Instruction (TBI)
Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom Management
Designed by Ms.Chayaporn Thirachaimongkhonkun
Mr. Sunan Fathet
M.A.Teaching English as a Foreign Language @SWU Thailand

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1. 1. Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom ManagementDepartment of Western Languages Faculty of Humanities Srinakharinwirot University

2. 2. 123456 Comparing TBI and 3Ps7 Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 2

3. 3. IntroductionTask-based learning is an alternativeapproach to communicate languageteaching because a task involves aprimary focus on meaning, real-worldprocesses of language use and any ofthe four language skills. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 3

4. 4. Defining "Task""A task is an activity where the targetlanguage is used by the learner for acommunicative purpose (goal) in order toachieve an outcome" (Willis, 1996) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 4

5. 5. Defining "Task""A piece of classroom work that involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in target language while attention is focus on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end." (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 5

6. 6. Defining "Task""Tasks are activities that call for primarily meaning-focused language use. In contrast, exercises are activities that call for primarily form-focused language use. (Ellis, 2003) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 6

7. 7. The core task elements have six components. 1 * Goals 2 * Input 3 * Procedures 4 * Teacher role 5 * Student role 6 * Settings Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 7

8. 8. 1 Goals Goal type Example establish and maintain interpersonal relations andCommunicative through this to exchange information, ideas, opinions, attitudes and feelings and to get things done have some understanding of the everyday lifeSociocultural patterns of their contemporary age group in the target language speech community; this will cover their life at home, at school and at leisure to negotiate and plan their work over a certain timeLearning-how-to- span, and learn how to set themselves realisticlearn objectives and how to devise the means to attain them to have some understanding of the systematic natureLanguage and of language and the way it workscultural awareness (Clark, 1987, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 8

9. 9. 2 Input articles from newspapers, magazines and journals radio and television scripts and documentaries comic books for entertainment publicity brochures and posters short stories, poems and plays shopping lists business cards postcards picture stories street map(Hover, 986, and Morris & Stewart-Dore,1984, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 9

10. 10. 3 ProceduresProcedures specify what learners actually do with theinput. According criteria for the task, teachersconsider the authority of learning procedures andinput. Another point of criteria for task selectioninvolves activation rather than a rehearsal rationale.Moreover, analyzing procedures should be based onthe focus or skills required to achieve the goal. (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 10

11. 11. 4 Teacher role 5 Student role Approach RolesOral Situational learner listens to teacher and repeats; no control over content or methodsAudiolingual learner has little control; reacts to teacher direction; passive, reactive roleCommunicative learner has an active, negotiative role; should contribute as well as receiveTotal Physical learner is a listener and performer; littleResponse influence over content and none over methodology Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 11

12. 12. 4 Teacher role 5 Student role (cont.) Approach RolesThe Silent Way learners learn through systematic analysis; must become independent and autonomousCommunity learners are members of a social group or community; move from dependence toLanguage Learning autonomy as learning progressesThe Natural learners play an active role and have a relatively high degree of control over content languageApproach productionSuggestopedia learners are passive, have little control over content or methods (Richards & Rodgers,1986, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 12

13. 13. 6 Setting (Wright, 1987, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 13

14. 14. Task Types Six Task Types Willis Pattison Seven Task Task Types Types SixTask Types Jost Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 14

15. 15. Six Task Types by Willis Listing Ordering & Sorting Comparing Problem solving Sharing personal experiences Projects and creative tasks Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 15

16. 16. Six Task Types by Jost Type of Task Examples Details Brainstorming, fact A party list, memory challenge,Listing finding qualities for a jobOrdering and Sequencing, ranking Jigsaw activities, best way tosorting do something Finding similarities, Listening to TV programs,Comparing finding differences spotting differences between pictures Giving advice, Responding to an adviceProblem solving planning column, planning a dinner Finding something Learning about theDiscovery new Pyramids Debating how to How best to save the earthDebating protect something Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 16

17. 17. Seven Task Types by PattisonQuestions and answers Dialogues and role plays Matching activities Communication strategies Pictures and picture stories Puzzles and problems Discussions and decisions Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 17

18. 18. Seven Task Types by PattisonQuestions and answers Dialogues and role plays Matching activities Communication strategies Pictures and picture stories Puzzles and problems Discussions and decisions Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 18

19. 19. Examples for Task TypesListing & Discussion (Nunan, 2000, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 19

20. 20. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Ordering (Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 20

21. 21. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Ordering (Harmer, 1998) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 21

22. 22. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Matching activity (Nunan, 2001, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 22

