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First Migration:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipsnews.net%2FLibrary%2F2018%2F03%2Fbanner-human-migration-map_-629x357.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipsnews.net%2F2018%2F03%2Fmap-human-migration%2F&docid=GKoY6ZzJIKm9IM&tbnid=ad3Dvt3x7Q2bnM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwiMu6e9g8jeAhXrxYMKHb5PAtYQMwhgKA8wDw..i&w=629&h=357&safe=active&bih=610&biw=1366&q=first%20migration&ved=0ahUKEwiMu6e9g8jeAhXrxYMKHb5PAtYQMwhgKA8wDw&iact=mrc&uact=8
Earliest Societies:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/precontact-and-early-colonial-era/before-contact/v/native-american-societies-before-contact
Native American Culture Areas:
http://www.native-languages.org/culture-areas.htm
European Renaissance:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance

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Native American societies before contact (video) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Information on the languages and cultures of the Native American culture areas of North, South, and Central America.

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What does "Renaissance" mean?

When did the Renaissance happen?

What is Renaissance art?

What does "Renaissance man" mean?

Renaissance, (French: "Rebirth") period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages and conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, the decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovations as paper, printing, the mariner's compass, and gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.

A brief treatment of the Renaissance follows. For full treatment, see history of Europe: The Renaissance.

Origins and rise of humanism

The term Middle Ages was coined by scholars in the 15th century to designate the interval between the downfall of the Classical world of Greece and Rome and its rediscovery at the beginning of their own century, a revival in which they felt they were participating. Indeed, the notion of a long period of cultural darkness had been expressed by Petrarch even earlier. Events at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly beginning in the 12th century, set in motion a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations that culminated in the Renaissance. These included the increasing failure of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire to provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and material life, the rise in importance of city-states and national monarchies, the development of national languages, and the breakup of the old feudal structures.

While the spirit of the Renaissance ultimately took many forms, it was expressed earliest by the intellectual movement called humanism. Humanism was initiated by secular men of letters rather than by the scholar-clerics who had dominated medieval intellectual life and had developed the Scholastic philosophy. Humanism began and achieved fruition first in Italy. Its predecessors were men like Dante and Petrarch, and its chief protagonists included Giannozzo Manetti, Leonardo Bruni, Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Lorenzo Valla, and Coluccio Salutati. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 provided humanism with a major boost, for many eastern scholars fled to Italy, bringing with them important books and manuscripts and a tradition of Greek scholarship.

Humanism had several significant features. First, it took human nature in all of its various manifestations and achievements as its subject. Second, it stressed the unity and compatibility of the truth found in all philosophical and theological schools and systems, a doctrine known as syncretism. Third, it emphasized the dignity of man. In place of the medieval ideal of a life of penance as the highest and noblest form of human activity, the humanists looked to the struggle of creation and the attempt to exert mastery over nature. Finally, humanism looked forward to a rebirth of a lost human spirit and wisdom. In the course of striving to recover it, however, the humanists assisted in the consolidation of a new spiritual and intellectual outlook and in the development of a new body of knowledge. The effect of humanism was to help men break free from the mental strictures imposed by religious orthodoxy, to inspire free inquiry and criticism, and to inspire a new confidence in the possibilities of human thought and creations.

From Italy the new humanist spirit and the Renaissance it engendered spread north to all parts of Europe, aided by the invention of printing, which allowed literacy and the availability of Classical texts to grow explosively. Foremost among northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus, whose Praise of Folly (1509) epitomized the moral essence of humanism in its insistence on heartfelt goodness as opposed to formalistic piety. The intellectual stimulation provided by humanists helped spark the Reformation, from which, however, many humanists, including Erasmus, recoiled. By the end of the 16th century the battle of Reformation and Counter-Reformation had commanded much of Europe's energy and attention, while the intellectual life was poised on the brink of the Enlightenment.

Artistic developments and the emergence of Florence

It was in art that the spirit of the Renaissance achieved its sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of knowledge, valuable in its own right and capable of providing man with images of God and his creations as well as with insights into man's position in the universe. In the hands of men such as Leonardo da Vinci it was even a science, a means for exploring nature and a record of discoveries. Art was to be based on the observation of the visible world and practiced according to mathematical principles of balance, harmony, and perspective, which were developed at this time. In the works of painters such as Masaccio, the brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Fra Angelico, Sandro Botticelli, Perugino, Piero della Francesca, Raphael, and Titian; sculptors such as Giovanni Pisano, Donatello, Andrea del Verrocchio, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Michelangelo; and architects such as Leon Battista Alberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, Andrea Palladio, Michelozzo, and Filarete, the dignity of man found expression in the arts.

In Italy the Renaissance proper was preceded by an important "proto-renaissance" in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, which drew inspiration from Franciscan radicalism. St. Francis of Assisi had rejected the formal Scholasticism of the prevailing Christian theology and gone out among the poor praising the beauties and spiritual value of nature. His example inspired Italian artists and poets to take pleasure in the world around them. The work of the most famous artist of the proto-renaissance period, Giotto (1266/67 or 1276-1337), reveals a new pictorial style that depends on clear, simple structure and great psychological penetration rather than on the flat, linear decorativeness and hierarchical compositions of his predecessors and contemporaries, such as the Florentine painter Cimabue and the Siennese painters Duccio and Simone Martini. The great poet Dante lived at about the same time as Giotto, and his poetry shows a similar concern with inward experience and the subtle shades and variations of human nature. Although his Divine Comedy belongs to the Middle Ages in its plan and ideas, its subjective spirit and power of expression look forward to the Renaissance. Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio also belong to this proto-renaissance period, both through their extensive studies of Latin literature and through their writings in the vernacular. Unfortunately, the terrible plague of 1348 and subsequent civil wars submerged both the revival of humanistic studies and the growing interest in individualism and naturalism revealed in the works of Giotto and Dante. The spirit of the Renaissance did not surface again until the 15th century.

In 1401 a competition was held at Florence to award the commission for bronze doors to be placed on the baptistery of San Giovanni. Defeated by the goldsmith and painter Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi and Donatello left for Rome, where they immersed themselves in the study of ancient architecture and sculpture. When they returned to Florence and began to put their knowledge into practice, the rationalized art of the ancient world was reborn. The founder of Renaissance painting was Masaccio (1401-28). The intellectuality of his conceptions, the monumentality of his compositions, and the high degree of naturalism in his works mark Masaccio as a pivotal figure in Renaissance painting. The succeeding generation of artists- Piero della Francesca, the Pollaiuolo brothers, and Andrea del Verrocchio-pressed forward with researches into linear and aerial perspective and anatomy, developing a style of scientific naturalism.

The situation in Florence was uniquely favourable to the arts. The civic pride of Florentines found expression in statues of the patron saints commissioned from Ghiberti and Donatello for niches in the grain-market guildhall known as Or San Michele, and in the largest dome built since antiquity, placed by Brunelleschi on the Florence cathedral. The cost of construction and decoration of palaces, churches, and monasteries was underwritten by wealthy merchant families, chief among whom were the Medici family.

The Medici traded in all of the major cities in Europe, and one of the most famous masterpieces of Northern Renaissance art, The Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes ( c. 1476; Uffizi, Florence), was commissioned by their agent, Tommaso Portinari. Instead of being painted with the customary tempera of the period, the work is painted with translucent oil glazes that produce brilliant jewel-like colour and a glossy surface. Early Northern Renaissance painters were more concerned with the detailed reproduction of objects and their symbolic meaning than with the study of scientific perspective and anatomy even after these achievements became widely known. On the other hand, central Italian painters began to adopt the oil medium soon after The Portinari Altarpiece was brought to Florence in 1476.

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Renaissance | Definition, Meaning, History, Artists, Art, & Facts

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The Renaissance was a period in European civilization that immediately followed the Middle Ages and reached its height in the 15th century. It is conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents and numerous important inventions.

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The Vikings:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3GM3F7JZ2c
Columbus:
https://imgglb.padletcdn.com/v13/image?t=c_limit,dpr_1,h_920,w_1920&url=https%3A%2F%2F3.bp.blogspot.com%2F-X0rp-ARDzko%2FV7KSxwTb0eI%2FAAAAAAAAUaY%2FNHDgUa8pqpkeWksnH8O3VsV5nb-jDtqwACLcB%2Fs1600%2FColumbus%252B4%252BVoyages.png
Spanish in America:
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h438.html
Race for empires:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-exploration-and-conquest-of-the-new-world/

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Leif Eriksson - The First European in North America

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The Spanish claim to territories that are today the United States rested upon the 16th century exploits of Ponce de Leon, Hernando De Soto, and Francisco Vázquez de Coronado.

St. Augustine in Florida was established as a Spanish fort in 1565, the first permanent settlement in what would become the United States. The impact of this settlement was slight, however, since it served primarily as a base camp for other exploratory ventures and also as the center of efforts to convert the area's natives to Roman Catholicism. A handful of Spanish settlements was established in outlying areas, but they soon fell prey to Indian attacks or economic insufficiency.

Greater progress was made by Spanish colonizers on the other side of the continent. In 1598, Don Juan Oñante led 500 men from Mexico northward into Pueblo lands in present-day New Mexico. The invaders brought with them a labor system known as the encomienda, which had originally developed in Spain.

Under this scheme, large New World land grants were made by the Crown to favored Spanish individuals. The grantees were responsible for the protection and Christian instruction of inhabitants of the lands, and those natives were required to pay tribute - often in the form of crops and labor - to the grantee.

Understandably, the Pueblo deeply resented the entire system - invasion of their lands, suppression of their religion, payment of tribute, and enforced loyalty to a foreign monarch.

The encomienda was used throughout Spanish America. Its application differed sharply from one area to another, being relatively benign in some regions, but virtually enslaving in others. Reform of the system was sought by a Spanish missionary, Bartolomé de Las Casas.

Oñante, fired by a passion for precious metals, launched a series of explorations eastward into present-day Kansas and Oklahoma, and westward to the Gulf of California. In some instances, he retraced Coronado's steps and was equally unsuccessful in discovering gold and silver.

New settlements were erected at Santa Fe in 1609 and nearby Taos in 1615.

Relationships between the colonists and the Pueblo improved as they cooperated in livestock raising (mostly cattle and sheep), but an undercurrent of resentment remained strong. In 1680, a major revolt broke out under native leader Papé. Hundreds were killed on both sides in the fighting and order was not restored until 1692.

As the 17th century drew to a close, Spanish colonial administrators finally realized that, given their minority status in so many parts of New Spain, policy reform was necessary. In the coming years, the Pueblo were allowed to resume the practice of their religion, own land, and be free from forced labor.

From a material standpoint, the Spanish ventures in the northern portions of their realm were far less successful than those to the south.

- - - Books You May Like Include: ----

Commanches by T.R. Fehrenbach.
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The Birth of America: From Before Columbus to the Revolution by William R. Polk.
In this provocative account of colonial America, William R. Polk explores the key events, individuals, and themes of this critical period. With vivid ...

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The Spanish claim to territories that are today the United States rested upon the 16th century exploits of Ponce de Leon, Hernando De Soto, and Francisco Vázquez de Coronado. St. Augustine in Florida was established as a Spanish fort in 1565, the first permanent settlement in what would become the United States.

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Exploration and Conquest of the New World

Initial voyages to the New World by Columbus spurred an era of exploration and invasion by other European empires.

Learning Objectives

Examine the causes and consequences of European exploration and expansion

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Spanish exploration of the New World was led by Christopher Columbus and Juan Ponce de Leon, who invaded and colonized great parts of what would become South, Central, and North America.

The French Empire, led by Jacques Cartier and Giovanni da Verrazano, focused predominantly on North America.

The Dutch in New Netherland confined their operations to Manhattan Island, Long Island, the Hudson River Valley, and what later became New Jersey.

British explorations of the New World were led by John Cabot and Sir Walter Raleigh. Trading companies, such as the Plymouth and London companies, were granted charters to develop and expand British settlements.

The course of New World explorations was deeply affected by the settlers' interactions with indigenous groups-interactions that, through a combination of violence and disease, resulted in massive declines in indigenous populations.

Key Terms

British Empire: The United Kingdom, together with its dominions, colonies, dependencies, trust territories, and protectorates became the Commonwealth of Nations following the independence of many of its constituent countries.

New World: The continents of North America and South America combined.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, supported by the Spanish government, undertook a voyage to find a new route to Asia and inadvertently encountered "new" lands in the Americas full of long established communities and cultures. Other European countries quickly followed suit and began to explore and invade the New World. Jacques Cartier undertook a voyage to present-day Canada for the French government, where they began the settlement of New France, developing the fur industry and fostering a more respectful relationship with many of the inhabitants. The Spanish conquistadors invaded areas of Central and South America looking for riches, ultimately destroying the powerful Aztec and Inca cultures. The course of New World explorations was deeply affected by the invaders' interactions with indigenous groups-interactions that, through a combination of violence and disease, resulted in massive declines in indigenous populations.

The Spanish Empire

Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions.

The Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de Leon was an early invader of the Americas, traveling to the New World on Columbus' second voyage. He became the first governor of Puerto Rico in 1509. Upon the death of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish did not allow Christopher's son, who like his father had committed atrocities upon the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, to succeed him. Instead, the governors were replaced with successors from Spain. Leon found a peninsula on the coast of North America and called the new land Florida, chartering a colonizing expedition. His presence there was brief, however, as he was attacked by American Indian forces and subsequently died in nearby Cuba.

By 1565, Spanish forces looked to expand their influence and Catholic religion in the New World by attacking the French settlement of Fort Caroline. The Spanish navy overwhelmed 200 French Huguenot settlers and slaughtered them, even as they surrendered to Spain's superior military. Spain formed the settlement of St. Augustine as an outpost to ensure that French Huguenots were no longer welcome in the area. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in North America.

The French Empire

Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.

From the middle of the 16th century forward, France tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles," Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean at that time. This colonial era ended with a slave revolt in 1791, which began the Haitian Revolution and led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and complete independence for the country a decade later. France also briefly ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.

French habitants, or farmer-settlers, eked out an existence along the St. Lawrence River. French fur traders and missionaries, however, ranged far into the interior of North America, exploring the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi River. These pioneers gave France somewhat inflated imperial claims to lands that nonetheless remained firmly under the dominion of indigenous peoples.

The Dutch Empire

Seventeenth-century French and Dutch colonies in North America were modest in comparison to Spain's colossal global empire. New France and New Netherland remained small commercial operations focused on the fur trade and did not attract an influx of migrants. The Dutch in New Netherland confined their operations to Manhattan Island, Long Island, the Hudson River Valley, and what later became New Jersey. Dutch trade goods circulated widely among the native peoples in these areas and also traveled well into the interior of the continent along pre-existing native trade routes.

The British Empire

Shortly after Columbus' first voyage to the New World, the British Empire funded an exploratory mission of its own led by John Cabot. Cabot explored the North American continent, correctly deducing that the spherical shape of the earth made the north-where the longitudes are much shorter-a quicker route to the New World than a trip to the South Islands where Columbus was exploring. Encouraged, he asked the English monarchy for a more substantial expedition to further explore and settle the lands. He was successful in obtaining the expedition and the ships departed, never to be seen again.

England also took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland (including the New Amsterdam settlement), which was renamed the Province of New York in 1664. With New Netherland, the English also came to control New Sweden (now Delaware), which the Dutch had conquered earlier. In the north, the Hudson Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, bringing them into competition with French, Aboriginal, and Metis fur traders. The company came to control the entire drainage basin of Hudson Bay, which they called Rupert's Land.

At the start of the 17th century, the English had not established a permanent settlement in the Americas. Over the next century, however, they outpaced their rivals. The English encouraged emigration far more than the Spanish, French, or Dutch. They established nearly a dozen colonies, sending swarms of immigrants to populate the land. England had experienced a dramatic rise in population in the 16th century, and the colonies appeared a welcoming place for those who faced overcrowding and grinding poverty at home. Thousands of English migrants arrived in the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Virginia and Maryland to work in the tobacco fields. Another stream, this one of pious Puritan families, sought to live as they believed scripture demanded and established the Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island colonies of New England.

Disease in the New World

European exploration and invasion of the Americas brought with them many foreign diseases, causing widespread depopulation among indigenous cultures.

Learning Objectives

Evaluate the consequences of the European and Native American encounter

Key Takeaways

Key Points

As Europeans and African slaves began to arrive in the New World, they brought with them the infectious diseases of Europe and Africa.

Rampant epidemic disease, to which the natives had no prior exposure or resistance, was one of the main causes of the massive population decline of the indigenous populations of the Americas.

Diseases like smallpox, typhus, measles, and influenza were responsible for the destruction of large segments of the Caribs, Arawaks, Beothuks, and Mesoamerican and other indigenous empires.

The scope of the epidemics over the years was tremendous, killing millions of people possibly in excess of 90% of the population in the hardest hit areas.

Key Terms

epidemic disease: A widespread illness that affects many individuals in a population.

depopulation: The act of reducing a population; the destruction or expulsion of inhabitants.

Infectious Diseases in the New World

Different European colonial settlements in the New World exposed indigenous populations to Christianity, forced labor, expulsion from their lands, and foreign diseases. Rampant epidemic disease, to which the natives had no prior exposure or resistance, was one of the main causes of the massive population decline of the indigenous populations of the Americas. As Europeans and African slaves began to arrive in the New World, they brought with them the infectious diseases of Europe and Africa. Soon after, observers noted that immense numbers of indigenous Americans began to die from these diseases. The scope of the epidemics over the years was tremendous, killing millions of people-possibly in excess of 90% of the population in the hardest hit areas.

This death toll was initially overlooked or downplayed because once introduced, the diseases raced ahead of European invasion in many areas. Disease killed off a sizable portion of the populations before European observations and written records were made. After the epidemics had already killed massive numbers of indigenous Americans, many newer European immigrants assumed that there had always been relatively few indigenous peoples.

One of the most devastating diseases was smallpox; other deadly diseases included typhus, measles, influenza, bubonic plague, cholera, malaria, mumps, yellow fever, and pertussis (whooping cough). The indigenous Americas also had a number of endemic diseases, such as tuberculosis (although once believed to have been brought from Europe, skeletal remains found in South America have since provided evidence of tuberculosis before the Spanish arrival) and an unusually virulent type of syphilis, which became rampant when brought back to the Old World. The transfer of disease between the Old World and New World was part of the phenomenon known as the Columbian Exchange.

The diseases brought to the New World proved to be exceptionally deadly to the indigenous populations, and the epidemics had very different effects in different regions of the Americas. The most vulnerable groups were those with a relatively small population and little built-up immunity. Many island-based groups were annihilated: the Caribs and Arawaks of the Caribbean nearly ceased to exist, as did the Beothuks of Newfoundland. While disease swept swiftly through the densely populated empires of Mesoamerica, the more scattered populations of North America saw a slower spread.

Population Decline

Estimates of the pre-Columbian population have ranged from 8.4 million to 112.5 million persons, while estimates of indigenous deaths generally range from 2 to 15 million. Before the arrival of Columbus in Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population of several hundred thousand declined to 60,000 by 1509. The population of the indigenous peoples in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1-2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru, the indigenous pre-contact population of approximately 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century.

European Empires in North America

From the 15th century onward, European nations invaded the New World and began establishing empires throughout the continent.

Learning Objectives

Evaluate the goals of Spanish, British, and French exploration in the Americas

Key Takeaways

Key Points

The Spanish Empire between 1492 and 1892, expanded across most of Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and much of North America. In its conquest of the New World, the Spanish subdued and defeated the Inca civilization of Peru, the Aztecs of Central America, and the Maya civilization of the Yucatan.

England's forays into the New World began in 1497 with John Cabot's journey to North America. British exploration of the New World centered on searching for a Northwest Passage through the continent.

Sir Walter Raleigh and Henry Hudson were notable British explorers who established early settlements in Virginia and New York.

The search for a northwest passage to Asia and the burgeoning fur trade in Europe drove the French to explore and settle North America.

Samuel de Champlain began the first permanent settlement of New France and Quebec City in present-day Canada and created a prosperous trade with the American Indians for beaver pelts and other animal hides.

Key Terms

conquistador: A conqueror, but especially one of the Spanish soldiers that invaded Central and South America in the 16th century and defeated the Incas and Aztecs.

Inca civilization: The Andean population made up a loose patchwork of different cultures that developed from the highlands of Colombia to the Atacama Desert.

Maya civilization: A Mesoamerican culture noted for the only known, fully developed, written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for their art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems.

While the Americas remained firmly under the control of indigenous peoples in the first decades of European invasion, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the indigenous populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). The Spanish, English, and French were the most powerful nations to establish empires in the new lands.

Conquest of Latin America by the Spanish Empire

Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish Empire expanded for four centuries (1492-1892) across most of present-day Central America, the Caribbean islands, Mexico, and much of the rest of North America. The empire also claimed territory in present-day British Columbia; the states of Alaska, Washington, and Oregon; and the western half of South America. Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions.

Columbus' initial landing and first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquests in the Caribbean and South America, where the first European settlements occurred in the New World. After the forming of Nueva Cádiz in Venezuela and Santa Cruz on the present-day Guajira peninsula, explorers led by Vasco Núez de Balboa conquered areas on the coast of present-day Colombia in 1502. This area was inhabited by the Chibchan speaking nations, including the indigenous Muisca and Tairona people. The Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de Leon traveled to the New World on Columbus' second voyage. He explored areas to the north, looking for a Fountain of Youth, and landed on a peninsula on the coast of North America, which he named Florida.

Attack on the Aztecs and Mayas

The conquistadors, believing they held considerable military and technological superiority over the native cultures, attacked and destroyed the Aztecs in 1521. This campaign was led by Hernán Cortés and featured the Tlaxcala and other indigenous peoples allied against the Mexica/Aztec Empire. The Spanish conquest of the Maya civilization-based in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America-was a much longer campaign, lasting from 1551 to 1697. The day Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present-day Veracruz, April 22, 1519, marked the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region.

By the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors had penetrated deep into Central and South America. European explorers arrived at Río de la Plata in 1516. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536, and in 1537, Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541, the site was abandoned. A second and permanent settlement was established in 1580, by Juan de Garay.

Attack on the Incas

In 1532, at the Battle of Cajamarca, a group of Spanish soldiers under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian allies, ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign-which took advantage of a recent civil war and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated-that required decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years, the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended their control over the greater Andes region, leading to the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542.

The brutal practices of the conquistadors (known as the Black Legend), as recorded by the Spanish themselves, were applied through the encomienda, a system ostensibly set up to protect people from warring tribes as well as to teach them the Spanish language and the Catholic religion. In practice, though, it was tantamount to slavery.

The British Empire

John Cabot

England's forays into the New World began in 1497 (just a few years after Columbus' initial voyage) with John Cabot's journey to North America. British exploration of the New World centered on searching for a northwest passage through the continent. Cabot explored the North American coast and correctly deduced that the spherical shape of the earth made the north-where the longitudes are much shorter-a quicker route to the New World than a trip to the islands in the south, where Columbus was exploring. Encouraged, he asked the English monarchy for a more substantial expedition to further explore and settle the lands that he found. Cabot's ships departed, never to be seen again.

England remained preoccupied with internal affairs for much of the 16th century. Cabot's adventures failed to spark much interest, and England's break with the Catholic church in 1533 led to decades of religious turmoil. However, by the beginning of the 17th century, under the rule of Elizabeth I, the empire had consolidated much of the British Isles and was becoming a much more formidable force on the world stage. With the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England replaced Spain as the dominant world power. This led to the gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New World and the widening of English imperial interests.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Sir Walter Raleigh sought to establish an empire in the New World after having gained considerable favor from Queen Elizabeth I by suppressing rebellions in Ireland. On March 25, 1584, the Queen granted Raleigh a charter for the colonization of the area of North America known as Virginia. Raleigh and Elizabeth I intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World and a base from which to send privateers on raids against the treasure fleets of Spain. Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to South America's Orinoco River basin in search of the legendary golden city of El Dorado. Supplying the colonists became troublesome due to continuing war with Spain. The end of the colony in 1587 is unrecorded; as a result, the Roanoke settlement is referred to as the "Lost Colony." There are multiple hypotheses as to the fate of the colonists, including integration into local indigenous tribes.

Henry Hudson

Henry Hudson was an English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century. Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a prospective northwest passage via a route above the Arctic Circle. He explored the region around the modern-day New York metropolitan area and is known for exploring the river which eventually was named for him, thereby laying the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region. In 1611, Hudson discovered a strait and immense bay on his final expedition while searching for the Northwest Passage. After wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son, and seven others adrift, and they were never seen again.

French Exploration

Giovanni da Verrazzano

The search for a northwest passage to Asia and the burgeoning fur trade in Europe drove the French to explore and settle North America. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.

Jacques Cartier

Later, in 1534, Francis sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River, to investigate whether Asian lands could be reached from the north. His journey in 1534 retraced many of the voyages of the Vikings and established contacts with American Indians in modern-day Canada. He explored some of northern Canada, established friendly relations with the American Indians, and discovered that the St. Lawrence River region had neither abundant gold nor a northwest passage to Asia. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers, but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and native attacks.

Champlain and New France

During the 16th century, the taming of the Siberian wilderness by the Russians had brought about a thriving fur trade, which created a great demand for fur throughout Europe. France was quick to realize that North America held great potential as a provider of fur. Samuel de Champlain began the first permanent settlement of New France and Quebec City in present-day Canada and created a prosperous trade with the American Indians for beaver pelts and other animal hides. Meanwhile, further to the south, French Protestants, called Huguenots, had the opportunity to leave hostile European lands while advancing French claims to the New World. Settlements in present-day Florida and Georgia created tension with Spanish conquistadors, who after conquering Caribbean lands, would begin to expand northwards in search of new territory. From the middle of the 15th century forward, France tried to establish several other colonies throughout North America that failed due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers.

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Initial voyages to the New World by Columbus spurred an era of exploration and invasion by other European empires. Examine the causes and consequences of European exploration and expansion Key Points Spanish exploration of the New World was led by Christopher Columbus and Juan Ponce de Leon, who invaded and colonized great parts of what would become South, Central, and North America.

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English settlement:
https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-america/thirteen-colonies
The Enlightenment:
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/politics/the-enlightenment-on-the-american-revolution-politics-essay.php
How the Acts Effected the Colonies:
http://www.stamp-act-history.com/british-taxation-colonial-america/list-of-british-acts/
Colonists Response:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Finline-images%2FBoston%2520Massacre%2520%2528Gilder-Lehrman%2529.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fnode%2F132758&docid=fFd7FfL3bmWa0M&tbnid=csIf7R_leokJQM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwi-t7yM8tfeAhXJ44MKHdLQDGEQMwhBKAUwBQ..i&w=1024&h=901&safe=strict&bih=969&biw=1920&q=Boston%20massacre&ved=0ahUKEwi-t7yM8tfeAhXJ44MKHdLQDGEQMwhBKAUwBQ&iact=mrc&uact=8

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English Colonial Expansion

Sixteenth-century England was a tumultuous place. Because they could make more money from selling wool than from selling food, many of the nation's landowners were converting farmers' fields into pastures for sheep. This led to a food shortage; at the same time, many agricultural workers lost their jobs.

Did you know? Virginia Dare, the first American-born child of English parents, was born in Roanoke in 1587.

The 16th century was also the age of mercantilism, an extremely competitive economic philosophy that pushed European nations to acquire as many colonies as they could. As a result, for the most part, the English colonies in North America were business ventures. They provided an outlet for England's surplus population and (in some cases) more religious freedom than England did, but their primary purpose was to make money for their sponsors.

The Tobacco Colonies

In 1606, King James I divided the Atlantic seaboard in two, giving the southern half to the London Company (later the Virginia Company) and the northern half to the Plymouth Company.

The first English settlement in North America had actually been established some 20 years before, in 1587, when a group of colonists (91 men, 17 women and nine children) led by Sir Walter Raleigh settled on the island of Roanoke. Mysteriously, by 1590 the Roanoke colony had vanished entirely. Historians still do not know what became of its inhabitants.

In 1606, just a few months after James I issued its charter, the London Company sent 144 men to Virginia on three ships: the Godspeed, the Discovery and the Susan Constant. They reached the Chesapeake Bay in the spring of 1607 and headed about 60 miles up the James River, where they built a settlement they called Jamestown.

The Jamestown colonists had a rough time of it: They were so busy looking for gold and other exportable resources that they could barely feed themselves. It was not until 1616, when Virginia's settlers learned how to grow tobacco, that it seemed the colony might survive. The first enslaved African arrived in Virginia in 1619.

In 1632, the English crown granted about 12 million acres of land at the top of the Chesapeake Bay to Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. This colony, named Maryland after the queen, was similar to Virginia in many ways. Its landowners produced tobacco on large plantations that depended on the labor of indentured servants and (later) enslaved workers.

But unlike Virginia's founders, Lord Baltimore was a Catholic, and he hoped that his colony would be a refuge for his persecuted coreligionists. Maryland became known for its policy of religious toleration for all.

The New England Colonies

The first English emigrants to what would become the New England colonies were a small group of Puritan separatists, later called the Pilgrims, who arrived in Plymouth in 1620 to found Plymouth Colony. Ten years later, a wealthy syndicate known as the Massachusetts Bay Company sent a much larger (and more liberal) group of Puritans to establish another Massachusetts settlement. With the help of local natives, the colonists soon got the hang of farming, fishing and hunting, and Massachusetts prospered.

As the Massachusetts settlements expanded, they formed new colonies in New England. Puritans who thought that Massachusetts was not pious enough formed the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven (the two combined in 1665). Meanwhile, Puritans who thought that Massachusetts was too restrictive formed the colony of Rhode Island, where everyone-including Jewish people-enjoyed complete "liberty in religious concernments." To the north of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, a handful of adventurous settlers formed the colony of New Hampshire.

The Middle Colonies

In 1664, King Charles II gave the territory between New England and Virginia, much of which was already occupied by Dutch traders and landowners called patroons, to his brother James, the Duke of York. The English soon absorbed Dutch New Netherland and renamed it New York.

Most of the Dutch people (as well as the Belgian Flemings and Walloons, French Huguenots, Scandinavians and Germans) who were living there stayed put. This made New York one of the most diverse and prosperous colonies in the New World.

In 1680, the king granted 45,000 square miles of land west of the Delaware River to William Penn, a Quaker who owned large swaths of land in Ireland. Penn's North American holdings became the colony of "Penn's Woods," or Pennsylvania.

Lured by the fertile soil and the religious toleration that Penn promised, people migrated there from all over Europe. Like their Puritan counterparts in New England, most of these emigrants paid their own way to the colonies and had enough money to establish themselves when they arrived. As a result, Pennsylvania soon became a prosperous and relatively egalitarian place.

The Southern Colonies

By contrast, the Carolina colony, a territory that stretched south from Virginia to Florida and west to the Pacific Ocean, was much less cosmopolitan. In its northern half, hardscrabble farmers eked out a living. In its southern half, planters presided over vast estates that produced corn, lumber, beef and pork, and-starting in the 1690s-rice.

These Carolinians had close ties to the English planter colony on the Caribbean island of Barbados, which relied heavily on African slave labor, and many were involved in the slave trade themselves. As a result, slavery played an important role in the development of the Carolina colony. (It split into North Carolina and South Carolina in 1729.)

In 1732, inspired by the need to build a buffer between South Carolina and the Spanish settlements in Florida, the Englishman James Oglethorpe established the Georgia colony. In many ways, Georgia's development mirrored South Carolina's.

The Revolutionary War and the Treaty of Paris

In 1700, there were about 250,000 European settlers and enslaved Africans in North America's English colonies. By 1775, on the eve of revolution, there were an estimated 2.5 million. The colonists did not have much in common, but they were able to band together and fight for their independence.

The American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) was sparked after American colonists chafed over issues like taxation without representation, embodied by laws like The Stamp Act and The Townshend Acts. Mounting tensions came to a head during the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, when the "shot heard round the world" was fired.

It was not without warning; the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770 and the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773 showed the colonists' increasing dissatisfaction with British rule in the colonies.

The Declaration of Independence, issued on July 4, 1776, enumerated the reasons the Founding Fathers felt compelled to break from the rule of King George III and parliament to start a new nation. In September of that year, the Continental Congress declared the "United Colonies" of America to be the "United States of America."

France joined the war on the side of the colonists in 1778, helping the Continental Army conquer the British at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolution and granting the 13 original colonies independence was signed on September 3, 1783.

13 Colonies Flag

During the Revolutionary War, a flag featuring thirteen alternating red and white stripes and thirteen five-pointed stars arranged in a circle was adopted. This variant is also known as the " Betsy Ross Flag," as she was believed to have designed it. The stars and stripes represent the 13 colonies.

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The 13 Colonies: Map, Original States & Facts | HISTORY

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The 13 Colonies were a group of colonies of Great Britain that settled on the Atlantic coast of America in the 17th and 18th centuries. The colonies declared independence in 1776 to found the United States of America.

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The Navigation Acts were trade rules that governed commerce between Britain and its colonies. The first of the Navigation Acts existed for almost two centuries and was repealed in 1849. The laws were designed to protect British economic interests in colonial trade and to protect its industry against the rapidly growing Dutch navigation trade.

The purpose of the Molasses Act was to protect British West Indies exports to the American colonies from the more fertile French and Spanish islands of Martinique and Santo Domingo. It was not designed to raise revenue but it was used as a trade barrier. The duty was set at 6p per gallon of imported foreign molasses, corruption became endemic and illegal trade was widespread. In its first year it collected £330 sterling and during the period of 1738-1741 it collected £76 a year. Not until 1763 was the collection of the duty enforced when the duty was lowered to 2d a gallon and in 1764 it was replaced by the Sugar Act.

The Currency Act of 1751 prohibited the issue of new bills of credit by New England colonies: Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire and Connecticut. Parliament decided to enact the Currency Act of 1751 to control currency depreciation against silver and sterling and to ensure its value for payments of debt to British merchants. A subsequent Currency Act enacted in 1764 extended the policy to all British colonies in the Americas increasing more tension between Britain and America.

It amended the existing 1733 Molasses Act. The Act increased the duty of molasses from 2d to 3d of gallon of imported molasses. It enforced the Navigation Acts by prohibiting vessels to directly transport cargo to the colonies. Vessels had to unload its cargo in Britain, pay duties and reload its cargo before sailing to the colonies. The Sugar Act imposed a £7 a ton on wine imported from Madeira, the Azores and Canary Islands. It added hides, skins, potash and other products to the list of commodities that could be legally exported. The act was strictly enforced through the Vice-Admiralty Courts.

The Stamp Act intended to raise revenue by requiring the purchase of stamps to be placed on public documents, there were 55 documents subject to the duty. Violators were to be prosecuted in the vice-admiralty courts. For the first time the British had levied an explicit tax on the colonist for the purpose of raising revenue, previous taxes were seen as trade taxes and tolerated by colonial residents. Opposition to the tax was widespread as it represented an infringement on their rights. Opposition groups such as the Sons of Liberty sprung everywhere. The Act was nullified in March 1766.

The act required colonial assemblies to provide housing, food and drink to British troops stationed in their towns with the purpose of improving living conditions and decreasing the cost to the crown. Soldiers were to be housed in barracks or empty public buildings and not in private residences. It was the duty of local legislatures to fund the expenses. In 1766 the New York assembly refused to raise the money and in 1767 Parliament passed the New York Suspending Act on July 1767 which suspended the assembly until they complied with the new law.

The Declaratory Act was passed on March 18, 1766, at the same time as the repeal of the 1765 Stamp Act. The act was used as a justification for the repeal of the Stamp Act and as a face saving action. The 1766 Declaratory Act stated that the colonies are subordinate and dependent on the Imperial Crown and Parliament of Britain and that Parliament had the authority to pass laws.

The Act imposed import duties on 72 items including paint, tea, glass and paper. The revenue raised from it was to provide for the salaries of colonial officers and its administration. It also authorized the Supreme Court to issue writs of assistance for violators, established the American Customs Board and expanded Admiralty Courts. Protests against the Townshend Acts led to the Boston Massacre.

The Tea Act of 1773 granted the East India Company exclusive license to import and distribute tea to the American colonies. Tea was sold in America at 10s per pound, half its previous price and less than the cost of smuggled tea. Despite the economic benefit to end consumers of tea, the law damaged the position of independent shippers, smugglers and local shopkeepers. On December 1773 Bostonians dumped 342 chests of tea into the Boston Harbor in an event known as the Boston Tea Party.

As retaliation for the Boston Tea Party, Britain imposed the Coercive Acts in 1774. The Coercive Acts were a package of five laws: Boston Port Act, Massachusetts Government act, Administration of Justice Act, Quartering Act and Quebec Act.

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The Navigation Acts were trade rules that governed commerce between Britain and its colonies. The first of the Navigation Acts existed for almost two centuries and was repealed in 1849. The laws were designed to protect British economic interests in colonial trade and to protect its industry against the rapidly growing Dutch navigation trade.

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Paul Revere's ride:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fthumbs-prod.si-cdn.com%2FBR88kvpjwuZwZv_K-uq12FzCzCI%3D%2F800x600%2Ffilters%3Ano_upscale()%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fpublic-media.si-cdn.com%2Ffiler%2Fa9%2F75%2Fa975e4cd-88a2-45e3-9cb8-5266773d0ea9%2Fpaulrevere.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Fmidnight-ride-paul-revere-and-some-other-guys-180962866%2F&docid=UohoUS8KTPBYIM&tbnid=n8CM-cRUy4wd4M%3A&vet=10ahUKEwigo8va2bLgAhWS0YMKHTbKC64QMwhbKAAwAA..i&w=800&h=600&safe=active&bih=610&biw=1366&q=paul%20revere%20midnight%20ride&ved=0ahUKEwigo8va2bLgAhWS0YMKHTbKC64QMwhbKAAwAA&iact=mrc&uact=8
The Declaration of Independence:
http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/
Battle of Saratoga:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZNpbSP6Glo
Battle of Yorktown/Treaty of Paris:
http://www.ushistory.org/us/11i.asp

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The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

hen in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. - That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, - That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. - Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. - And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

Massachusetts:
John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry

New Jersey:
Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark

Pennsylvania:
Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Virginia:
George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton

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The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America hen in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

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Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris [ushistory.org]

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The Articles of Confederation:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/road-to-revolution/creating-a-nation/v/the-articles-of-confederation
The Great Compramise:
https://www.thoughtco.com/great-compromise-of-1787-3322289
Federalism:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ie6mvIDU2y4
Separation of Power:
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTNkfTZtqA02q-r2U7EwKlTgDnaFoCr8i9_Y5xy7UaGUXKSiZkQig:https://docs-of-freedom.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/image/attachment/37/Ch_1_-_separation_of_power.jpg
The Constitution:
https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-constitution/
The Bill of Rights:
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/bill-of-rights/

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The Articles of Confederation (video) | Khan Academy

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Before the United States had the Constitution, it had the Articles of Confederation, a much weaker government that lasted from 1777 to 1789. In this video, Kim and Leah discuss the pros and cons of the Articles, and the reasons they were discarded in favor of a new Constitution.

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The Great Compromise of 1787, also known as the Sherman Compromise, was an agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between delegates of the states with large and small populations that defined the structure of Congress and the number of representatives each state would have in Congress according to the United States Constitution. Under the agreement proposed by Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman, Congress would be a "bicameral" or two-chambered body, with each state getting a number of representatives in the lower chamber (the House) proportional to its population and two representatives in the upper chamber (the Senate).

Key Takeaways: Great Compromise

Perhaps the greatest debate undertaken by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 centered on how many representatives each state should have in the new government's lawmaking branch, the U.S. Congress. As is often the case in government and politics, resolving a great debate required a great compromise-in this case, the Great Compromise of 1787. Early in the Constitutional Convention, delegates envisioned a Congress consisting of only a single chamber with a certain number of representatives from each state.

Weeks before the Constitutional Convention convened on July 16, 1787, the framers had already made several important decisions about how the Senate should be structured. They rejected a proposal to have the House of Representatives elect senators from lists submitted by the individual state legislatures and agreed that those legislatures should elect their senators. In fact, until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, all U.S. Senators were appointed by the state legislatures rather than elected by the people.

By the end of its first day in session, the convention had already set the minimum age for senators at 30 and the term length at six years, as opposed to 25 for House members, with two-year terms. James Madison explained that these distinctions, based on "the nature of the senatorial trust, which requires greater extent of information and stability of character," would allow the Senate "to proceed with more coolness, with more system, and with more wisdom than the popular[ly elected] branch."

However, the issue of equal representation threatened to destroy the seven-week-old convention. Delegates from the large states believed that because their states contributed proportionally more in taxes and military resources, they should enjoy proportionally greater representation in the Senate as well as in the House. Delegates from small states argued-with similar intensity-that all states should be equally represented in both houses.

When Roger Sherman proposed the Great Compromise, Benjamin Franklin agreed that each state should have an equal vote in the Senate in all matters-except those involving revenue and spending.

Over the Fourth of July holiday, delegates worked out a compromise plan that sidetracked Franklin's proposal. On July 16, the convention adopted the Great Compromise by a suspenseful margin of one vote. Many historians have noted that without that vote, there would likely have been no U.S. Constitution today.

Representation

The burning question was, how many representatives from each state? Delegates from the larger, more populous states favored the Virginia Plan, which called for each state to have a different number of representatives based on the state's population. Delegates from smaller states supported the New Jersey Plan, under which each state would send the same number of representatives to Congress.

Delegates from the smaller states argued that, despite their lower populations, their states held equal legal status to that of the larger states, and that proportional representation would be unfair to them. Delegate Gunning Bedford, Jr. of Delaware notoriously threatened that the small states could be forced to "find some foreign ally of more honor and good faith, who will take them by the hand and do them justice."

However, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts objected to the small states' claim of legal sovereignty, stating that

"we never were independent States, were not such now, and never could be even on the principles of the Confederation. The States and the advocates for them were intoxicated with the idea of their sovereignty."

Sherman's Plan

Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman is credited with proposing the alternative of a "bicameral," or two-chambered Congress made up of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Each state, suggested Sherman, would send an equal number of representatives to the Senate, and one representative to the House for every 30,000 residents of the state.

At the time, all the states except Pennsylvania had bicameral legislatures, so the delegates were familiar with the structure of Congress proposed by Sherman.

Sherman's plan pleased delegates from both the large and small states and became known as the Connecticut Compromise of 1787, or the Great Compromise.

The structure and powers of the new U.S. Congress, as proposed by the delegates of the Constitutional Convention, were explained to the people by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison in the Federalist Papers.

Apportionment and Redistricting

Today, each state is represented in Congress by two Senators and a variable number of members of the House of Representatives based on the state's population as reported in the most recent decennial census. The process of fairly determining the number of members of the House from each state is called " apportionment."

The first census in 1790 counted 4 million Americans. Based on that count, the total number of members elected to the House of Representatives grew from the original 65 to 106. The current House membership of 435 was set by Congress in 1911.