23. 23. Examples for Task Types (cont.) Student 1 looks at the picture on this page, and Student 2 looks at the picture on page 96. Ask and answer questions to find the differences between the pictures. Use the questions in the box. Comparing (Nunan, 2003, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 23

24. 24. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Communicative activity (Nunan, 1995, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 24

25. 25. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Puzzle Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 25

26. 26. Examples for Task Types (cont.)Role Play (Richards et al., 1997, cited in Nunan, 2004) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 26

27. 27. The Framework of TBI PRE-TASK Introduction to topic and task TASK CYCLE Task, Planning, Report LANGUAGE FOCUS Analysis, Practice Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 27

28. 28. 1 Pre-task The teacher - introduces and defines the topic - uses activities to help students recall/ learn useful words and phrases - ensure students understand task instructions - may play a recording of others doing the same or a similar task The students- note down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities and/ or the recording- may spend a few minutes preparing for the task individually Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 28

29. 29. 2 Task cycle Task Planning ReportStudents do the Students prepare Some groupstask, in pairs or to report to the present theirsmall groups. whole class (orally reports to theTeacher monitors or in writing) how class, orfrom a distance. they did the exchange written task, what they reports, and decided or compare results. discovered. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 29

30. 30. 3 Language Focus . Analysis PracticeStudents examine and Teacher conductsdiscuss specific features practice of new words,of the text or transcript phrases and patternof the recording occurring in the data, either during or after the analysis. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 30

31. 31. Comparing TBI and 3Ps TBI Task-Based Instruction Versus PPP Presentation-Practice- Production Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 31

32. 32. TBI TBI Pre-taskExposure Introduction to topic and task Instruction Task cycleExposure Task Use (spontaneous)Exposure Planning Instruction (as needed)Exposure (planned) Report Use (planned)Exposure Students hear task recording or read text Language focus InstructionExposure Analysis and practice: Use (restricted)Exposure Review and repeat task Use (spontaneous) PPP PPP PresentationExposure (restricted) of single 'new' item Instruction PracticeExposure (restricted) of new item: Instruction Use (restricted) drills, exercises, dialogue practice ProductionExposure Activity, role play or task to Use (free or partly encourage 'free' use of language restricted) Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 32

33. 33. Advantages1. TBL is applicable and suitable for students of all ages and background.2. Students will have a much more varied exposure to language with TBL.3. Students are free to use whatever vocabulary and grammar they know, rather than just the task language of the lesson.4. Allows meaningful communication.5. Students will be exposed to a whole range of lexical phrases, collocations and patterns as well as language forms.6. Encourages students to be more ambitious in the language. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 33

34. 34. Disadvantages1. TBI requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the task.2. TBI requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language classrooms.3. TBI is not teacher-centered and it requires individual and group responsibility and commit mention the part of students.4. There is a risk for learners to achieve fluency at the expense of accuracy. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 34

35. 35. Conclusion1. Task-based teaching offers the opportunity for 'natural' learning inside the classroom.2. It encourages child-centered learning.3. It helps learners develop individual differences and support learning autonomy.4. It helps learners use language in a communicative process through authentic experience while engaging the target language. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) 35

36. 36. ReferencesEllis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Harmer, J. (1998). How to teach English: An introduction to the practice of English teaching. Essex : Addison Wesley Longman Limited.Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Jost, N. (2003). Issues in Task-based Language Instruction. JALT Conference Proceedings. Tokyo : Association for Language Teaching.Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Essex : Addison Wesley Longman Limited.

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How to teach english with technology - Chapter 7 (Part 1) Download Now Download to read offline and view in fullscreen. Task-Based Instruction (TBI) Presented as a requirement of TF 503 Teaching and Learning Strategies and Classroom Management Designed by Ms.Chayaporn Thirachaimongkhonkun Mr. Sunan Fathet M.A.Teaching English as a Foreign Language @SWU Thailand Read more 1.

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Grammar-Translation Method | Language Teaching Methods | TEFL.net

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Overview of the Grammar-Translation method for teaching languages that evolved from the Classical Method. For teachers of English, especially as foreign language.

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ITTT International TEFL & TESOL Training

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching - Suggestopedia

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The Natural Approach | Methods and Approaches of Language Teaching

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The Natural Approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

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Communicative Language Teaching is the cornerstone for approaches that have shifted from a grammar-based language view to a functional view of language where c...

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The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible. There are three basic principles:

- The learner needs to discover or create
- Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods
- Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and says 'The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the rods to produce other models, and finally encourages the learners to produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word boundaries, contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners can use the rods to first represent and then to manipulate language.

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The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible.

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From "Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching" By J.C. Richards and T.S. Rodgers.