Redistricting to Ensure Equal Representation

To ensure fair and equal representation in the House, the process of " redistricting " is used to establish or change the geographic boundaries within the states from which representatives are elected.

In the 1964 case of Reynolds v. Sims, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that all of the congressional districts in each state must all have roughly the same population.

Through apportionment and redistricting, high population urban areas are prevented from gaining an inequitable political advantage over less populated rural areas.

For example, if New York City were not split into several congressional districts, the vote of a single New York City resident would carry more influence on the House than all of the residents in the rest of the State of New York combined.

How the 1787 Compromise Impacts Modern Politics

While the populations of the states varied in 1787, the differences were far less pronounced than they are today. For example, the 2020 population of Wyoming at 549,914 pales in comparison to California's 39.78 million. As a result, one then-unforeseen political impact of the Great Compromise is that states with smaller populations have disproportionately more power in the modern Senate. While California is home to almost 70% more people than Wyoming, both states have two votes in the Senate.

"The founders never imagined ... the great differences in the population of states that exist today," said political scientist George Edwards III of Texas A&M University. "If you happen to live in a low-population state you get a disproportionately bigger say in American government."

Due to this proportionate imbalance of voting power, interests in smaller states, such as coal mining in West Virginia or corn farming in Iowa, are more likely to benefit from federal funding through tax breaks and crop subsidies.

The Framer's intent to "protect" the smaller states through equal representation in the Senate also manifests itself in the Electoral College, as each state's number of electoral votes is based on its combined number of representatives in the House and Senate. For example, in Wyoming, the state with the smallest population, each of its three electors represents a far smaller group of people than each of the 55 electoral votes cast by California, the most populous state.

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The Great Compromise of 1787, also known as the Sherman Compromise, was an agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between delegates of the states with large and small populations that defined the structure of Congress and the number of representatives each state would have in Congress according to the United States Constitution.

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Why a Constitution?

The need for the Constitution grew out of problems with the Articles of Confederation, which established a "firm league of friendship" between the States, and vested most power in a Congress of the Confederation. This power was, however, extremely limited-the central government conducted diplomacy and made war, set weights and measures, and was the final arbiter of disputes between the States. Crucially, it could not raise any funds itself, and was entirely dependent on the States themselves for the money necessary to operate. Each State sent a delegation of between two and seven members to the Congress, and they voted as a bloc with each State getting one vote. But any decision of consequence required a unanimous vote, which led to a government that was paralyzed and ineffectual.

A movement to reform the Articles began, and invitations to attend a convention in Philadelphia to discuss changes to the Articles were sent to the State legislatures in 1787. In May of that year, delegates from 12 of the 13 States (Rhode Island sent no representatives) convened in Philadelphia to begin the work of redesigning government. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention quickly began work on drafting a new Constitution for the United States.

The Constitutional Convention

A chief aim of the Constitution as drafted by the Convention was to create a government with enough power to act on a national level, but without so much power that fundamental rights would be at risk. One way that this was accomplished was to separate the power of government into three branches, and then to include checks and balances on those powers to assure that no one branch of government gained supremacy. This concern arose largely out of the experience that the delegates had with the King of England and his powerful Parliament. The powers of each branch are enumerated in the Constitution, with powers not assigned to them reserved to the States.

Much of the debate, which was conducted in secret to ensure that delegates spoke their minds, focused on the form that the new legislature would take. Two plans competed to become the new government: the Virginia Plan, which apportioned representation based on the population of each State, and the New Jersey plan, which gave each State an equal vote in Congress. The Virginia Plan was supported by the larger States, and the New Jersey plan preferred by the smaller. In the end, they settled on the Great Compromise (sometimes called the Connecticut Compromise), in which the House of Representatives would represent the people as apportioned by population; the Senate would represent the States apportioned equally; and the President would be elected by the Electoral College. The plan also called for an independent judiciary.

The founders also took pains to establish the relationship between the States. States are required to give "full faith and credit" to the laws, records, contracts, and judicial proceedings of the other States, although Congress may regulate the manner in which the States share records, and define the scope of this clause. States are barred from discriminating against citizens of other States in any way, and cannot enact tariffs against one another. States must also extradite those accused of crimes to other States for trial.

The founders also specified a process by which the Constitution may be amended, and since its ratification, the Constitution has been amended 27 times. In order to prevent arbitrary changes, the process for making amendments is quite onerous. An amendment may be proposed by a two-thirds vote of both Houses of Congress, or, if two-thirds of the States request one, by a convention called for that purpose. The amendment must then be ratified by three-fourths of the State legislatures, or three-fourths of conventions called in each State for ratification. In modern times, amendments have traditionally specified a time frame in which this must be accomplished, usually a period of several years. Additionally, the Constitution specifies that no amendment can deny a State equal representation in the Senate without that State's consent.

With the details and language of the Constitution decided, the Convention got down to the work of actually setting the Constitution to paper. It is written in the hand of a delegate from Pennsylvania, Gouverneur Morris, whose job allowed him some reign over the actual punctuation of a few clauses in the Constitution. He is also credited with the famous preamble, quoted at the top of this page. On September 17, 1787, 39 of the 55 delegates signed the new document, with many of those who refused to sign objecting to the lack of a bill of rights. At least one delegate refused to sign because the Constitution codified and protected slavery and the slave trade.

Ratification

The process set out in the Constitution for its ratification provided for much popular debate in the States. The Constitution would take effect once it had been ratified by nine of the thirteen State legislatures; unanimity was not required. During the debate over the Constitution, two factions emerged: the Federalists, who supported adoption, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed it.

James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay set out an eloquent defense of the new Constitution in what came to be called the Federalist Papers. Published anonymously in the newspapers The Independent Journal and The New York Packet under the name Publius between October 1787 and August 1788, the 85 articles that comprise the Federalist Papers remain to this day an invaluable resource for understanding some of the framers' intentions for the Constitution. The most famous of the articles are No. 10, which warns of the dangers of factions and advocates a large republic, and No. 51, which explains the structure of the Constitution, its checks and balances, and how it protects the rights of the people.

The States proceeded to begin ratification, with some debating more intensely than others. Delaware was the first State to ratify, on December 7, 1787. After New Hampshire became the ninth State to ratify, on June 22, 1788, the Confederation Congress established March 9, 1789 as the date to begin operating under the Constitution. By this time, all the States except North Carolina and Rhode Island had ratified-the Ocean State was the last to ratify on May 29, 1790.

The Bill of Rights

One of the principal points of contention between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists was the lack of an enumeration of basic civil rights in the Constitution. Many Federalists argued, as in Federalist No. 84, that the people surrendered no rights in adopting the Constitution. In several States, however, the ratification debate in some States hinged on the adoption of a bill of rights. The solution was known as the Massachusetts Compromise, in which four States ratified the Constitution but at the same time sent recommendations for amendments to the Congress.

James Madison introduced 12 amendments to the First Congress in 1789. Ten of these would go on to become what we now consider to be the Bill of Rights. One was never passed, while another dealing with Congressional salaries was not ratified until 1992, when it became the 27th Amendment. Based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights, the English Bill of Rights, the writings of the Enlightenment, and the rights defined in the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights contains rights that many today consider to be fundamental to America.

The First Amendment provides that Congress make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise. It protects freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and the right to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

The Second Amendment gives citizens the right to bear arms.

The Third Amendment prohibits the government from quartering troops in private homes, a major grievance during the American Revolution.

The Fourth Amendment protects citizens from unreasonable search and seizure. The government may not conduct any searches without a warrant, and such warrants must be issued by a judge and based on probable cause.

The Fifth Amendment provides that citizens not be subject to criminal prosecution and punishment without due process. Citizens may not be tried on the same set of facts twice and are protected from self-incrimination (the right to remain silent). The amendment also establishes the power of eminent domain, ensuring that private property is not seized for public use without just compensation.

The Sixth Amendment assures the right to a speedy trial by a jury of one's peers, to be informed of the crimes with which one is charged, and to confront the witnesses brought forward by the government. The amendment also provides the accused the right to compel testimony from witnesses, as well as the right to legal representation.

The Seventh Amendment provides that civil cases preserve the right to trial by jury.

The Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishments.

The Ninth Amendment states that the list of rights enumerated in the Constitution is not exhaustive, and that the people retain all rights not enumerated.

The Tenth Amendment assigns all powers not delegated to the United States, or prohibited to the States, to either the States or to the people.
Learn more about the Constitution

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The need for the Constitution grew out of problems with the Articles of Confederation, which established a "firm league of friendship" between the States, and vested most power in a Congress of the Confederation. This power was, however, extremely limited-the central government conducted diplomacy and made war, set weights and measures, and was the final arbiter of disputes between the States.

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The Bill of Rights is one of the three founding documents. It was strongly influenced by the Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason as well as English documents such as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the English Bill of Rights, and the Massachusetts Body of Liberties.
PDF: Bill of Rights
First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Second Amendment
A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

Third Amendment
No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Fourth Amendment
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Fifth Amendment
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Sixth Amendment
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

Seventh Amendment
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Eighth Amendment
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Ninth Amendment
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Tenth Amendment
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Who Wrote the Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution make up the Bill of Rights. James Madison wrote the amendments as a solution to limit government power and protect individual liberties through the Constitution. For example, the Founders saw the ability to speak and worship freely as a natural right protected by the First Amendment. Congress is prohibited from making laws establishing religion or abridging freedom of speech. The Fourth Amendment safeguards citizens' right to be free from unreasonable government intrusion in their homes through the requirement of a warrant.

Why was the Bill of Rights added to the Constitution?

The Constitution lacked limits on government power. Federalists advocated for a strong national government. They believed the people and states automatically kept any powers not given to the federal government. Anti-Federalists wanted power to remain with state and local governments and favored a bill of rights to safeguard individual liberty.

Madison, then a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, altered the Constitution's text where he thought appropriate. However, several representatives, led by Roger Sherman, objected, saying that Congress had no authority to change the wording of the Constitution. Therefore, Madison's changes were presented as a list of amendments that would follow Article VII.

The House approved 17 amendments. Of these, the Senate approved 12, which were sent to the states for approval in August 1789. Ten amendments were approved (or ratified). Virginia's legislature was the final state legislature to ratify the amendments, approving them on December 15, 1791.

Primary Source by James Madison, George Mason (1791)

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Bill of Rights: The 1st Ten Amendments - Bill of Rights Institute

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The Bill of Rights is a founding documents written by James Madison. It makes up the first ten amendments to the Constitution including freedom of speech and due process.

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Political Parties: Crash Course Government and Politics #40

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The Rise of Political Parties:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEmOUHxessE
The Louisiana Purchase:
https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/the-louisiana-purchase/
The Corps of Discovery:
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTCJ39QdHGafjy9uoKbKyUB7KHQfpi5mUQUKEvWMeiJ0SAyNznCJQ
The War of 1812:
https://www.history.com/topics/war-of-1812/war-of-1812
The Monroe Doctrine:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Monroe-Doctrine
Nationalism vs. Sectionalism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1l5NQDAQ-rA

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A look at Jefferson's role in the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the young American republic.

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Table of Contents

1. Causes of the War of 1812

2. The War of 1812 Breaks Out

3. War of 1812: Mixed Results for American Forces

4. Inspiration for 'The Star Spangled Banner'

5. End of the War of 1812 and Its Impact

6. Impact of the War of 1812

In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the young country's future. Causes of the war included British attempts to restrict U.S. trade, the Royal Navy's impressment of American seamen and America's desire to expand its territory.

The United States suffered many costly defeats at the hands of British, Canadian and Native American troops over the course of the War of 1812, including the capture and burning of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., in August 1814. Nonetheless, American troops were able to repulse British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans, boosting national confidence and fostering a new spirit of patriotism. The ratification of the Treaty of Ghent on February 17, 1815, ended the war but left many of the most contentious questions unresolved. Nonetheless, many in the United States celebrated the War of 1812 as a "second war of independence," beginning an era of partisan agreement and national pride.

Causes of the War of 1812

At the outset of the 19th century, Great Britain was locked in a long and bitter conflict with Napoleon Bonaparte's France. In an attempt to cut off supplies from reaching the enemy, both sides attempted to block the United States from trading with the other. In 1807, Britain passed the Orders in Council, which required neutral countries to obtain a license from its authorities before trading with France or French colonies. The Royal Navy also outraged Americans by its practice of impressment, or removing seamen from U.S. merchant vessels and forcing them to serve on behalf of the British.

In 1809, the U.S. Congress repealed Thomas Jefferson 's unpopular Embargo Act, which by restricting trade had hurt Americans more than either Britain or France. Its replacement, the Non-Intercourse Act, specifically prohibited trade with Britain and France. It also proved ineffective, and in turn was replaced with a May 1810 bill stating that if either power dropped trade restrictions against the United States, Congress would in turn resume non-intercourse with the opposing power.

After Napoleon hinted he would stop restrictions, President James Madison blocked all trade with Britain that November. Meanwhile, new members of Congress elected that year-led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun-had begun to agitate for war, based on their indignation over British violations of maritime rights as well as Britain's encouragement of Native American hostility against American westward expansion.

Did you know? The War of 1812 produced a new generation of great American generals, including Andrew Jackson, Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, and helped propel no fewer than four men to the presidency: Jackson, John Quincy Adams, James Monroe and William Henry Harrison.

The War of 1812 Breaks Out

In the fall of 1811, Indiana's territorial governor William Henry Harrison led U.S. troops to victory in the Battle of Tippecanoe. The defeat convinced many Indians in the Northwest Territory (including the celebrated Shawnee chief Tecumseh) that they needed British support to prevent American settlers from pushing them further out of their lands.

Meanwhile, by late 1811 the so-called "War Hawks" in Congress were putting more and more pressure on Madison, and on June 18, 1812, the president signed a declaration of war against Britain. Though Congress ultimately voted for war, both House and Senate were bitterly divided on the issue. Most Western and Southern congressmen supported war, while Federalists (especially New Englanders who relied heavily on trade with Britain) accused war advocates of using the excuse of maritime rights to promote their expansionist agenda.

In order to strike at Great Britain, U.S. forces almost immediately attacked Canada, which was then a British colony. American officials were overly optimistic about the invasion's success, especially given how underprepared U.S. troops were at the time. On the other side, they faced a well-managed defense coordinated by Sir Isaac Brock, the British soldier and administrator in charge in Upper Canada (modern Ontario).

On August 16, 1812, the United States suffered a humiliating defeat after Brock and Tecumseh's forces chased those led by Michigan William Hull across the Canadian border, scaring Hull into surrendering Detroit without any shots fired.

War of 1812: Mixed Results for American Forces

Things looked better for the United States in the West, as Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry's brilliant success in the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813 placed the Northwest Territory firmly under American control. Harrison was subsequently able to retake Detroit with a victory in the Battle of Thames (in which Tecumseh was killed). Meanwhile, the U.S. navy had been able to score several victories over the Royal Navy in the early months of the war. With the defeat of Napoleon's armies in April 1814, however, Britain was able to turn its full attention to the war effort in North America.

As large numbers of troops arrived, British forces raided the Chesapeake Bay and moved in on the U.S. capital, capturing Washington, D.C., on August 24, 1814, and burning government buildings including the Capitol and the White House.

Inspiration for 'The Star Spangled Banner'

On September 11, 1814, at the Battle of Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain in New York, the American navy soundly defeated the British fleet. And on September 13, 1814, Baltimore's Fort McHenry withstood 25 hours of bombardment by the British Navy.

The following morning, the fort's soldiers hoisted an enormous American flag, a sight that inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that would later be set to music and become known as " The Star-Spangled Banner." (Set to the tune of an old English drinking song, it would later be adopted as the U.S. national anthem.) British forces subsequently left the Chesapeake Bay and began gathering their efforts for a campaign against New Orleans.

End of the War of 1812 and Its Impact

By that time, peace talks had already begun at Ghent (modern Belgium), and Britain moved for an armistice after the failure of the assault on Baltimore. In the negotiations that followed, the United States gave up its demands to end impressment, while Britain promised to leave Canada's borders unchanged and abandon efforts to create an Indian state in the Northwest. On December 24, 1814, commissioners signed the Treaty of Ghent, which would be ratified the following February.

On January 8, 1815, unaware that peace had been concluded, British forces mounted a major attack in the Battle of New Orleans, only to meet with defeat at the hands of future U.S. president Andrew Jackson 's army. News of the battle boosted sagging U.S. morale and left Americans with the taste of victory, despite the fact that the country had achieved none of its pre-war objectives.

Impact of the War of 1812

Though the War of 1812 is remembered as a relatively minor conflict in the United States and Britain, it looms large for Canadians and for Native Americans, who see it as a decisive turning point in their losing struggle to govern themselves. In fact, the war had a far-reaching impact in the United States, as the Treaty of Ghent ended decades of bitter partisan infighting in government and ushered in the so-called "Era of Good Feelings."

The war also marked the demise of the Federalist Party, which had been accused of being unpatriotic for its antiwar stance, and reinforced a tradition of Anglophobia that had begun during the Revolutionary War. Perhaps most importantly, the war's outcome boosted national self-confidence and encouraged the growing spirit of American expansionism that would shape the better part of the 19th century.

HISTORY Vault

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In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the young country's future.

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Why was the Monroe Doctrine important?

What were the basic tenets of the Monroe Doctrine?

What motives were behind the Monroe Doctrine?

Who worked on the Monroe Doctrine?

How did the Monroe Doctrine change over time?

Monroe Doctrine, (December 2, 1823), cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy enunciated by Pres. James Monroe in his annual message to Congress. Declaring that the Old World and New World had different systems and must remain distinct spheres, Monroe made four basic points: (1) the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers; (2) the United States recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere; (3) the Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization; and (4) any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States:

In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense....

With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.

The origin and framing of the Monroe Doctrine

The doctrine was an outgrowth of concern in both Britain and the United States that the Continental powers would attempt to restore Spain's former colonies, in Latin America, many of which had become newly independent nations. The United States was also concerned about Russia's territorial ambitions in the northwest coast of North America. As a consequence, George Canning, the British foreign minister, suggested a joint U.S.-British declaration forbidding future colonization in Latin America. Monroe was initially favourable to the idea, and former presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison concurred. But Secretary of State John Quincy Adams argued that the United States should issue a statement of American policy exclusively, and his view ultimately prevailed.

American History and Politics Quiz

The first draft of the message included a reproof of the French for their invasion of Spain, an acknowledgment of Greek independence in the revolt against Turkey, and some further indications of American concern in European affairs. Adams argued for the better part of two days against such expressions, which were finally eliminated from the message.

Adams noted in his diary,

The ground that I wish to take is that of earnest remonstrance against the interference of the European powers by force in South America, but to disclaim all interference on our part with Europe; to make an American cause, and adhere inflexibly to that.

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Monroe Doctrine | History, Summary, & Significance

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Monroe Doctrine, U.S. foreign policy enunciated by President James Monroe in 1823 that the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs and wars or with existing colonies in the Western Hemisphere. European intervention in the hemisphere (closed to future colonization) would be seen as a hostile act against the U.S.

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An ambiguous, controversial concept, Jacksonian Democracy in the strictest sense refers simply to the ascendancy of Andrew Jackson and the Democratic party after 1828. More loosely, it alludes to the entire range of democratic reforms that proceeded alongside the Jacksonians' triumph-from expanding the suffrage to restructuring federal institutions. From another angle, however, Jacksonianism appears as a political impulse tied to slavery, the subjugation of Native Americans, and the celebration of white supremacy-so much so that some scholars have dismissed the phrase "Jacksonian Democracy" as a contradiction in terms.

Such tendentious revisionism may provide a useful corrective to older enthusiastic assessments, but it fails to capture a larger historical tragedy: Jacksonian Democracy was an authentic democratic movement, dedicated to powerful, at times radical, egalitarian ideals-but mainly for white men.

Socially and intellectually, the Jacksonian movement represented not the insurgency of a specific class or region but a diverse, sometimes testy national coalition. Its origins stretch back to the democratic stirrings of the American Revolution, the Antifederalists of the 1780s and 1790s, and the Jeffersonian Democratic Republicans. More directly, it arose out of the profound social and economic changes of the early nineteenth century.

Recent historians have analyzed these changes in terms of a market revolution. In the Northeast and Old Northwest, rapid transportation improvements and immigration hastened the collapse of an older yeoman and artisan economy and its replacement by cash-crop agriculture and capitalist manufacturing. In the South, the cotton boom revived a flagging plantation slave economy, which spread to occupy the best lands of the region. In the West, the seizure of lands from Native Americans and mixed-blood Hispanics opened up fresh areas for white settlement and cultivation-and for speculation.

Not everyone benefited equally from the market revolution, least of all those nonwhites for whom it was an unmitigated disaster. Jacksonianism, however, would grow directly from the tensions it generated within white society. Mortgaged farmers and an emerging proletariat in the Northeast, nonslaveholders in the South, tenants and would-be yeomen in the West-all had reasons to think that the spread of commerce and capitalism would bring not boundless opportunities but new forms of dependence. And in all sections of the country, some of the rising entrepreneurs of the market revolution suspected that older elites would block their way and shape economic development to suit themselves.

By the 1820s, these tensions fed into a many-sided crisis of political faith. To the frustration of both self-made men and plebeians, certain eighteenth-century elitist republican assumptions remained strong, especially in the seaboard states, mandating that government be left to a natural aristocracy of virtuous, propertied gentlemen. Simultaneously, some of the looming shapes of nineteenth-century capitalism-chartered corporations, commercial banks, and other private institutions-presaged the consolidation of a new kind of moneyed aristocracy. And increasingly after the War of 1812, government policy seemed to combine the worst of both old and new, favoring the kinds of centralized, broad constructionist, top-down forms of economic development that many thought would aid men of established means while deepening inequalities among whites. Numerous events during and after the misnamed Era of Good Feelings-among them the neo-Federalist rulings of John Marshall's Supreme Court, the devastating effects of the panic of 1819, the launching of John Quincy Adams's and Henry Clay's American System-confirmed a growing impression that power was steadily flowing into the hands of a small, self-confident minority.

Proposed cures for this sickness included more democracy and a redirection of economic policy. In the older states, reformers fought to lower or abolish property requirements for voting and officeholding, and to equalize representation. A new generation of politicians broke with the old republican animus against mass political parties. Urban workers formed labor movements and demanded political reforms. Southerners sought low tariffs, greater respect for states' rights, and a return to strict constructionism. Westerners clamored for more and cheaper land and for relief from creditors, speculators, and bankers (above all, the hated Second Bank of the United States).

It has confounded some scholars that so much of this ferment eventually coalesced behind Andrew Jackson-a one-time land speculator, opponent of debtor relief, and fervent wartime nationalist. By the 1820s, however, Jackson's personal business experiences had long since altered his opinions about speculation and paper money, leaving him eternally suspicious of the credit system in general and banks in particular. His career as an Indian fighter and conqueror of the British made him a popular hero, especially among land-hungry settlers. His enthusiasm for nationalist programs had diminished after 1815, as foreign threats receded and economic difficulties multiplied. Above all, Jackson, with his own hardscrabble origins, epitomized contempt for the old republican elitism, with its hierarchical deference and its wariness of popular democracy.

After losing the "corrupt bargain" presidential election of 1824, Jackson expanded upon his political base in the lower and mid-South, pulling together many strands of disaffection from around the country. But in successfully challenging President John Quincy Adams in 1828, Jackson's supporters played mainly on his image as a manly warrior, framing the contest as one between Adams who could write and Jackson who could fight. Only after taking power did the Jacksonian Democracy refine its politics and ideology. Out of that self-definition came a fundamental shift in the terms of national political debate.

The Jacksonians' basic policy thrust, both in Washington and in the states, was to rid government of class biases and dismantle the top-down, credit-driven engines of the market revolution. The war on the Second Bank of the United States and subsequent hard-money initiatives set the tone-an unyielding effort to remove the hands of a few wealthy, unelected private bankers from the levers of the nation's economy. Under the Jacksonians, government-sponsored internal improvements generally fell into disfavor, on the grounds that they were unnecessary expansions of centralized power, beneficial mainly to men with connections. The Jacksonians defended rotation in office as a solvent to entrenched elitism. To aid hard-pressed farmers and planters, they pursued an unrelenting (some say unconstitutional) program of Indian removal, while backing cheap land prices and settlers' preemption rights.

Around these policies, Jacksonian leaders built a democratic ideology aimed primarily at voters who felt injured by or cut off from the market revolution. Updating the more democratic pieces of the republican legacy, they posited that no republic could long survive without a citizenry of economically independent men. Unfortunately, they claimed, that state of republican independence was exceedingly fragile. According to the Jacksonians, all of human history had involved a struggle between the few and the many, instigated by a greedy minority of wealth and privilege that hoped to exploit the vast majority. And this struggle, they declared, lay behind the major problems of the day, as the "associated wealth" of America sought to augment its domination.

The people's best weapons were equal rights and limited government-ensuring that the already wealthy and favored classes would not enrich themselves further by commandeering, enlarging, and then plundering public institutions. More broadly, the Jacksonians proclaimed a political culture predicated on white male equality, contrasting themselves with other self-styled reform movements. Nativism, for example, struck them as a hateful manifestation of elitist puritanism. Sabbatarians, temperance advocates, and other would-be moral uplifters, they insisted, should not impose righteousness on others. Beyond position-taking, the Jacksonians propounded a social vision in which any white man would have the chance to secure his economic independence, would be free to live as he saw fit, under a system of laws and representative government utterly cleansed of privilege.

As Jacksonian leaders developed these arguments, they roused a noisy opposition-some of it coming from elements of the coalition that originally elected Jackson president. Reactionary southern planters, centered in South Carolina, worried that the Jacksonians' egalitarianism might endanger their own prerogatives-and perhaps the institution of slavery-if southern nonslaveholders carried them too far. They also feared that Jackson, their supposed champion, lacked sufficient vigilance in protecting their interests-fears that provoked the nullification crisis in 1832-1833 and Jackson's crushing of extremist threats to federal authority. A broader southern opposition emerged in the late 1830s, mainly among wealthy planters alienated by the disastrous panic of 1837 and suspicious of Jackson's successor, the Yankee Martin Van Buren. In the rest of the country, meanwhile, the Jacksonian leadership's continuing hard-money, antibank campaigns offended more conservative men-the so-called Bank Democrats-who, whatever their displeasure with the Second Bank of the United States, did not want to see the entire paper money credit system dramatically curtailed.

The oppositionist core, however, came from a cross-class coalition, strongest in rapidly commercializing areas, that viewed the market revolution as the embodiment of civilized progress. Far from pitting the few against the many, oppositionists argued, carefully guided economic growth would provide more for everyone. Government encouragement-in the form of tariffs, internal improvements, a strong national bank, and aid to a wide range of benevolent institutions-was essential to that growth. Powerfully influenced by the evangelical Second Great Awakening, core oppositionists saw in moral reform not a threat to individual independence but an idealistic cooperative effort to relieve human degradation and further expand the store of national wealth. Eager to build up the country as it already existed, they were cool to territorial expansion. Angered by Jackson's large claims for presidential power and rotation in office, they charged that the Jacksonians had brought corruption and executive tyranny, not democracy. Above all, they believed that personal rectitude and industriousness, not alleged political inequalities, dictated men's failures or successes. The Jacksonians, with their spurious class rhetoric, menaced that natural harmony of interests between rich and poor which, if only left alone, would eventually bring widespread prosperity.

By 1840, both the Jacksonian Democracy and its opposite (now organized as the Whig party) had built formidable national followings and had turned politics into a debate over the market revolution itself. Yet less than a decade later, sectional contests linked to slavery promised to drown out that debate and fracture both major parties. In large measure, that turnabout derived from the racial exclusiveness of the Jacksonians' democratic vision.

The Jacksonian mainstream, so insistent on the equality of white men, took racism for granted. To be sure, there were key radical exceptions-people like Frances Wright and Robert Dale Owen-who were drawn to the Democracy's cause. North and South, the democratic reforms achieved by plebeian whites-especially those respecting voting and representation-came at the direct expense of free blacks. Although informed by constitutional principles and genuine paternalist concern, the Jacksonian rationale for territorial expansion assumed that Indians (and, in some areas, Hispanics) were lesser peoples. As for slavery, the Jacksonians were determined, on both practical and ideological grounds, to keep the issue out of national affairs. Few mainstream Jacksonians had moral qualms about black enslavement or any desire to meddle with it where it existed. More important, they believed that the mounting antislavery agitation would distract attention from the artificial inequalities among white men and upset the party's delicate intersectional alliances. Deep down, many suspected that the slavery issue was but a smokescreen thrown up by disgruntled elitists looking to regain the initiative from the real people's cause.

Through the 1830s and 1840s, the mainstream Jacksonian leadership, correctly confident that their views matched those of the white majority, fought to keep the United States a democracy free from the slavery question-condemning abolitionists as fomenters of rebellion, curtailing abolitionist mail campaigns, enforcing the congressional gag rule that squelched debate on abolitionist petitions, while fending off the more extremist proslavery southerners. In all of this fighting, however, the Jacksonians also began to run afoul of their professions about white egalitarianism. Opposing antislavery was one thing; silencing the heretics with gag rules amounted to tampering with white people's equal rights. More important, Jacksonian proexpansionism-what one friendly periodical, the Democratic Review boosted as "manifest destiny"-only intensified sectional rifts. Slaveholders, quite naturally, thought they were entitled to see as much new territory as legally possible opened up to slavery. But that prospect appalled northern whites who had hoped to settle in lily white areas, untroubled by that peculiar institution whose presence (they believed) would degrade the status of white free labor.

It would take until the 1850s before these contradictions fully unraveled the Jacksonian coalition. But as early as the mid-1840s, during the debates over Texas annexation, the Mexican War, and the Wilmot Proviso, sectional cleavages had grown ominous. The presidential candidacy of Martin Van Buren on the Free-Soil ticket in 1848-a protest against growing southern power within the Democracy-amply symbolized northern Democratic alienation. Southern slaveholder Democrats, for their part, began to wonder if anything short of positive federal protection for slavery would spell doom for their class-and the white man's republic. In the middle remained a battered Jacksonian mainstream, ever hopeful that by raising the old issues, avoiding slavery, and resorting to the language of popular sovereignty, the party and the nation might be held together. Led by men like Stephen A. Douglas, these mainstream compromisers held sway into the mid-1850s, but at the cost of constant appeasement of southern concerns, further exacerbating sectional turmoil. Jacksonian Democracy was buried at Fort Sumter, but it had died many years earlier.

There was a grim, ironic justice to the Jacksonians' fate. Having tapped into the disaffection of the 1820s and 1830s and molded it into an effective national party, they advanced the democratization of American politics. By denouncing the moneyed aristocracy and proclaiming the common man, they also helped politicize American life, broadening electoral participation to include an overwhelming majority of the electorate. Yet this very politicization would ultimately prove the Jacksonian Democracy's undoing. Once the slavery issue entered the concerns of even a small portion of the electorate, it proved impossible to remove without trampling on some of the very egalitarian principles the Jacksonians were pledged to uphold.

None of this, however, should be a source of self-satisfaction to modern Americans. Although the Jacksonian Democracy died in the 1850s, it left a powerful legacy, entwining egalitarian aspirations and class justice with the presumptions of white supremacy. Over the decades after the Civil War, that legacy remained a bulwark of a new Democratic party, allying debt-ridden farmers and immigrant workers with the Solid South. The Second Reconstruction of the 1950s and 1960s forced Democrats to reckon with the party's past-only to see party schismatics and Republicans pick up the theme. And at the close of the twentieth century, the tragic mix of egalitarianism and racial prejudice so central to the Jacksonian Democracy still infected American politics, poisoning some of its best impulses with some of its worst.

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Jacksonian Democracy - Definition, Summary & Significance

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Jacksonian Democracy refers to the ascendancy of President Andrew Jackson (in office 1829 -1837)and the Democratic party after the election of 1828. More loosely, it alludes to the entire range of democratic reforms that proceeded during Jacksons' tenure-from expanding suffrage to restructuring federal institutions, but also slavery, the subjugation of Native Americans, and the celebration of white supremacy.

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Jacksonian Democracy:
https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/jacksonian-democracy
Native American Removal:
https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/indian.html
Trails West:
https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/photos/000/315/31543.jpg
Texas Becomes a Nation:
https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/republic/index.html
Manifest Destiny:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/sectional-tension-1850s/v/manifest-destiny
Mexican-American War
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7AXuxcUleY

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The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders. A few tribes went peacefully, but many resisted the relocation policy. During the fall and winter of 1838 and 1839, the Cherokees were forcibly moved west by the United States government. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died on this forced march, which became known as the "Trail of Tears."

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Research Guides: Indian Removal Act: Primary Documents in American History: Introduction

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The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders. A few tribes went peacefully, but many resisted the relocation policy.

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By 1835, Antonio López de Santa Anna had established himself as a dictator in Mexico. Among Anglo-American colonists and Tejanos alike, the call for Texas independence grew louder. On March 2, 1836, a delegation at Washington-on-the-Brazos adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence, and thus was born the Republic of Texas.

Santa Anna had brought his army to Texas to put down the rebellion, and events followed in quick succession. At the time the Declaration was issued, many Texans were fleeing their homes eastward ahead of Santa Anna's army, in what became known as the Runaway Scrape. The Alamo fell to Santa Anna on March 6, and over 300 unarmed Texan prisoners were massacred at Goliad on March 27. Sam Houston's revolutionary army was also retreating eastward as Santa Anna drove for the coast to capture Texas seaports. On April 21, the Texan army took a stand in the bayou country near present-day Houston at a site called San Jacinto. They attacked Santa Anna's army while it was sleeping, and, in a battle lasting only 18 minutes, routed the Mexican army and captured Santa Anna.

Many Texans favored immediate annexation by the United States. However, the proposals went nowhere, because of the risk of continued war with Mexico and Texas' shaky financial status. Even after San Jacinto, Mexico refused to recognize Texas's independence and continued to raid the Texas border. The new government had neither money nor credit, and no governmental structures were in place. Rebuffed by the United States, Texans went about the business of slowly forming a stable government and nation. Despite many difficulties and continued fighting both with Mexico and with Indian tribes, the Texas frontier continued to attract thousands of settlers each year.

In 1841, Santa Anna again became president of Mexico and renewed hostilities with Texas. By this time, sympathy for the Texan cause had grown in the United States, and in 1845, annexation was at last approved. Hostilities with Mexico and the Indians reached a settlement, and Texas was admitted as a state on December 29, 1845. The Republic of Texas, after nine years, eleven months, and seventeen days, was no more.

Subject categories and links in this Republic of Texas online exhibit:

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By 1835, Antonio López de Santa Anna had established himself as a dictator in Mexico. Among Anglo-American colonists and Tejanos alike, the call for Texas independence grew louder. On March 2, 1836, a delegation at Washington-on-the-Brazos adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence, and thus was born the Republic of Texas.

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When Was the Industrial Revolution?

Though a few innovations were developed as early as the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution began in earnest by the 1830s and 1840s in Britain, and soon spread to the rest of the world, including the United States.

Modern historians often refer to this period as the First Industrial Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.

Spinning Jenny

Thanks in part to its damp climate, ideal for raising sheep, Britain had a long history of producing textiles like wool, linen and cotton. But prior to the Industrial Revolution, the British textile business was a true "cottage industry," with the work performed in small workshops or even homes by individual spinners, weavers and dyers.

Starting in the mid-18th century, innovations like the spinning jenny (a wooden frame with multiple spindles), the flying shuttle, the water frame and the power loom made weaving cloth and spinning yarn and thread much easier. Producing cloth became faster and required less time and far less human labor.

More efficient, mechanized production meant Britain's new textile factories could meet the growing demand for cloth both at home and abroad, where the British Empire's many overseas colonies provided a captive market for its goods. In addition to textiles, the British iron industry also adopted new innovations.

Chief among the new techniques was the smelting of iron ore with coke (a material made by heating coal) instead of the traditional charcoal. This method was both cheaper and produced higher-quality material, enabling Britain's iron and steel production to expand in response to demand created by the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) and the later growth of the railroad industry.

Impact of Steam Power

An icon of the Industrial Revolution broke onto the scene in the early 1700s, when Thomas Newcomen designed the prototype for the first modern steam engine. Called the "atmospheric steam engine," Newcomen's invention was originally applied to power the machines used to pump water out of mine shafts.

In the 1760s, Scottish engineer James Watt began tinkering with one of Newcomen's models, adding a separate water condenser that made it far more efficient. Watt later collaborated with Matthew Boulton to invent a steam engine with a rotary motion, a key innovation that would allow steam power to spread across British industries, including flour, paper, and cotton mills, iron works, distilleries, waterworks and canals.

Just as steam engines needed coal, steam power allowed miners to go deeper and extract more of this relatively cheap energy source. The demand for coal skyrocketed throughout the Industrial Revolution and beyond, as it would be needed to run not only the factories used to produce manufactured goods, but also the railroads and steamships used for transporting them.

Transportation During the Industrial Revolution

Britain's road network, which had been relatively primitive prior to industrialization, soon saw substantial improvements, and more than 2,000 miles of canals were in use across Britain by 1815.

In the early 1800s, Richard Trevithick debuted a steam-powered locomotive, and in 1830 similar locomotives started transporting freight (and passengers) between the industrial hubs of Manchester and Liverpool. By that time, steam-powered boats and ships were already in wide use, carrying goods along Britain's rivers and canals as well as across the Atlantic.

Banking and Communication in the Industrial Revolution

In 1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith, who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published The Wealth of Nations. In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.

Banks and industrial financiers soon rose to new prominence during this period, as well as a factory system dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was established in London in the 1770s; the New York Stock Exchange was founded in the early 1790s.

The latter part of the Industrial Revolution also saw key advances in communication methods, as people increasingly saw the need to communicate efficiently over long distances. In 1837, British inventors William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented the first commercial telegraphy system, even as Samuel Morse and other inventors worked on their own versions in the United States.

Cooke and Wheatstone's system would be used for railroad signaling, as the speed of the new steam-powered trains created a need for more sophisticated means of communication.

Labor Movement

Though many people in Britain had begun moving to the cities from rural areas before the Industrial Revolution, this process accelerated dramatically with industrialization, as the rise of large factories turned smaller towns into major cities over the span of decades. This rapid urbanization brought significant challenges, as overcrowded cities suffered from pollution, inadequate sanitation, miserable housing conditions and a lack of safe drinking water.

Meanwhile, even as industrialization increased economic output overall and improved the standard of living for the middle and upper classes, poor and working class people continued to struggle. The mechanization of labor created by technological innovation had made working in factories increasingly tedious (and sometimes dangerous), and many workers-including children-were forced to work long hours for pitifully low wages.

Such dramatic changes and abuses fueled opposition to industrialization worldwide, including the " Luddites," known for their violent resistance to changes in Britain's textile industry.

Did you know? The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is derived from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned Ludd, though he may have been an apocryphal figure.

In the decades to come, outrage over substandard working and living conditions would fuel the formation of labor unions, as well as the passage of new child labor laws and public health regulations in both Britain and the United States, all aimed at improving life for working class and poor citizens who had been negatively impacted by industrialization.

The Industrial Revolution in the United States

The beginning of industrialization in the United States is usually pegged to the opening of a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793 by the recent English immigrant Samuel Slater. Slater had worked at one of the mills opened by Richard Arkwright (inventor of the water frame) mills, and despite laws prohibiting the emigration of textile workers, he brought Arkwright's designs across the Atlantic. He later built several other cotton mills in New England, and became known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution."

The United States followed its own path to industrialization, spurred by innovations "borrowed" from Britain as well as by homegrown inventors like Eli Whitney. Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin (short for "engine") revolutionized the nation's cotton industry (and strengthened the hold of slavery over the cotton-producing South).

By the end of the 19th century, with the so-called Second Industrial Revolution underway, the United States would also transition from a largely agrarian society to an increasingly urbanized one, with all the attendant problems.

By the mid-19th century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of Europe and America's northeastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S. had become the world's leading industrial nation.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Historians continue to debate many aspects of industrialization, including its exact timeline, why it began in Britain as opposed to other parts of the world and the idea that it was actually more of a gradual evolution than a revolution. The positives and negatives of the Industrial Revolution are complex.

On one hand, unsafe working conditions were rife and environmental pollution from coal and gas are legacies we still struggle with today. On the other, the move to cities and ingenious inventions that made clothing, communication and transportation more affordable and accessible to the masses changed the course of world history.

Regardless of these questions, the Industrial Revolution had a transformative economic, social and cultural impact, and played an integral role in laying the foundations for modern society.

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Sources

Robert C. Allen, The Industrial Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007
Claire Hopley, "A History of the British Cotton Industry." British Heritage Travel, July 29, 2006
William Rosen, The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry, and Invention. New York: Random House, 2010
Gavin Weightman, The Industrial Revolutionaries: The Making of the Modern World, 1776-1914. New York: Grove Press, 2007
Matthew White, "Georgian Britain: The Industrial Revolution." British Library, October 14, 2009

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Industrial Revolution: Definition, Inventions & Dates - HISTORY

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The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s, a time of great growth in technologies and inventions, transformed rural societies into industrialized, urban ones.

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Industrial Revolution:
https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/industrial-revolution
Interchangeable Parts:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/interchangeable-parts
The Rise of Organized Labor:
https://youtu.be/4y6iTX1Hs4U
The Transportation Revolution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N5FDMIDcyn0
Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin:
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
The Life of a Slave:
http://www.ushistory.org/us/27b.asp

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Interchangeable parts | industrial engineering

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Interchangeable parts, identical components that can be substituted one for another, particularly important in the history of manufacturing. Mass production, which transformed the organization of work, came about by the development of the machine-tool industry by a series of 19th-century

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Interpretation of Slave Quarter, Carter's Grove Plantation, Williamsburg

Slave life varied greatly depending on many factors.

Life on the fields meant working sunup to sundown six days a week and having food sometimes not suitable for an animal to eat. Plantation slaves lived in small shacks with a dirt floor and little or no furniture. Life on large plantations with a cruel overseer was oftentimes the worst. However, work for a small farm owner who was not doing well could mean not being fed.

The stories about cruel overseers were certainly true in some cases. The overseer was paid to get the most work out of the slaves; therefore, overseers often resorted to whatever means was necessary. Sometimes the slaves would drive the overseer off the plantation in desperation. When slaves complained that they were being unfairly treated, slaveholders would most often be very protective of their "property" and would release the overseer.

Slaves who worked inside the plantation homes often had better living and working conditions than slaves who worked in the fields.

In some cases, a driver was used rather than an overseer. The difference between the overseer and the driver was simple: drivers were slaves themselves. A driver might be convinced by a master to manage the slaves for better privileges. Drivers were usually hated by the rest of the slaves. These feelings often led to violence.

Large plantations often required some slaves to work in the plantation home. These slaves enjoyed far better circumstances. Domestic slaves lived in better quarters and received better food. They sometimes were able to travel with the owner's family. In many cases, a class system developed within the slave community. Domestic slaves did not often associate themselves with plantation slaves. They often aspired to arrange courtships for their children with other domestic slaves.

This Slave Code booklet for Washington D.C., was published in 1862, only one month before Lincoln abolished slavery in the nation's capitol. More lenient than most states' slave codes, the District's code allowed slaves to hire themselves out and live apart from their masters.

As the Peculiar Institution spread across the South, many states passed "slave codes," which outlined the rights of slaves and the acceptable treatment and rules regarding slaves. Slave codes varied from state to state, but there were many common threads. One could not do business with a slave without the prior consent of the owner. Slaves could be awarded as prizes in raffles, wagered in gambling, offered as security for loans, and transferred as gifts from one person to another.

A slave was not permitted to keep a gun. If caught carrying a gun, the slave received 39 lashes and forfeited the gun. Blacks were held incompetent as witnesses in legal cases involving whites. The education of slaves was prohibited. Anyone operating a school or teaching reading and writing to any African-American in Missouri could be punished by a fine of not less than $500 and up to six months in jail. Slaves could not assemble without a white person present. Marriages between slaves were not considered legally binding. Therefore, owners were free to split up families through sale.

Any slave found guilty of arson, rape of a white woman, or conspiracy to rebel was put to death. However, since the slave woman was chattel, a white man who raped her was guilty only of a trespass on the master's property. Rape was common on the plantation, and very few cases were ever reported.

Virginia's Slave Code of 1705
Virginia's slave code of 1705 was designed to settle the questions about the status of non-Christian servants... they were all made slaves. The law served as a model for codes in other colonies. This webpage from PBS provides a brief overview and links to related topics.

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Antebellum Slavery
What happens when an ardent abolitionist marries a member of one of the largest slaveholders in the South? A disastrous marriage - and a moving epic of slavery in the South. Read excerpts from the account, which includes physical and mental abuse as well as the story of the largest sale of human beings in the history of the United States. Links to other moving stories surrounding antebellum (before the war) slavery abound as well.

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Virginia's slave codes
If any slave resist his master ... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction ... the master shall be free of all punishment ... as if such accident never happened. Read more about the 1705 slave code which served as a model for future laws.

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Few slaves wrote letters or diaries because they weren't allowed to read or write, but some broke the rules and wrote down their stories.
Learn More...

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Slave Life and Slave Codes [ushistory.org]

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Immigration to the United States in the 1800s:
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/immgnts/
Second Great Awakening:
http://www.ushistory.org/us/22c.asp
Abolitionists Movement Prior to the Civil War:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/abolitionist-movement
Women's Rights Movement in the 1800s:
https://libguides.msubillings.edu/c.php?g=902154&p=6492383
Compromise of 1850:
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
Kansas/Nebraska Act
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QYP854GAPAU
Lincoln/Douglass Debates
https://www.britannica.com/event/Lincoln-Douglas-debates
Election of 1860
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TcRZzKV2PI9CNQR6GDTxT1FAmGeVBO/P12P1rq60kM3z+f9RXUDeGoQizzUfOJJ9yat1HaECBy0+QFSUHUhNMuOBzqA3xQec/aHw60rYjE3rfeHJCrMeEADflJbl0rH9m+zgS5ZxOKtgd54zb3yg/Dmn4jEH3r2HtFgkvICy5gp1AEll2Ijn6fKsNikU3u471ScpKoJkKpB8UkkHXY6+Gg2WI7PWb9tZgjcRt/UVlsd9m9jvG7tEXvIJmWjLsTmOnqKjsYu9YWFc5TyPLatHZ4s3dILdom5cACZjAbmWJ6Dc+XyoJuG8Pt4Y27dsDKylTpA2AGg2Gn1rz//APyC2b923A7lrhdVIGUaGB7AwPKtJx/juMwZQ/slu8sx33elSW3nJl8I96G4fiOKxTjOiJ3pAhWzZdYgnrBB9qD0vhrhrSEaAoPyFXKr4a0EUKNlED2qYnSg4mqfEyRbZhuviH/Lr+QI96mR6S8uYEdRHzFBmu0GIKsQASN/Y61Lw/iwhVIOunp/Wq3aLEZLKmT4kGvsR+grO8NvANM0G0uXXB1OYVyuSCTtO+/X5UmGuSqlgZPLp61Gt6AZEMWI9gf4jzFBbt3BtrAG/KpOFWcqLPxEFj6uxcj6ih74ybbciFIn2Me21Gm006R+QoHs0VG90daju3dKo4vEBVkn+/Ogo9tszYDEKjQTbPWIEEjTqNPevmexedX+JlBbUpGbUKInYCK+mWxIZWU7EER1n+zXjON7KjDX8jDOjtmQjQgaAHWYaR5/WgrdlOI45by2rZuNbvEoO9k5SAZOmxifI1a7V4niOHxfdreYAyym2InclddyIO/tW17N4Zf22zbn/Dt5oMDVoA2gTANaXH8GsYhu7u5S2YskwTHOBQeXcF7X4wKM7tcRtMt1cjEHmjzBI5rTe22A72zbxA/xEIXeAVJO/oYr1z/ZFm1aKm0mUDYKNY2PMk/lWS4vgTiA9s+BMsCBOp20+seVB5xwC2e8SGOZGVZnUGTAU+23PWvpDBzkWd8on1gV512G7JrZuh7ieIAuQYMNJVSeUxmPlJr0Nr0CgsB6lttVFbk1btUEjGHB6gj8j/OuqtxO+EVXIkBvzBFdQXbf605jUWFaVDcmAPzAqVqAbxG+QulBExxBg7UW4moNZ82RvNAUs4mTHtNQcewFqBiCgN2z8D8wD4Ss8wQx0pcIRmE8quW8VYvO+FLAuEzMoOoB8+o0McpHWgzELcQwdPKmXL17QWAEUCHuEZmI0hFnUD6VR45hb2CLNlbJm3AlSOum3pVfA9p4YeNDzjNB9waB/HMfcICA3yTyGGVgPPNmP1012q72LwhGItxMZSWDAKQRsYGg51bxPah7iZQiidPiBPsBRns3wx7Ra7e/xGER0Bj5nQUGlqO68Co++1qrjMQOtAl29sJq3acECg6jNrP97a9dI+VEku5VJOwE/Kgxfb6/lWx07v8AWrfYLh/7s3nywRoTusazry/vlTe2OHzcOTEMVzW0QszaaQJERGrEVo+z1trmDtC6gUtbgqBAgjTTlIigpX7yhlVXVpgTI8U8xGsCNQPKnLbRyZB9JJPMA+fLptU+G4GLClk/eXACAGgDUg+3/mhPCs1s3AApAHiYZiuYgk+JzMEwIoLuI8NoggZQu5+IyR9BJ6bUac/F61jsXjwlmGUu7A5jmYgDMpG/IjQehrVWrsieoB8tQDpQVbj86A8UxUHKY56TNGcXe0YwflWX44Z50C2b4oXx+0CbD9GM/LN+hqG3dIMZtas8UXNhrkDxpDr5gTmEehn0BoMq9iziMVmOJWzAMHvAhYjXcmeXyFbjh44ZbtMtjEKSxDd/3veOHXZ5JnmZ2kE0D7OYIYmG/aGtnQFV202MTH0r0FbZsoc90XQF3ZQPy0oG28Yz2QxjNsY1EjSQeh3HkaHXsOcmhhmaB7mBUC8etBcigydFRRJJ0AAUb7cqx/bntZdw7i3bIF62AWHxC1Pwq3JnMiQNFHnsHoylbSxmLMdWYxmYjrGnsKjbiYI0NYbhvaRsTZW7sx0ZRyPMemxqYYyTqfKKDcYbFA6defKjeCOgrJcIU7nSR/f0rU4NdKB/Glm0fUUlPxnwa9f511A/hraFfwsy+wMj6NVt6odxlvO22bK3rAZWHyymiBWgC8XBI30FCMunXWRy/vWjfE7BMiZ8qyGO42tslUAZhoW5e3WgtcZ4mMPbL7sdFXqf5edYLhOJupf78P485fMeZO49DJEecVf4jf77UmSDz31/LrVa1hYO221B7DwjH28RbzLEEQ6HXK3NWH9yNayfav7M7N+bmGIs3N8kfu28o+57aeVAsFimwt9MTbgjL3d1DpmQmR7g7Hz6VS+1D7U27tLGAdrdw63mK5XSNAgnmd8yzpEHWgg4hhf2TD3QUyXF0M7+WvvvXpPYhLz4RGvOSSAUDCGUbQeuv6V8/WeI4xWS4L73WMMRfPfiQAysBc1kSD02q1g+O4sXe9/bb5cmTnYlJHJreggztQfRL+GZqjiWDf1G9BuEdpMNiQoW6FuEa2maCDzyhtGE9KKLbIO5oJ7NuIqziUm2y/iGX/V4f1qrdxAtW3usTlRSx9FEn6UM4L2hu32zmyi2Z0/efvdysm2QJUMQCQfnQFu0VhWWxaYBkfEKHQgEMNTBHMSBRyNayvEMQe8w4J079TM6ADKOdHuFXi4ckie8ZdOimB9KC6VqhcsIzFMoykSwjRievXrV9iBufnQhnHehAABM5gYOx6GgEXOCXLl7xDMVglmQKpAJAVQD0A1otgrUIv8ACMv+klf0FELuMRdzoB1k9fyrM4ftZhWgKW8T6aSMzy0SDpMNvG1BcxtvMDv61luK2jBEacq110yJE6+tCcfYkFngKNyeQoMTccWwXcwoEkn+9T5VkOM9qr95haw+ZFJgZf8AEfqSR8I0mOm56FePO9+8qWwYLZUTrv4ifqegFarsl9n6MSSWCfDcuc7sbonNVnQnfTrqA8w4Rx5rZ/eEhh98A+KJ3y6zp01ithw7tpw4W5xF7EXX5WkByx1ZrgUanz5Vb4x9j2JF0nD3LbWySRmJVl6CIIMdZ5VWv/Z3j1Pjs2SoAm5NsgAbls4B2560FbFfaldJyYHC27JOmcjvLhHqRA+RrH3kZ5Z2LEsWdjqXYyS31IFHsRw5BcKWlA2DMBHh5nqMxGnl6VFjOHLGnLSD77cqChwHiQw7GZNtviHTzHn5V6FgrCtldSGHKDIPPcV5xisLlBJOg5bdNKg4NZu2Wz23ZGzawYB9Rz/pQe78LMjUD0rVYMeEV5x2V7UC4AmIARxp3myn1H3T57elelYRdBBkRoRsaDrqyyr6k/kPzPyrqXDjM7npCD21P1Me1LQO4iIAf8Bk+anRp8oM+1WLTaa8t/504qCIOoIqhg7mUtbbdNPVD8Lf/qT/AA0FHjVh7wKqcq7Hq39Kx+M7OMuw06ivSu7qO5hweVB5I/CT443A1jz/AF511lNFaNSAa3+M4ZlnKNGjXmJOojnprWbtcMOTLHwFlI9GI/KKAe1oEEciP0oPwbhODxFzLjbQYk5O8kqykEgeJSCVMx5aGtg2ChJjWIH9+9ZwYQLcO8sAY+h/SgXjf2ZX1xCjBhe57saXLh0K+GASCToeflrpTOB/ZFcus9zF3TaHeHLbtwWIBIYsxBChokROhB8q9N7MY03bIDfEhyydzGx+WnsaMUHgfG+wlzCX2UkvbfW08cvwnzHP51ruw2JxHePYvksoQMhbUjWMs89CPkK9D4nglvWyjjQ6g81I2YeYNBCiDu7zLkb4bmUE5dCSdB8M845jagdjxmXuysrcBViw8OXKS3mdAazjcWdLj2SoyoSUKZWUoxAV9JcQNGOgBYSNjRnD4l8UL1k5kHdEITurCFnMOatt/wAPnQ3C8Eu2XdxczxaLLIElYPhMCJJUHTSVG1BFdxAcrvo3memorQcAxQUEHm51oOuItXAe8YWcSFJaYCkqJGuoggAz5+UUuExtpWCriEvNPw2gbjE9Mo0HqSKDZ4m8oUydhMwTH0oJax9kaSpYEDVddBvt/c0/9gxLrcNxozaJbhcyjzYaFuomPPXSpi7jWVOcNGnwgkMzGMhjYkGRBAmNdaCycdbRbt1h+7tqXfwGAFGYnboKzOExjLgjiBYZkF0m2kgXWRWYiTGyiWjWSIpO1faC4MK6ra7tcsMG+OJH3IMfM8/Yhw+4wBzXM9u2oCiQYzeIMQBJOinXkZoC/Dcat2wt5FYKwMBhDSCQQdTrINZjtKt+6wDABBss6T1brWj7J4s3LbqMrW1uOFaZ0kMF0naTrPLarXEOHFhAjXT+/agy3ZDgSsWYiCw8TfeCE6IvTNBJO8fOvQrFpUUKoAUCABoAByqjwjB92G8209AIH1n50RmgQmsR2s4s1wNbt/ADE/5jf/ARM8yPSdVxK5IyAxpLHoOk8p/Ks0cHnJcrC7KNoHX1O/y6UGIucOFtZOrMZZupMf2KGXBO4kD8q32MwKNoQD9PyoPjuDrEhV0HNQR/Tagxz4DMwWJC+IjeSdh8vzrQ8E7MZgHuLv8ACv6nkKO8G7NFVzsoBY/CPug7eQNamzwoZh0VQPfn9PzoKPDezFsgZkUAeWp9+VH7GHSwhyCByWSRPvt5+lWEFUxdL3dvCmg82PP0AoLmBUBRH/knUn611TJXUCpsPSgeM4goxR5C1b8RgksWgi2BGvLQc3WpcRxhcuVLttWjUk58sRJKqQNPXpVbs/hWYi6XJTVhmAzuz7uxUwBvCj9BQGcDi1uIrqZVxKn9D5irNAcFhHtqRbEqrN+7nUzdukkNyMRHuDyIKYLGrcXMpkTBkQVPNWU6qR0NA/ErzAmgd7h90OxTJDMT4pmZ8txEVo6SKAAnDHI8ZSOgB/Of0qni+z4BFwfdiRzgaED8/atXFNKUA7C2sniAAjRo2j26b/OiYplq3AilRY05cqBxqhxRltoX0BG38RO6nrP9eVXLl4Cddt/L16VmrmJw+JvZjiEK2yVNsOrSwPRZK6ggzqYoKdziQwzreFq69ppXwLJQMMwDSRzCgHYyNZ0oe3aq210L3N4ByqS65QP8UyZPJ3QCJnNO1GuLXAbrMlz4rQUpEAqpbXbTV1j3rJXG/eKbinw4m2gnQHVBAjlzoM7xTA3cVisqjMQxmNFUAwJJ5yQB5mvU+zXCu4tKlpAq6ZnChWfRtSTqQYX2aNCKl7KcLRA9yPEzR6hY5dZrQmgHi3e8MlucwV8yNx7aRQziS3GZA8kZ1crESQplVjcjQc9/KjVlLkjMwIgzt5xsPSrLKCCCJB0IOxoM92ttpfwd/LGZUJDdNJmRuCNdPKs5wXiF1EKmyxJAUXAjmTGxASQQIO2swNtdb2iwv/pLttNDcATTf94VTf0MeQA6UNsgWbyWFXwsDcLEmQVAWJjxTC+e9AzsJba2l9HEFbsnwBJzKr5sgJAEsdZ9YIIrQWsYImDH4h8JH4tTtWbvYkWmxd4suX93ZCMSWLCTM6zJvCAOh1HKe3xBLlpEV1F3wkqp8QIIzKQhG6yPcb8w0di8GmAQQdQYnXWdPWnkGh1jFhGh2UAyQZ5aR6HeRtt1opQULmHJ0OsmT/L++QpXwmkRV2uigEXeFjXSmW+FLnzEaDYdT19uX/ii7Cm0EQtU8LXO4G9RO86HQH7v3mHpyFBEL4uD92wKc3BnYwVXz5f3pX7y6uJUZB3RTQjddpkdfh23E9KtYSPhChQhyhRtssEDloSKZibga6iCZX96SOX3VUnlmJPspoLucDWaWqQwZiTdcnc7RryiIjpXUFywVVVCrlUCAApAA6RGlD8BZNm4bSq3dRmtmNE18Vozykgr0BI2FIvD2eDLJtJzsxO2ok/09dqv/sakQxdussefoQKCHhpYA5lKklj1Px3DynkQfepb+GBOdSVeImNCOjDmPqPnQ79iwSRLIJGYE3TJG+YEttpv5GlxGAw7pKFXJ0SbrFSRqdn1gA7dKCxZvXg0G37g+A9cv3gfIiPzqe3xBCYJAbmsiR7UCs2bTi5HdMqrCxeJGckhVb95EHwxtP0qpc4VZuP3bLaZwxCgX3B8JSfCLsyFLkjlC0GtGJTrThdHWsgMELYbKUXLAObEMcrnJ4TmunL9+Oeg0ojbt2GDF8YfCxBy4jKAJKrmhzvHPnQHu9HLWql3Gfh10nT4emtw+Eeg19ahVcMITvgWzZYN45sw+78U5ttN6iGHwt/4bguRr4L7NE6fdfTn8qCS13W925bJmQuYZV28/EdNyPahvGmtPetd0Ea6GzXGWJ7qGUh2G+YwAOqz92iJ4LZUSAwjX/Ec/MMxkVlsBxGz3vhee78LoDJUkBgPDqZ0Oo059aBnExlxdtB96wy6bSrAx6EuflWQ4vxNiqldO7uu8czkYnb1cCtV2g4kHvK1tG8Fpxm/4nsRKzI+En2+eQ4Hg+8LrcmcjASOT3NgZ1I7uSB+IUHrmCvs1u21oEqfHI5gwwHqffQmpiLuvxc41PQgfofU+VZ77Nsa6K+CvaXbJlP47Tagid4Jjy0rUM17XT0+Hy139flQQZbubTNEDqNZ1OpMCnsLmkBtN5PUBTEe5+tSE3+g59Pbn6U+13k+I6Tvptr/AC+tAG4piGQ2FeZu3UEbwVFy40AbAQv9iszxniZ/2pYywEU92NjMqWPPTcD2Jov2kxtv9rw7PdVAveFcxADDKFaJI/GPrFYfF8QtDEpcdwUGIzB1UtMkhSMgYkajYHSg0GOw63Mdftn/AA4QsB4vGIuag6eIKU6eJeYEDuKqFxD4eyG/aQovK4XKFyBWHespUZmK3VG3WDVvhFoYnE3WtXCQWV2bKVnIbZAAIBHiXn0o/h7CLduPaMXWJzqfqnIqCdj6HWgFXOKMbQW6qm4GmQY8l1aBqvpMedGeF9oWVQLvd9Aq3EDDeAUmOX3SOvpC/FLTMqG3bUwqeIAukEDKYmSrew1MyIJW9b7m09+4zMltDcKrEkKCxiSJ0HWgktdpbBJBdVj8RgfP4f8Aqq9h+I231VlPo6n8moNgO1+Fu/s/hZTiLtyzaDBJJs5s5lWIy5kygzqSvIzQbGdusG1q5dy3Ut2bndXP3aGHJOhAflkYTtqDtrQbW5ilEyQPVlA/OoDxC3/mIPeazWK7XYbD2s13vlFu7kZgqCSbX7UE0fUd0eW5Eb6Vcv8AaKzba+hvOz2MOLtxAviC3PhaCw8SgSR0YdaC5/tK1mMXkgaSCWb/ALYX61YtYyyqkrct+ZNzU8tSdT70K7RcXGDW2969di62RQFUkNlD5Sc4EkW39yR0qHHdobdo4lWxL5sLbW5eRUkorgEH4tSACSJPxD3Atg8Wkse8sksxOlwTGkA7U/BXVJM3LTuWJOVwSOSrHkNPWh3Au1NjEd33T3LguvcW25WFPdBcxmfh5g89arY3tlgv3SXVc9/ce3bVrWbM9u53LLzgh9JPrQF+M8atYdZuHcgQCJ1nWCRppXVI+H7tCVYlR9xyWGp5MxzD0mNNq6gu4a8YAdQpjSDIPSDA1gTEfPel4nhDdtPaFxredSudIzrOhK5gQDHOKo2eGXYGa8JgaC2Br/qPpFSjh7xBuKRy/dgRHSCPrQZs/Z5h0FgftF4LYW5btCUIAvEnLqhJCzCztAqTCfZ9btfs/d4q+Bhrj3LY8B8Vwy5bw+KRmXXZWMdaMng7mZvyDy7tQPpr9acnB2Gou67SUBIHSSaDKp9n1oWbuGF7FBDd79mGQFnRFVcpC7AhWA2zIOWlXcH2RtWse/Es997zCGTIkGUyaAKCNhOu4FaFeG3B/vVJ690J+hp37Dd/zx/7Y/U0GfxvZwXbl897iFXEXka4gS3lzWxZCtJUtAFhRv8AfPlEA+zewLl26t64Ll28bzHLbYZiMSp8DoVIy4lxBBHhXznRtw66f/qT/wC0n8q5uH3dP/UH/wBpP5UGfX7Prav3lvE3rb98bqsBbOU/+o0GZCDH7Tc1IJPhnaiHZnsnZwL4i5be4xxD57maIzZrjSoAEf4kR/COck3LvDrx2xJH/wCG2fzWhXEOyl+61tzxG+rWySuW3aAE7yMkN01mgqdoeL3HYpaYLljVjAU65mfLqBEee++grEXuKYM4hGCZLuVj3znukfu5Qs1pT4jCkQ/4QCCa9VucHDR3gVtOSZZPWJIn0is1xv7PExNxbrXArIMq5bR0XXw/HEa8o/SgyKccQX5LNla2xErBglNRt/DEjb0oXwrjxtNZuG34CviYxlEm4fi1geZ0JjrWtH2VMLjuuMIDgCO5LZYkQue4YBBaefiPtaf7NWLq/wC0iQII/Z/AwO4Ns3MpHqPeg0mD4jZutbueEOtvNJHjWe6bXmJDkc9+dUcd9oFpHFpQbjlwgyrKZySO77wkBn0aVWYII5UJTsDibWtnGLoCMhw+WV8J7oOryqeADYxy2il4DwXHWS637QdmMpcttKamSrI3wxGpA5ggyIoJbnbHEJimUW7jpkk2Sqi4pAJ8J2M6CC245c5OI9si6M6B1KBc1l1yOucjKziTmt5gFzISPE07RT8ZwbEpfuXEuEu6lbZ7ostsOwLBoIzeEALMAS2p2FS/2AuPfttmVLaqQ5H+I/eFnuSIyiWggiPiY6bUGb4pxS7jsRhLVtWWbjWrjaABXa0GMH72W0zAQYLDlFVO3HAcTgIZfHZLAW7nJYMxd2ymBvt5zpXo+B7B2LVwXUdw4YsrNDlCQQcpeep3kyZmaOtw5iIa85HMELHvpQYHsVdFpw2Ze6v2lJuLqoug6qxGikj4SYDAaSdBrreCg5gQZcsxjVswjxN97KICxsABVu12ftKWKqAXEPCJ4huc0prUlvgqqIFy6ByGbQeQ00HkNKDLYHhrXcdddpWyrAqxIALgJIUbkzmJOwI6zWzxFu1cttacKyMpVkPwlSIKkdIqs/CZEC9eUDkrR+Qpf9lt/wDcXv8AUP8A460FQdnMDKnuLcoSV/hJYXCRroS4DT1ANPfs5gihQ2LRVjLLGjGCst+LRiNeRiraYBh/v7p9YP5ipjhz/mP9B+QoBuJ7O4RwwNlDmYsZJgtk7qSJ18Hg/wCHTaqV/s3YJJyWA7hhcLZtcyoANGEr4EkHcIo0gUc/Yz/mXf8AV/SpUtEffb6fyoA7cCsOqpdS01pCzW1EjKW3M5tSczyf4j511zs5gnLsbSMXBDnMSWDEEhvFqCVXQ6eEdKMC0fxt9P5Vxtt+Nvp/KgDWuzGDRVRbKqqElVVmAUnLMANzyLp5Uq9mcICp7kHIxZZZmysXF4sAWOpuKGJ6ijBst+Nvp/Kk/Zz+NvmP5UAvjYd7cLoDqdwdxG2vnHlXUVbDkiM7exAPzArqD//Z

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International Stock Food Factory, between 1900 and 1910
Detroit Publishing Company

In the decades following the Civil War, the United States emerged as an industrial giant. Old industries expanded and many new ones, including petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power, emerged. Railroads expanded significantly, bringing even remote parts of the country into a national market economy.

Industrial growth transformed American society. It produced a new class of wealthy industrialists and a prosperous middle class. It also produced a vastly expanded blue collar working class. The labor force that made industrialization possible was made up of millions of newly arrived immigrants and even larger numbers of migrants from rural areas. American society became more diverse than ever before.

Not everyone shared in the economic prosperity of this period. Many workers were typically unemployed at least part of the year, and their wages were relatively low when they did work. This situation led many workers to support and join labor unions. Meanwhile, farmers also faced hard times as technology and increasing production led to more competition and falling prices for farm products. Hard times on farms led many young people to move to the city in search of better job opportunities.

Americans who were born in the 1840s and 1850s would experience enormous changes in their lifetimes. Some of these changes resulted from a sweeping technological revolution. Their major source of light, for example, would change from candles, to kerosene lamps, and then to electric light bulbs. They would see their transportation evolve from walking and horse power to steam-powered locomotives, to electric trolley cars, to gasoline-powered automobiles. Born into a society in which the vast majority of people were involved in agriculture, they experienced an industrial revolution that radically changed the ways millions of people worked and where they lived. They would experience the migration of millions of people from rural America to the nation's rapidly growing cities.

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Overview | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the decades following the Civil War, the United States emerged as an industrial giant. Old industries expanded and many new ones, including petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power, emerged. Railroads expanded significantly, bringing even remote parts of the country into a national market economy. Industrial growth transformed American society.

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Both blacks and women began to participate in evangelical revivals associated with the Second Great Awakening at the end of the 18th century. From these revivals grew the roots of the both the feminist and abolitionist movements.

The American Revolution had largely been a secular affair. The Founding Fathers clearly demonstrated their opposition to the intermingling of politics and religion by establishing the separation of church and state in the first amendment to the Constitution.

In part because religion was separated from the control of political leaders, a series of religious revivals swept the United States from the 1790s and into the 1830s that transformed the religious landscape of the country. Known today as the Second Great Awakening, this spiritual resurgence fundamentally altered the character of American religion. At the start of the Revolution the largest denominations were Congregationalists (the 18th-century descendants of Puritan churches), Anglicans (known after the Revolution as Episcopalians), and Quakers. But by 1800, Evangelical Methodism and Baptists, were becoming the fasting-growing religions in the nation.

The Second Great Awakening is best known for its large camp meetings that led extraordinary numbers of people to convert through an enthusiastic style of preaching and audience participation. A young man who attended the famous 20,000-person revival at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1802, captures the spirit of these camp meetings activity:

The noise was like the roar of Niagara. The vast sea of human beings seemed to be agitated as if by a storm. I counted seven ministers, all preaching at one time, some on stumps, others on wagons ... Some of the people were singing, others praying, some crying for mercy. A peculiarly strange sensation came over me. My heart beat tumultuously, my knees trembled, my lips quivered, and I felt as though I must fall to the ground.

This young man was so moved that he went on to become a Methodist minister. As this quotation suggests, evangelical ministers reached their audience at an emotional level that powerfully moved large crowds.

In 1839, J. Maze Burbank presented this image to the Royal Society in London with the caption: "A camp meeting, or religious revival in America, from a sketch taken on the spot."

The evangelical impulse at the heart of the Second Great Awakening shared some of the egalitarian thrust of Revolutionary ideals. Evangelical churches generally had a populist orientation that favored ordinary people over elites. For instance, individual piety was seen as more important for salvation than the formal university training required for ministers in traditional Christian churches.

The immense success of the Second Great Awakening was also furthered by evangelical churches innovative organizational techniques. These were well suited to the frontier conditions of newly settled territories. Most evangelical churches relied on itinerant preachers to reach large areas without an established minister and also included important places for lay people who took on major religious and administrative roles within evangelical congregations.

Religion was a central theme of the 1830s; American Protestants branched off into many different denominations, holding in common the need for meetings and revivals.

The Second Great Awakening marked a fundamental transition in American religious life. Many early American religious groups in the Calvinist tradition had emphasized the deep depravity of human beings and believed they could only be saved through the grace of God. The new evangelical movement, however, placed greater emphasis on humans' ability to change their situation for the better. By stressing that individuals could assert their "free will" in choosing to be saved and by suggesting that salvation was open to all human beings, the Second Great Awakening embraced a more optimistic view of the human condition. The repeated and varied revivals of these several decades helped make the United States a much more deeply Protestant nation than it had been before.

Finally, the Second Great Awakening also included greater public roles for white women and much higher African-American participation in Christianity than ever before.

Evangelicalism as a Social Movement
Why did so many people flock to evangelicalism in the early 19th century? The Second Great Awakening was more than just a religious movement; it provided a new social outlet. There was an excitement to it, and a sense of belonging. People even changed denomination if they felt one preacher was more interesting than the last. This essay puts a social twist on early evangelicalism.

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Peter Cartwright on Cane Ridge and the New Lights
No matter whether they were saints or sinners, they would be taken under a warm song or sermon and seized with a convulsive jerking all over, which they could not by any possibility avoid... -from Autobiography of Peter Cartwright. What were revivals really like? Find out from someone who was there! Peter Cartwright was about 16 years old when he went to the Cane Ridge Camp Meeting. He went on to become a Methodist preacher and lead his own revivals.

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What makes Methodism different from other Christian denominations? Find out at the homepage of the United Methodist Church.
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Jonathan Edwards was a big name in the First Great Awakening, which began in the 1740s. His writings were also instrumental in the Second Great Awakening, more than 30 years after his death.
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religious transformation and the second great awakening

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Religious Transformation and the Second Great Awakening [ushistory.org]

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Both blacks and women began to participate in evangelical revivals associated with the Second Great Awakening at the end of the 18th century. From these revivals grew the roots of the both the feminist and abolitionist movements. The American Revolution had largely been a secular affair.

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What Is an Abolitionist?

An abolitionist, as the name implies, is a person who sought to abolish slavery during the 19th century. More specifically, these individuals sought the immediate and full emancipation of all enslaved people.

Most early abolitionists were white, religious Americans, but some of the most prominent leaders of the movement were also Black men and women who had escaped from bondage.

The abolitionists saw slavery as an abomination and an affliction on the United States, making it their goal to eradicate slave ownership. They sent petitions to Congress, ran for political office and inundated people of the South with anti-slavery literature.

These staunch activists wanted to abolish slavery completely, which differed from the ideas of other groups like the Free Soil Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery into U.S. territories and newly formed states such as Kansas.

Did you know? Female abolitionists Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott went on to become prominent figures in the women's rights movement.

How Did Abolitionism Start?

Opposition to slavery wasn't a new concept when abolitionism started. Since the inception of the Atlantic slave trade, which began in the 16th century, critics voiced their disapproval of the system.

In an early effort to stop slavery, the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816, proposed the idea of freeing slaves and sending them back to Africa. This solution was thought to be a compromise between antislavery activists and slavery supporters.

By 1860, nearly 12,000 African Americans had returned to Africa.

Missouri Compromise

The Missouri Compromise of 1820, which allowed Missouri to become a slave state, further provoked anti-slave sentiment in the North.

The abolitionist movement began as a more organized, radical and immediate effort to end slavery than earlier campaigns. It officially emerged around 1830.

Historians believe ideas set forth during the religious movement known as the Second Great Awakening inspired abolitionists to rise up against slavery. This Protestant revival encouraged the concept of adopting renewed morals, which centered around the idea that all men are created equal in the eyes of God.

Abolitionism started in states like New York and Massachusetts and quickly spread to other Northern states.

Laws Inflame Tensions

In 1850, Congress passed the controversial Fugitive Slave Act, which required all escaped enslaved people to be returned to their owners and American citizens to cooperate with the captures.

Seven years later, the Supreme Court ruled in the Dred Scott decision that Black people-free or enslaved-didn't have legal citizenship rights. Owners of enslaved people were also granted the right to take their enslaved workers to Western territories. These legal actions and court decisions sparked outrage among abolitionists.

Famous Abolitionists

Many Americans, including free and formerly enslaved people, worked tirelessly to support the abolitionist movement. Some of the most famous abolitionists included:

William Lloyd Garrison: A very influential early abolitionist, Garrison started a publication called The Liberator, which supported the immediate freeing of all enslaved men and women.

Frederick Douglass: Douglass escaped slavery himself and published a memoir titled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. An instrumental figure in the abolitionist movement, he also supported women's suffrage.

Harriet Beecher Stowe: Stowe was an author and abolitionist who was best known for her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Susan B. Anthony: Anthony was an author, speaker and women's rights activist who also supported the abolitionist movement. She is revered for her diligent efforts in fighting for women's rights to vote.

: Brown was a radical abolitionist who organized various raids and uprisings, including an infamous raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia.

Harriet Tubman: Tubman was a fugitive enslaved person and abolitionist who was known for helping escaped enslaved people reach the North via the Underground Railroad network.

Sojourner Truth: Best known for her speech, "Ain't I a Woman?," Truth was both an abolitionist and a women's rights advocate.

Rift Widens Between North and South

As it gained momentum, the abolitionist movement caused increasing friction between states in the North and the slave-owning South. Critics of abolition argued that it contradicted the U.S. Constitution, which left the option of slavery up to individual states.

Abolitionism was illegal in the South, and President Andrew Jackson banned the U.S. Postal Service from delivering any publications that supported the movement.

In 1833, a white student at Lane Theological Seminary named Amos Dresser was publicly whipped in Nashville, Tennessee, for possessing abolitionist literature while traveling through the city.

Elijah Lovejoy

In 1837, a pro-slavery mob attacked a warehouse in Alton, Illinois, in an attempt to destroy abolitionist press materials. During the raid, they shot and killed newspaper editor and abolitionist Elijah Lovejoy.

After the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 was passed, both pro- and anti-slavery groups inhabited the Kansas Territory. In 1856, a pro-slavery group attacked the town of Lawrence, which was founded by abolitionists from Massachusetts. In retaliation, abolitionist John Brown organized a raid that killed five pro-slavery settlers.

Then, in 1859, Brown led 21 men to capture the U.S. arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He and his followers were seized by a group of Marines and convicted of treason. Brown was hanged for the crime.

The Civil War and Its Aftermath

President Abraham Lincoln opposed slavery but was cautious about fully supporting the more radical ideas of the abolitionists. As the power struggle between the North and the South reached its peak, the Civil War broke out in 1861.

As the bloody war waged on, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, calling for the freeing of enslaved people in areas of the rebellion. And in 1865, the Constitution was ratified to include the Thirteenth Amendment, which officially abolished all forms of slavery in the United States.

Abolitionist Movement Ends

Though the abolitionist movement seemed to dissolve after the addition of the Thirteenth Amendment, many historians argue that the effort didn't completely cease until the 1870 passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, which extended voting rights to Black men. Meanwhile, the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all persons "born or naturalized in the United States," including former enslaved people.

When slavery officially ended, many prominent abolitionists turned their focus to women's rights issues. Historians believe that the experiences and lessons learned during the abolitionist movement paved the way for leaders who were eventually successful in the women's suffrage movements.

Abolitionist ideals and traditions also served as a model for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP), which was formed in 1909.

HISTORY Vault: Black History

Sources

Abolition and the Abolitionists. National Geographic.
Early abolition. Khan Academy.
Abolitionist Sentiment Grows. UShistory.org.

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Abolitionist Movement - Definition & Famous Abolitionists | HISTORY

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The abolitionist movement was the effort to end slavery, led by famous abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth and John Brown.

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LibGuides: Women's Rights Movements: First Wave

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LibGuides: Women's Rights Movements: First Wave

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Sound Smart: The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 | History

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Lincoln-Douglas debates, series of seven debates between the Democratic senator Stephen A. Douglas and Republican challenger Abraham Lincoln during the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign, largely concerning the issue of slavery extension into the territories.

The slavery extension question had seemingly been settled by the Missouri Compromise nearly 40 years earlier. The Mexican War, however, had added new territories, and the issue flared up again in the 1840s. The Compromise of 1850 provided a temporary respite from sectional strife, but the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854-a measure Douglas sponsored-brought the slavery extension issue to the fore once again. Douglas's bill in effect repealed the Missouri Compromise by lifting the ban against slavery in territories north of the 36°30′ latitude. In place of the ban, Douglas offered popular sovereignty, the doctrine that the actual settlers in the territories and not Congress should decide the fate of slavery in their midst.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act spurred the creation of the Republican Party, formed largely to keep slavery out of the western territories. Both Douglas's doctrine of popular sovereignty and the Republican stand on free soil were seemingly invalidated by the Dred Scott decision of 1857, in which the Supreme Court said that neither Congress nor the territorial legislature could exclude slavery from a territory.

When Lincoln and Douglas debated the slavery extension issue in 1858, therefore, they were addressing the problem that had divided the nation into two hostile camps and that threatened the continued existence of the Union. Their contest, as a consequence, had repercussions far beyond determining who would win the senatorial seat at stake.

When Lincoln received the Republican nomination to run against Douglas, he said in his acceptance speech that "A house divided against itself cannot stand" and that "this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." Douglas thereupon attacked Lincoln as a radical, threatening the continued stability of the Union. Lincoln then challenged Douglas to a series of debates, and the two eventually agreed to hold joint encounters in seven Illinois congressional districts.

The debates, each three hours long, were convened in Ottawa (August 21), Freeport (August 27), Jonesboro (September 15), Charleston (September 18), Galesburg (October 7), Quincy (October 13), and Alton (October 15). Douglas repeatedly tried to brand Lincoln as a dangerous radical who advocated racial equality and disruption of the Union. Lincoln emphasized the moral iniquity of slavery and attacked popular sovereignty for the bloody results it had produced in Kansas.

At Freeport Lincoln challenged Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision. Douglas replied that settlers could circumvent the decision by not establishing the local police regulations-i.e., a slave code-that protected a master's property. Without such protection, no one would bring slaves into a territory. This became known as the " Freeport Doctrine."

Douglas's position, while acceptable to many Northern Democrats, angered the South and led to the division of the last remaining national political institution, the Democratic Party. Although he retained his seat in the Senate, narrowly defeating Lincoln when the state legislature (which then elected U.S. senators) voted 54 to 46 in his favour, Douglas's stature as a national leader of the Democratic Party was gravely diminished. Lincoln, on the other hand, lost the election but won acclaim as an eloquent spokesman for the Republican cause.

In 1860 the Lincoln-Douglas debates were printed as a book and used as an important campaign document in the presidential contest that year, which once again pitted Republican Lincoln against Democrat Douglas. This time, however, Douglas was running as the candidate of a divided party and finished a distant second in the popular vote to the triumphant Lincoln.

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Lincoln-Douglas debates | Summary, Dates, Significance, & Facts

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Lincoln-Douglas debates, series of seven debates between the Democratic senator Stephen A. Douglas and Republican challenger Abraham Lincoln during the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign, largely concerning the issue of slavery extension into the territories. The slavery extension question had seemingly been settled by the Missouri Compromise nearly 40 years earlier.

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The attack on Fort Sumter marked the official beginning of the American Civil War-a war that lasted four years, cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans, and freed 3.9 million enslaved people from bondage.

How it ended

Confederate victory. With supplies nearly exhausted and his troops outnumbered, Union major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter to Brig. Gen. P.G.T Beauregard's Confederate forces. Major Anderson and his men were allowed to strike their colors, fire a 100-gun salute, and board a ship bound for New York, where they were greeted as heroes. Both the North and South immediately called for volunteers to mobilize for war.

In context

By 1861, the country had already experienced decades of short-lived but ultimately failed compromises concerning the expansion of slavery in the United States and its territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States in 1860-a man who declared "I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free"-threatened the culture and economy of southern slave states and served as a catalyst for secession. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the United States, and by February 2, 1861, six more states followed suit. Southern delegates met on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, AL., and established the Confederate States of America, with Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis elected as its provisional president. Confederate militia forces began seizing United States forts and property throughout the south. With a lame-duck president in office, and a controversial president-elect poised to succeed him, the crisis approached a boiling point and exploded at Fort Sumter.

Before the Battle

In Charleston, the birthplace of secession, tempers are on edge. A delegation from the state goes to Washington, D.C., demanding the surrender of the Federal military installations in the new "independent republic of South Carolina." President James Buchanan refuses to comply. Charleston is the Confederacy's most important port on the Southeast coast. The harbor is defended by three federal forts: Sumter; Castle Pinckney, one mile off the city's Battery; and heavily armed Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's Island. Major Anderson's command is based at Fort Moultrie, but with its guns pointed out to sea, it cannot defend a land attack. On December 26, Charlestonians awake to discover that Anderson and his tiny garrison of 90 men have slipped away from Fort Moultrie to the more defensible Fort Sumter. For secessionists, Anderson's move is, as one Charlestonian wrote to a friend, "like casting a spark into a magazine,"

Adding to the major's concern is his dangerously dwindling store of supplies. On January 5, 1861, the Star of the West departs from New York with some 200 reinforcements and provisions for the Sumter garrison. As the ship approaches Charleston Harbor on January 9, cadets from the Citadel fire, forcing the crew to abandon its mission. On March 1, Jefferson Davis orders Brig. Gen P.G.T. Beauregard to take command of the growing southern forces in Charleston. On April 4, Lincoln informs southern delegates that he intends to attempt to resupply Fort Sumter, as its garrison is now critically in need. To South Carolinians, any attempt to reinforce Sumter means war. "Now the issue of battle is to be forced upon us," declared the Charleston Mercury. "We will meet the invader, and the God of Battles must decide the issue between the hostile hirelings of Abolition hate and Northern tyranny."

On April 9, Davis and the Confederate cabinet decide to "strike a blow!" Davis orders Beauregard to take Fort Sumter. The next day, three of Beauregard's aides sail to the fort and courteously demand the garrison's surrender. Anderson is equally courteous, but refuses: "I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your communication demanding the evacuation of this fort, and to say, in reply thereto, that it is a demand with which I regret that my sense of honor, and of my obligations to my Government, prevent my compliance." He also informs the delegation that the garrison's supplies will only last until April 15.

During the Battle

April 12. At 4:30 a.m., a flaming mortar shot arcs into the air and explodes over Fort Sumter. On this signal, Confederate guns from fortifications and floating batteries around Charleston Harbor roar to life. Outmanned, outgunned, undersupplied, and nearly surrounded by enemy batteries, Anderson waits until around 7:00 a.m. to respond. Captain Abner Doubleday volunteers to fire the first cannon at the Confederates, a 32-pound shot that bounces off the roof of the Iron Battery on Cummings Point.

For nearly 36 hours the two sides keep up this unequal contest. A shell strikes the flagpole of Fort Sumter, and the American colors fall to the earth, only to be hoisted back up the hastily repaired pole. Confederates fire hotshot from Fort Moultrie into Fort Sumter. Buildings begin to burn within the fort. With no more resources, Anderson surrenders Fort Sumter to Confederate forces.

April 13. At 2:30 p.m., Maj. Anderson and his men strike their colors and prepare to leave the fort. Sadly, the only casualties at Fort Sumter come during the 100-gun salute, when a round explodes prematurely, killing Pvt. Daniel Hough and mortally wounding another soldier. The attack is over, but the war had just begun.

Aftermath

Following the evacuation of Major Robert Anderson and his Federal garrison on the afternoon of April 14, 1861, Fort Sumter is occupied initially by Confederate troops of Company B of the First South Carolina Artillery Battalion and a volunteer company of the Palmetto Guard, a local militia unit. The fort remains in Confederate hands for the next four years until all Confederate forces evacuate Charleston on the evening of February 17, 1865.

Despite having surrendered, Anderson and his men are greeted as heroes when they disembark in New York. Capt. Abner Doubleday notes later that "all the passing steamers saluted us with their steam-whistles and bells, and cheer after cheer went up from the ferry boats and vessels in the harbor." Anderson's valor during the attack and commitment to duty are praised by the Union. Beauregard is also hailed for this first Confederate victory. He is later ordered to direct the troops at Bull Run.

Fort Sumter: Featured Resources

Related Battles

Charleston Harbor, SC | April 12, 1861

Result: Confederate Victory

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Early in the morning of April 12, 1861, Confederate guns around Charleston Harbor opened fire on Fort Sumter. The American Civil War was officially upon both the North and the South. A war that lasted four years and cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans.

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The Fall of Fort Sumter
https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/fort-sumter
The Emancipation Proclamation
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
Clara Barton and the American Red Cross
https://www.redcross.org/about-us/who-we-are/history.html
The Battle of Gettysburg
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/slavery-and-the-civil-war/v/gettysburg
The Battle of Vicksburg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sE1bYVwH1jM
Southern Surrender at Appomattox Courthouse
https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/appomattox-court-house

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Learn about the history of the American Red Cross from Clara Barton, World War I, World II and beyond.

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- [Voiceover] So we've been talking about the progress of the American Civil War which started in early 1861 after the 11 states of the South, which were slave states, seceded from the Union and tried to establish an independent nation known as the Confederate States of America. And in the first years of the Civil War things went relatively well for the South. They defeated the North at the Battle of Bull Run which was a great surprise to many people because they thought that this was going to be a pretty short war, that the South would be quickly defeated and scared away into returning to the Union. But the South had many advantages including very good leadership in the person of Robert E. Lee and also kind of a home court advantage at large since the vast majority of the war was fought in the South. So in this early stage the Confederacy does quite well until we get to Antietam. And Antietam was this first foray by Robert E. Lee in trying to attack the states of the North in Maryland. And after the Battle of Antietam which was the bloodiest day in U.S. history, more than 4,000 Americans died on that day, the South was defeated. And that was a major turning point in the war as we've talked about in previous videos in that it led to the Emancipation Proclamation and was kind of the moment at which the nations of Europe cease to consider intervening on the side of the South. So in the next few videos I want to talk about the later stages of the Civil War. So we get into 1863 and the South is doing relatively well here in Virginia, wins the Battle of Chancellorsville and now, nearly a year after Antietam in June and July of 1863, Robert E. Lee decides that he is going to try again to invade the North. Now he's several reasons for doing this. One, is that the war has been taking place largely in the South so it's summer, people are trying to harvest their crops and Lee wants to give the South a break so he wants to take the attention away from this area in Virginia where lots of fighting has happened and he wants to take the war up into the North. And if the North is distracted by having to defend its own territory then it can't go on the offensive elsewhere as easily. So Lee's plan is to take the war to the North and Lee has another reason in his sleeve which is that he is really hoping that in the Election of 1864 which is coming up not too long after this period in mid-1863, many people believe that Lincoln is going to be kicked out of office. Now remember, that not a single American President has been elected to a second term or reelected since Andrew Jackson in 1832. So there's been a 30 year drought of two term presidents. So Robert E. Lee has good reason to expect why Lincoln might not be reelected in 1864 and he thinks that maybe one of Lincoln's competitors in the Democratic Party, which will turn out to be one of his own former generals, George B. McClellan will actually want to end the war and make peace with the South. So there's kind of a morale aspect to this. You can see that many of the things done in the Civil War and especially as we get into the later stages are designed at making one side or the other tired of being at war. Now you may wonder why I'm spending so much time talking about battles because most American History courses do not emphasize military history whatsoever. But I think it's important to keep in mind in this war and in some earlier wars like the American Revolution the battles really determine the policy, right, because you can't make a decree like the way that Abraham Lincoln decreed the Emancipation Proclamation if you don't have the force of military power behind you. So winning battles, winning the war, those kind of victories give politicians the popular mandate they need to get things done. So that's why I think that it's important to talk, at least a little bit, about the battles of the Civil War. Now obviously, Bull Run, Antietam, Gettysburg, and Appomattox were not the only battles of the Civil War, there were hundreds of battles of the Civil War but I've chosen these as particular turning points just to kind of give you a very brief overview of the way that military victories and defeats were trending. Because along with those military victories and defeats went the policy of the United States and the policy of the South. And if you're interested in the Civil War it's one of the most written about topics in American history and there are many wonderful books that will go into great detail about the politics, society, and military history of the Civil War, and lots of great television shows, and miniseries that I definitely suggest that you check out. All right, well, with that said let's talk about Gettysburg. So Lee has brought his forces into the North and, again, he's interested in kind of distracting the North from attacking in the South by bringing the war to them. He's hoping to prolong the war so that perhaps another administration that's more favorable to allowing the South to go peacefully might be in office in the North. And the other thing that he's looking for is supplies so once again the vast majority of the Civil War has been fought in the South and it's been fought here in this sort of Shenandoah Valley, Tidewater region of Virginia which is really the breadbasket of the South. So when men are out fighting battles and when battles are being fought on fields instead of crops being grown on them, there's going to be a serious dearth of food in the South. You know I once heard it said that the most salient political fact of the 20th century was that the Americans speak English which means that the United States repeatedly allied with Britain in 20th century wars. But if I had to choose the most salient fact of the American Civil War it might be that you can't eat cotton. You know the South went to war to protect its system of labor so that it could continue to produce these cash crops like cotton or tobacco. And cash crops they may be which means that you can sell them for money but you can't eat cotton or tobacco. And when it comes down to it being able to feed your troops and feed your populace is something that's going to really help you when it comes to winning a war. So Lee is taking his troops up into the North and he takes them into Southern Pennsylvania which is very lovely farmland. It's a very beautiful place if you've never been there, I absolutely recommend you take a look, go to Gettysburg it's a very well preserved battlefield. And as Lee goes through Southern Pennsylvania his troops are taking horses, and grain supplies, and all sorts of things that the army needs to survive which are in short supply in Virginia. So this is like a run to the store for Lee going through Southern Pennsylvania. On the Northern side, General George Meade has been trying to catch up with Lee and cut him off from his invasion of the North. President Abraham Lincoln asks for many volunteers to try to stave off the invasion of the North by Lee and they end up meeting at Gettysburg. And Gettysburg is just a small farm town in Southern Pennsylvania, it's just where these two troops happen to meet as Lee was on his way to the capital of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg and Lee's forces and Meade's forces meet on July 1st, 1863. Now the Battle of Gettysburg goes on for three days so there's July 1st, July 2nd, and July 3rd. And the first day goes relatively well for the Confederates, they break some of the Union lines around the edges. The second day is kind of a stalemate where Northern forces and Southern forces, they sustain a lot of losses but don't make any real headway toward victory. And then the third day, Lee decides that he is going to try to break the center of the Union forces which means that he is going to try to hit the Union line, and remember this is in the era of military history where people are still kind of fighting in lines, right through the center, and win the day. Unfortunately for him that is not what happens so he tries all day to break the Union lines. There's a very famous sort of last hurrah for the Southern forces in this called Pickett's Charge when General George Pickett's units charge up this hill at Cemetery Ridge trying to break the line and they sustain over 50% casualties so it's kind of a bloodbath for Pickett's unit. And after Pickett's Charge does not succeed the Union forces have officially won the Battle of Gettysburg and Lee realizes that there's no way that he's going to be able to make anything out of his invasion of the North and so he turns around and starts heading back to the South. Now what's important about Gettysburg is that this was what many have called the High Water Mark of the Confederacy. And by that they mean this is as far as the Confederacy ever managed to get into the Northern part of the United States. This is a second attempt at an invasion by Lee and it failed and many people see this as a really important turning point in the Civil War on July 4th. And imagine the good news of receiving word that your troops had triumphed on July 4th, Independence Day. President Lincoln and the United States get another really good piece of news which is that Ulysses S. Grant who will be the future commander of U.S. forces has succeeded in his siege of Vicksburg which is a town on the Mississippi River. And when he takes the town on the Mississippi River Grant has complete control of the Mississippi which is sort of the major highway in the West. So July 3rd and July 4th are really good days for the United States and this is kind of the moment when it becomes clear that victory is going to be outside the reach of the Confederacy. And with an unsuccessful invasion of the North and the loss of the control of the Mississippi, the South's time is kind of coming to an end. The other important thing about the Battle of Gettysburg is that it is a tremendously destructive battle, about 50,000 casualties took place at Gettysburg which makes it the single bloodiest battle in American history which is different from the single bloodiest day which was at Antietam because it took place over three days. And this is not 50,000 people dying, just 50,000 casualties which means either deaths or injuries, those are men who can no longer fight on both sides. So the tremendous loss of life at Gettysburg is going to lead to the foundation of a cemetery at Gettysburg to bury these military dead. And it's going to be in November of 1863, just a couple of months after the Battle of Gettysburg, that Abraham Lincoln will visit the cemetery at Gettysburg and deliver the Gettysburg Address, one of the most famous orations in all of American history and we'll get to that in the next video.

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The battle of Gettysburg (video) | Khan Academy

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Voiceover] So we've been talking about the progress of the American Civil War which started in early 1861 after the 11 states of the South, which were slave states, seceded from the Union and tried to establish an independent nation known as the Confederate States of America.

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Table of Contents

1. Battle of Appomattox Court House

2. Lee Surrenders to Grant

3. The Final Battle of the Civil War?

The Battle of Appomattox Court House was fought on April 9, 1865, near the town of Appomattox Court House, Virginia, and led to Confederate General Robert E. Lee's surrender of his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant. Days earlier, Lee had abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond and the city of Petersburg; his goal was to rally the remnants of his beleaguered troops, meet Confederate reinforcements in North Carolina and resume fighting. But the resulting Battle of Appomattox Court House, which lasted only a few hours, effectively brought the four-year Civil War to an end.

Battle of Appomattox Court House
WATCH: Appomattox Court House
In retreat from the Union army's Appomattox campaign, which began in March 1865, the Army of Northern Virginia stumbled westward through the Virginia countryside stripped of food and supplies. At one point, Union cavalry forces under General Philip Sheridan had outrun General Lee's troops, blocking their retreat and taking approximately 6,000 prisoners at Sayler's Creek.

Confederate desertions were mounting daily, and by April 8 the Rebels were almost completely surrounded. Nonetheless, early on the morning of April 9, Confederate troops led by Major General John B. Gordon mounted a last-ditch offensive that was initially successful. Soon, however, the Confederates saw that they were hopelessly outnumbered by two corps of Union soldiers who had marched all night to cut off the Confederate advance.

Later that morning, Lee-cut off from all provisions and all support-famously declared that "there is nothing left me to do but to go and see Gen. Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths." But Lee also knew his remaining troops, numbering about 28,000, would quickly turn to pillaging the countryside in order to survive.

With no remaining options, Lee sent a message to General Ulysses Grant announcing his willingness to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia. The two war-weary generals met in the front parlor of the Wilmer McLean home at one o'clock that afternoon.

Lee Surrenders to Grant

Lee and Grant, both of whom held the highest rank in their respective armies, had known each other slightly during the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and began their dialogue by exchanging awkward personal inquiries. Characteristically, Grant had arrived in his mud-splattered field uniform while Lee had turned out in full dress attire, complete with sash and sword.

Did you know? In 1869, the house where Lee surrendered to Grant was sold at public auction after owner Wilmer McLean defaulted on his loan repayments. In the ensuing years, the house had a series of owners before it was reconstructed and opened to the public by the National Park Service in 1949.

Lee asked for the terms of surrender, and Grant hurriedly wrote them out. Generously, all officers and men were to be pardoned, and they would be sent home with their private property-most important to the men were the horses, which could be used for a late spring planting. Officers would keep their side arms, and Lee's starving men would be given Union rations.

Quieting a band that had begun to play in celebration, Grant told his officers, "The war is over. The Rebels are our countrymen again." Although scattered resistance continued for several weeks-the final skirmish of the Civil War occurred on May 12 and 13 at the Battle of Palmito Ranch near Brownsville, Texas-for all practical purposes the Civil War had come to an end.

The Final Battle of the Civil War?

News of the surrender traveled slowly. Although scattered resistance continued for several weeks-there were six battles that took place after Appomattox, with the final skirmish of the Civil War occurring on May 12 and 13 at the Battle of Palmito Ranch near Brownsville, Texas-for all practical purposes, the Civil War had come to an end.

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Appomattox Court House - Definition, Date & Location

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The Appomattox Court House, located in Virginia, is where Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865, bringing an end to the Civil War.

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Here's Why the Battle of Vicksburg Was So Important

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The Thirteenth Amendment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBEvEr_UtYA
The Fourteenth Amendment:
https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/fourteenth-amendment
The Fifteenth Amendment:
https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-xv
The Election of 1876
https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1876
Plessy vs. Ferguson
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5yffqevnrisqeLxRO8/DLxqoLY1cXRb+SMdrnr9Oj88s+H4Wt7gij7sBu5Dm7W5hve4Dnr7O9sgX6ignkpamRp5DYVYxcEZAlsQBzCuC4lVJFypvtsdBVfkt7a/fHiNuU8ZipZbZSLJfJ6cfNiS1hGPPqdbBrzh9zkP8py+6lf/AKkWvR+ghcba1PMfKJz/AFTrNqIBVRBYEK+3Tolhv03sdvcfLWi9oh+5Kj+Jk/UOqR2O5rV1UzoggVA0Z3AJO12YiwuLmwvbbp4gPpUjkUISjMqAsjY5AWlA7jkElslsPG23TXCdkoziZaOmOy5EKGbYqSbcoX7uVzfbyIudG+31CKmOleA4yc+N3KeMYbv3cAjYjZri/h10TreOVIicS0icwFQqxzFrlrYsGaJSAD87FgLb9CAFGTslSZKr0cYuWI7lgy2O46bAqf0i4N9O0/ZCi7g9Fi/CYnu9d4z+gn69XUL6Q8hvfC0edh7YDcwBgAGClgtx4qR1BAGwR7oP+IUf/jiOgrcfZqj5RPokF8FN+Wp3KH3edjqVP2cpFLkUlOLZW9Um1hUfk/kr9Q0b4bw5pI7dAUj3/k1v9Pe0dSiUEm1yet/iT+lj9egqA7PxhjjSxgB5OkSjbugeHnew0jQYRooRQRI98QB0Fz9l9XXlaDFPWqtulSyn86nLf26AFWcNikI5kUb98e0it1efzHuH1DUulHL4PWhFAzyjQAWF3ijjGw82OiDcPPMx2F2uPhlUMPsI03ThTSxx9ObxBwo6fgZ5HFvzabQCZuDU7uMqaEjPa8SHbnIgHTp1+vTdFw6JcgsMagGkPdRR1cX6Dx1ZauitIrD2SV+vnKx+u+oK02Ox64Uf2Skf2aAbAhw/MX/9d9SIITkP4Sg/XS/sOjC8KCsAPZJt8AImTf8A88dTYKILvbe9/wBA/Qq/VoKlFAeWf4Kfq02u68Wjn/iJz+g/26tL8PW1gLbW/Vt+qNA+JwWEw/4acH4hYv26AfxGAlXAG5D2+uHRUcMLjvbAlrjx3Mt/sk1K4ZSBmLkeybD6ViN/ox0V5WgDtwtDe4N2vvfcE5bjw+e316FcY4ECuRFyhLK6ko6H1YujrZl2RrkHofK+rbytfGgBFiLg7EHxGgz2VZmUPMOftjzVwjnACyNZwfUVCAKwCuEtkd776AVvZKiqWKtGEk8WgVo3HfUFnpGu6j2xdRIuwOY1dzTFYWU+0ryqfogm/bpVFBHM5WRFcc5tmAP+sxDa/Q2NtBjvEPkwqAudPIlQpsAAQpJPL2G5U2MoX2vmnVO4hwyaAgTRPGT0yUi/wPQ/Rr0lB2TJVHSeeJiEJPMLEi0ZIJcM2xzIW4ANvDUGo4PUxhUkkSZCQMZIbAnlttmpC42Zh7B6D36DLfkqS44iP+Bk1onya9tuHRcIhpairEMgWRWtkCAzubhgpsbN10/Q9moI2qeVEIjNQur8vYeyguq9Ab5HYDVX4f8AJ9TUjmeWYPFgABIid1mZbXZ7odrjdfG43A0F/HaLhG7LxXEk5fhF2bApfdL9LH4gHzuuIdvuFJRywR1yyNynVASSdwbDIgA2vbrew8T1yrt32GbFJ6SMOvrFcIEGyEEMEVVBIyKHEf6Pp1JzZhbY6DWvub1/d9Qf+GP/AFI/2a9Ea87/AHNx/d1R/wAuf+omvRGgHdov80qP4mT9Q6CdmqeaOlQAAu1g5v7Pd3Iv7RFgACR/Zo7x8Xpaj+Jk/VOsi+T75TkqFWmnblTlhy2vszeGLn2WO4xc2bK2S3toLzxGiEJGC2d1wQsCu62wDd4qT18B521GqEmWNVCu5lcFWazMSMXtG+RFmSPo2w89rHNPlG+VCR5EggcPyZs2fltErEBlwwMjMVsxubruLgCwOp/yd9tRW1vLanMchjYo8KiRswRuQyFEJQupfujvG/UWDY6WDFFWwFgL26X8bePW/XQLkESC4I/dII28OXEt/hc/ZqfDwmpYd+eS3hk6X+kRRRgH4MdfV7OspuWMvuaepA+2VwP5ugf4XTFIYwwsQiZDyIUA/o0qjiEEf4SeJLfjSKv6TofV8IiyUeiUysTZTJEspLWJOLF18Be1w2x2209RU017IadLX3SAxm3uvkCPeLjQdpxylb2aiN/4DB/sW+h8lWgkzxmYc8SdymnbbkcvqI7He/TUu1Qbn0uYWCELy4bMHYqtjjcbjxta405JQuUJknlJyCbO8e5YL7SMPFutvDQOLWhiLQTnfYmIrb+dYjqdCeFuzJRlIzIBBLVYqVuWkK4AZFVuwml3JHTUutpVhgaZWlYxiRjnUSMBywxJ3vcXUbEeOodHw4BHjMYZI1gpArWIKwRmQlVZHBOchTpe6DfYaAk1XKRvRTLuPbkgHTcdJj5aH1szlmYpEgIi9uoQfg5Gc9L7G4+3TkvB4YmYckW3CAU8feYKrCxSIGxyIsPxGN9jZSU8SBC0TqC+LHGcDvSBVsA9luDc3vbbQfX49b51GP4VaB+iM6b+/sngeHW/+4H/APm07WSQhWxjilPVSCslkDWJbJjc2K2t4v02J1DleKS2Max5W2SGEvchSuAYMAG7zWYFsVFhvfQSU46T/pKH6Kst/cjUGvrFbMmopFyjkjPrHb2wgv7I6csbacjd1zDRA9MZIoIwU90lOw5mRuAcMwSDbC4AJVLIY2xZVLZMC8SwmNOguHQEbsnUXJv08AhU/GbKFE9KbDw5h/Qunfvw379T/wAyX9miCTxsylVTF7ouPLdcgrMPZJPRWO3kOuvkRsqXYXy7141vjkOp5YHshh3QDcjyvoIH36I6y031Sj/t0jxw/vlJ9Mrr/dHRCWrs0irHmCVwtiL+LW6N7LAXANiNdQOGZS2KrGAJRIuG5Vt9xY5Eqeu2J89BW5qpmWRVehJdmYXq2Fi0ZT/ZzfqT9nv1Ko5HUtI4oyLu1xVkgBnzPWAdCF392ismBR150BcuChyjuF7u3sfwuoPXr5PR8NSSU5CB4jHjiAhOW2+yXHzvneI2Fr6CMvFtt0QHcW5yg7Gx2cKfDxGuH41CwYMAVHtESwG1vhLf7NDKGgtGJHhlmiYubxyzZr32v3A9zc77ebXI20Toq7hgI7yB1/fizMh/hSXIPwOgh8BYO0pYDlrGoD2tdWvc3DFbXBHuxHW+qr2uoJ6j0Kkg5wDsXkqIg4VMEYIC4W3eLG/wHnqz1laX5rFom79hhOqllBBQjdAR06k2IO/joTUJb/UpglusTQOo2TdV5hAI5KeHh8bhXOxPEKoVctHUROkIZzA8qsgXABcQSAuLKoa224950R4z2HpK1FaRDFMQgMibEkyOhzXox2A3F9gL6MU8sbIcRmCpRxYNYEk99I97i5F7XAdxeza74lNPJGi4JJ0Ul8cyXVkDKqrsDk7d4AgrYBrnQVT5IOydRw/iziVco3ppAki+y1pY+vk3dOx+0b63HVd4TMDUIDA0Xq5CpYnvAMl9mswsX8R87rqxaCDxz/Np/wCKf9U6yjsRwWjp5YljpgzHZ2mVJCbC5ILLdLX6AD2hca1via3hlHmjD+qdZF2Kr56ioaWRlEeASLBCnz1DXV7sDcqPAE3Nt9BH+Wzs5RPEJKX0dKuK7ywxlFd4z1YxjcspF729nLy1P+5v4cgpKiosOY03KJ8lRVYD3buT77Dy1cu0nZSGcCSRgHAxRyqhgzd0ESBchb3eV+g1S/ufGMJr6KTuywygst/ijWHuKDf3jQajxviq0yB3IAJI3NtwjsAPMkpa3v1B4J2lWokMeBVhnls9hiQAM2RVLWdTYE9bgstmJTicQMbHEMyqzJdQ1mxIBAIO+5H0keOqzwRWaRVlg5SpkvK9HHL/ABc1k5fUshCgNbCxYd5dBaqylSaMo4urDwNiPEFWG4YEAhhuCARoTwPmNEQ3eZcoSxIW5R2UsLA7tbK1ha4G+jPdjXYWVRsFF7ADoqgeQ2AGqZwuCqe+LR95RUYGWQACdpGscCASDcX8QBoLLHQOAQXXvEE3XIi3s2IKgWsLbeGuxw+6481iviLKb+O5Kk9d+t9BDHKt86GKXzIIJH87In/51zLXQIMpqDlj8bBQP5xC6AB2lWNGQOE77Sh3aOMtiJWW+ZXIBUFhiRa413wKcv6Mzx3aSSSWVcbnvxGRkYqpLIHlAAIPQeQ1L4wtHVxKQkgRHV2YZMOWjq7KMWK2YxqD0t16ga4V6cLzYFqYAhUKCXR2aRyvSTIYWjyJANwB5W0BPitOsqYCm5QIYEhQhKsjIRchfBz9mhw4fiyuiAtdMrPCLhJFkWwzG90FxffbcaIQcfNieZNt4yJE6+B2CFGOx+zU/hvHXaaogaMyNBh34wFD5A32Z7AqVI9o30Auu9JnSYtj6kYleUCxNkkFlEsinoht7XW1iQdfOHcYjWM1EUIkxxjVRKl+/wB4kO7Y5SMRfJrnFLk6sEs0iCSRadVuMmu13Nh+KoIY2AA73gNV7h80ErzrDOJWYKnIikVghGWTbFlRe9blklRtcXe2gKNJHUTPG9I4KL+FYx2II27qyczx6Mo8dBZKpUpMicnWyuAdpipURmw9mVsUsbWYjHe62LCo5ALMpicgFBsqkL1jxUlVNgdyTbK97CwBUsQZG5bTSRxy5Rgo7IWyzUjlxuxWNSgTI2y71rqpAOTqYJIAkgYSPJkyqco2RTGWDFipxzdbFbXt5WMyl4lM5T1kkasA1xJG1hchtmp7XXFja42U6FyGOMh6juokTKQjlSXd+YxIkWMgXv0N7E6NcP4PFPTq8Ls0Uq3X1sosrAj57yAGzEWAHU6CHW0TuoM1+9EuS2AGZJZiWbFb3e1gTa1tE+ATcgBWikVZXUI94itxGqAAJIxH4O/S2+nkqZopGh5hlOMJBcKCOZI6m2IFwFRmsfxeuotZOuYHphZo2uObBmFYAr7SBAbXI66C06aamQ7lFPxA0Aoq6oc2WtoZW8kiZD9XpDnXfD+JTVLVMNkR6eRUZlZir3QORcgMhAYbi9tt/ABzwKOAU8fMVC5yNioZiMm6CxY7HT/paNdIqcMOlrC31AEA+5yh03R8CdUMZKBDvjdn32tuOXZQARj06Hw3lLQyoLKQffzZF/qtzBoAacOpjI6yU0GTyC14k2sIha2+xu3jbT01BDE8uNPEojXM4oqbAljZgARsyi/uOiU1NKQQ6mS/UEROp+IKxny8fDUY8NSxypYxcWOMIBt4i8bsbe62gY43UMKSpVrgZNGDa3VQbj6Sf0aD9mHLzoD0ZYz9KAm/2t9eitbRwOBG0UzlzmI1nqFZrWJIViqgXtckgXIF7kXbmp3p8JYqFYwlwqq6l2JUixUABjbxMlhbc20BeqP+UacX/wBVqDb+UpdGtUzgVbzq6JyWuaWYlWsSnrINiVJRvilht49dXPQMV/4KT+A36DrJexQiplaLvFFVX74IazJmwVSAuJZm3AAv53GtX4qpMEoHUxsB/NOvK/ZPtoYTHFUgyQpsjfPhvb2DfvJsLodtha1tB6Fn4W7GKWEhok9ZGubL3mQqblQT7LEDr1PT53nv/wBb1MPFWrkB5gYoysgQyIO7jKi7ZkAXt0YA+Gtq4V2nRoSI8CvedXQ7G5JJta4YHvFtiDkfPQypomqmXiL00bBbtAoQB5MrDnODY4nrGhOw7zEnQWjh/aupqEQiieluLuZxnb3JGhDE+9+XbyO4BSn4xLe3LWWw3CExv8eVJYY+/P4X1lh7SM8oD0k4sbn1ZsFHj3chcWO1wLfbZJK4u0Rj9tipBxZGUkkA2NiRcWKsOhNxvsFkqK2WcPIMoUiVjjmVdWtfKVACcgN1iIKsGuSbgBTkRQNOY25kzhYobmPJnY4K5AywLO8jBr4qz7bEaKcRhbAzxgCZEJHk4Fzgx8VJvY+BNx43ARVry1lOHN0iiecZABsmARGsAFwwaYbX3I3Ogm/e66jmzAKBty40jY+ZVrEohO4C94bHK5tqOKWiUhvRI3fpzJRzXI98j5OfpJ1zU1okNwevh9e3x2P1HTegJQ8EoZyGaipiw6NykuPg1ri3uN9AqqincyUoykenljcFmBaSnKSCIlmO7BiyEkktySTu2iMXFRCNgCfG5sF/hNbrvsvU+FvHujrXDNUtGpeVIyCxKCOElsVOxJsQzm4HtW8BoBcXCJVZRJE6ItgBgZNst7cvLfD7babgoj62SQT8yaodljXlghDa10lK5W72wue9019qO10jOyZObDZI1EVzcixLZSX26rbUChWeqrI43URKHSXvXke0MqyY5MxYXKKCdup8raCwUnD6go0i1ZRUvdZV5YW25yCSALYeYHTfVZp+20U1XBAkvpM+TLnGuMSRm2XrG7zd5Ee4uLxgX6nVe+WPtiixTcPiciV6lmmx6CMDZS1+rNY2HgpBt01nPDeOLSVKSonN5cboC9rOGiKpklrWUsDY3O3u0G59rO10MdMJCjzQ1KqC91YEFwCXboi2yVbWNy5CmxId7M9tTUKVg5C43vHyipDAgYsokFj5G29tYfxTtQk9PR0ghKxQJ6wL/pJdwGsCLixva6kl5D46GPxSemq+dHIFlRg102FxY2YePSxBvc366D1ZwvjjyPMpUERRJIGUHvFuZ3QtybgRg/njVc+TzjFNR0EUVXVQQVF3aSOWZEYEu25UkEZCzbjx1G7DIlZzMnPJlbnBFJXNcIgquQblQc7oNiWsb7g3WWip4kCrDGiqLKEUJiPJcbWHw0HysrISYZebGEDFs81AIwdQMr2P4S/16pcMhJvs46kqQ3eNie8CQSD79E2o0WQvGFGQswsAWHiLi230i9rHrkDr0YkjulhMqWRz+q5FiyHoRt5ixAICvoGepgiPeXmhgbXtywzEH84fbp/sVWokFVUu201fNY+LHmiGNQPEnBVHvOnKWspHp46lTOvMjWUDnOSua3sWZ8A29uu+gNTVx4CnWR0pwBYZK24s6kOY8hIGswZMzdbi+gudZFVSk2blIRYAOA1/eRG1vzW+nUGGkkS96iRT4NzWl+hlkBW3wAPv1zw/iss8c0eQEtO6Lna3MDRJIC0fzSRJiV81JBG2Iirri91f1UnhkbKx/Jbxvvt7Q6+RIHY+0TRELUqpH77DuPDd4bmRBv1GagC7Muj1NVJIMo3V181YMPrGsz9PkYqrQMzIdn5bMG32tIgYK1xvsV6G3zBb+xsvMWeYggNMyqWxvjGApuV22cSDqeh3PUgR4QgYzSn2nkZfgsZKKo/JuGa3nI3npjtfTSSUkqxLk5AIXoSAQSFNxZ7A479bar68Fq6iQ/u+eOllJkVI1SJsXZjbnBC5JHe2wIDgXJF9XaKMKoUXsAALkk7eZO5PvOgxj5EcvTpwxYhImAPgbvH0Hg11Nx022A1tWsr+S6oD8SrtiCoxPkbPiGG5GRCgG34ovvfWqaBqrW6OPNSPs14qpqN33Fgo6uxso+nz9wufdr2Zx2QrTTspsRE5B8iFNteL56hnILMTbYDwA8gOgHuGg2Ds18n5QrGZY5YJrOs62ZJFWxYKL5ZEXQrcWFzq1/fiRZyknUsQR0Ftu+PyTfYm4AiKi3QYt2Q7Yy0R5Zu9Oxu8d7WP48Z+bILD3G2/gRt/C+OQzwCXMOhUnK3tAC7Ar4SAdU+kXHQIlW6VMiGNOZi47wAIaxUliWOJjUEWsCSSMfZB0X4dQTxWkEaM6R8mJXkKZlQWYiytu9rAHcBSfnEakdm+Fl0jnUY8wrIVDEgI1ziN7bZ3JGxI28NG+IVsWaU9lJcnvP7AK27vUZObjujp1PQAgDou2kfEV9HpCY5GUCcyDFoM9iFjbeSQX2IGA6knZWa4nFeqQRkYSU7qvVfwdo40Yk9A00z7eKgm9ltZaenZJXj+ZeN1AFsR3hb6Aij4W0K4twWSr4eiwuI5lYujEXscm2+36wNBX1hZ3ZTdDcjyOxkDfTaYEee3x0ZHv6+OonDuOJVKsg7pYBip6i/VT+Up7pHmDqTHKrdCD47HQB6qjZ52BLlcBiBuciVVQD1GTPYknYAWt3sneIdkYl4mtbKHmYyYQpJKTFFJbJMrqxCtclbWVXxW24OjPBpU9Ksb3IVUA8TaQsfgoUi/mbdSNcUsReWaN3iCc5ZWdlKMcJs1ABuGCkCMPkAMRtuNBKr6d1mYqIixIdgM12J2zKxv1xO5tc3OolNUcucScl5HUNYRSwEEtbK+Uiv1A8PHppiUNNnIGAlZZDj3iqu+KoWkRHX1caKAVPtBvBjrp2nyYRzK4ARUjSdJDbJC5bmm1+9Jj3bgL19lQGD9pOx3FWnlmk4fODLI8hCIZQC7Fjut9t9WKb5JMY1X0sGe45llDRqNsgDlkSL7HbI7WHta1JnqId2piT6y+ENmJVnZLSxhVCFABkSCS62F7rr7FxZpXEIQkMlxNm7KWI6rHJkALvDYE7iQ793cMG7adiKrhTI7nOKT8FMgIBNuhB3R7b2+omxtU9exOz9JBNArvTwczvRy2jW3MRikgG3TNCPgBrir7CcMk9qgpt/xYlQ/WoB0Ge/JBVx+g08sSnmQTSwzKLnJHUSMwF+vqlcdd1ZQO9rQuOVFgT4DckeXn8NCH7DUFI0fIiMavKGZeY7rkoZkYIzEBwwUBhYi5HQ6ehnVkCj5jSxj4RSvEP1BoOGJ8N9RouPMuSsLYWyHSxvdTc/NOOF+m5PQa+0OwKfiMVHwsCo+hWUfRp/EXDWFxtf4+F/L3aCrcM4UGigj547sMcZVRZxgpViQ4GAOLD2WvYG4tovxjhKRc1kQAql1Yks2KtsMmJa3uBtvYAatMVPDJH6yNWC7+zuPC6kd4EDxG+22g9fJKJJKcOHxWExsWwMkU0uOBkAJDjluuYF8WU+1dtBK4XRFaiokSxilW2QYHvxySDve8q4A67RgdRvFroibgEfAi4Px/wDP2hjh/FjFIxlEcSc0qioxsVC4OnesbxYrIdhcB8RZTqTxCqVWe+2B73uB6N/BNuvQb36GwC+I1ssFJUSBQrRwOyFTsGCm23u2PlsdWypolpqFYI1YxxpHEQoLNyrqshAHeLBMm2ub9LnVYrK2N6efEhsY3LJsCQAbqVbwaxXcW3OrVwTiILmDPPFMlYgglb271zuRt3tst/I6BiXiYmlT0YFggLGUSKI/fGy5XJ2F7r3bix66+1XayKOlepdWQLcKjWu7Y5BUse9cb3G1rm9gTp/jgDT0aGxDSPkG6FRE56eLZYkDyDHw1mXy2S3lVkmLKiZCKMg4Sgn1jgbghcLE3ICtbbLQTfkcnElTO9gXMQyYC2Xe8bCxI6edrdBYa1rWV/Ix2XmoXmFQGWSRMiptYd9lBAHQsFB+ga1TQQuNgGnnB6cp7/zTrxTr2n2g/wA1qP4mT9Q68a01DJIpZFJC3ufKys5/qox+jQRtHeynaN6OTccyB9poibB18wfmuOoYbgjXUXYyuZXcU5tGbPdkUg4q3slgT3XQmwNgwvodFwmZojMsbGMBjkOlkKBj52BlS/8AC9xsHqfslIs/D446WbuhQqSgDIR3IBAsVEqgYWIsrKTYi1+eJcORpzBIV5aQB05savuXIYpbHuiyh7d4l0sV+d5/+T7jcdBW8ushV4ixikDDIxG4BdT7ioDW6geNhr0VxdKbh9PPWwxouEWRwCjmAAlVLW3BJG5v120EA8ZpuGK0lSpjU2TnCZ6hT1KqFdjKpO5xClRvvqj8a+XeJUZKOlck5WeVgoBNzlgMidzexI1kvaztRPxCXmS4qFuEjjXFEB64jzPiTudA9BbartqsrlpKGnOV7kPOrHe9y/N3JJuTbc6KcF7ScPZ15oraffbCpd0BJvc7hxv5X66z7S0HqjhXHo4UWUBZKZV9ZKjZtEvXORD6zE7EnvHxPidFKGSQZ5xmEsFCZMgZznKzFQsoIUcxQLkN1uo15c4BxpoWCMQYmNmVhcWPX4XBIPxO2to4N2me0eYFTEgI5bnvqCBdQ5uGsQNm3BFsxa2gu9bQynYyZDx50TMB+cVcAfT4aj8mVu4OXIB4LMf+mroPotpqStpWpZZaVnjkVQTHm6MNwN0ysetgwuPfqxcbme8carG2d9pBcbY/tPhoAAQx9YXjHiyqifUREzf1tMyV8M+UPpD9Axs7hrAixBE5IGS9Qnh8dGvRWOUZWJWVQ7IgxVwSQLjxAxPXqSPLcA3GaetqFgSoQTRAmNjGJBckBhv3XUFQjYm/rCLqR3QIcClp6OBo4kwQEyMecWNzuzM0+O5O/Uj69C6ntiwUFZmXKxVSqu9j4EhAAwvuoDkEalcUUvBMksMSvHjnCuSd1mAySQGzRsMrNgNwQRcEai0vAVTFciA4Bbl90m4awMhvJsNtioPl4aCNT09XVMti0LyEjmSXkZExJkwBbHIkJiMQFuxxOuVrMMmCEMtQ4dPE89jKBf8AjHnjHS8kYXRGKvip548/UiMszAstjdWUNYEs2d8rkAXDC5IAb41PFxJpHpxiLYsx3jmU2LISDfaQsVkS+EqykE3IYOUlGYcG6SgWPhkL2+lht+ZbqdfeIv3QoNi5wB8iQSCPeLX+jQSupqqMNGuEshNj3rg+OcoCE59O8qqWtckbWh1UPEbqHmokCBsZJCyFSwK5Y5N3lUsou3ziTc9AsDcaBgSUNgXpZJgfBcUzufPF0S30+epFLHk0U9iDLJEQh2wiE7tEpU+yw5jXHh3V+boPwaignCxB46qSnESGOGVBHJEiqygJlumeQYMTupuCLDV34bwF+61RJdgB3IyQtwb959mc5En5oINip0A3hNVyJ542jGCu2c2cgWx712UqYlezC9mFySbC4vVqKtjmjZoJ05cDmNWclGjHhZxcNGRbuMLZKRfYBdA7Q8DoJQZqyngcRqSZJUU4qNzdj80bm3TWL9se3KQ2WmhWK2QisoDrHk2OEdsYFK2O4LNc3C20Bvi/DYzTsiITIwIE01oog23WN2AwsLWVCLeerd8mlCAambKHJ5MXWKVpzkOmczgNiARgg2AYm5J28wcRr5J3LyMWY+LEsfhckm306m9me0lTQTCamlKNtkOquPJ16EfaPCx0HsLiPD4Z05c8SSpe+EihxcdO6QRfVEThtFzJJEY8PigBeaJSYmZRfvGEjCOM22dFybazKRY99ku378TgzhEcUikLJH3pXBPzgvdsh8G79vEbayv5Z+0LvMKMuZDEcpGbEkMQCEGPdFgd8AL7X3XQaT8lvadK+trWhj5cEaRpHcks/eku8jEkl2sOpvYAXNr603WGfczDev8AhB/e63PQDu0ZtSVB/wBzJ+odeWeyXaeGlj5UsAkR3cyHEFgrRYARksApN2DEjodvHXqTtOt6OpHnBKP6ja8X6DSm7fUsmXMhliMpZpGiCuQTGsWCl2yaMrGkm5HfQXBFsY9L22pIohTx00nJVOUMnu8kcjg1AcghVJFwhVetiegtnuloCVXerq5DEp9dK7KDtYMxbvHoLDr8Doz2k7YTy00PD1mLU9OMb9OaQdi35C9FHkATv0Fl+RBYfhZ1u35MXgPi/U/kgeehGgWnqekkkuUjZwtssVLWuQovbpdiAPMkDTOr18llZFDJK8kscbHlqgkk5YYh87Ft8VyiQF7XXK4toKpNwWpTLKnmXFxG142GLtuqnbZj4A7nUOaJkYo6lWUlWVhYgjYgg7gg+Gt2h7T0zsBJUU0ZltCsiVDuI5UCtzeS4xQK8YCzNkWtFYgA6x7teYPTJvRrcrIWIdpATiMyHbvMpfIhj1BHTQB9Hez3G2he5NwAW3PXFZCAfcXe/wAdAtLQa1U8RLFeWbypFzENrZG7KVvcd1wjKR4hvhrVafjckywTlY3QqJFdX5RIbEj1JEh8Le2Nea6XjLJPGwbuqscfuAUC5+FwT9J16M+SetVqdoRKGVWZ4luD6p+98bK5dfcAo0Erj1RDWwvFJFLHkpVZVMUhX4KkjMRcA4ld7dNYG/CK+hqXqL5mBu9dijOmIYnlPaTDE39naxPRSdemuIxnJI4isbSNeQqBlgqsSRt+NgpPhmbEEg6yfjnB6iolmjqBUciMTVFVKqtEJZCoiijRiFDFIkUXAKkk3BB3A52Z7XQcWpSzraogUh0J9tWsDHcWuslgB+UqmxKgGzGspkaPm1EMRxxIeRVN1yU2BIvZgRcbG22qRwD5IZKYo6TDJWyLJK8bSgNdRkFIiAFgcQxO9mUG2rfxjtZ6EiweiFZytoY8gY2VbAtzBuI1uAclDEkWB6gI81XBEJJGqITHlGL81CLGVLse9sLXvfwJ0K7WdsuHvGWjWciNSoljkkpY7fillZXkU+GKsPIi99Zr2n7RjnO1SeZUKbIWQBEDC4MUY2C9Bcksbbt01SON8akqXJZjjt3b7Cw8vjc/ToCXGO2VTKqxJNIkSDEKpKX95sSxv17zMbnrquMxJuTcnxOudLQTuF8SaFgbBluCVO248VYbo48GG41sHY35U57JG0odSbHnKZJY1HUgqy85QNzfvgAm72trEddxSFTdSQR0INj9eg3H5RO2haMgScyBW9WSABNIASrYj/QKy3W5OR717BScPnmLsWY3LG5PvOjPamseYpNkTHIoKj8VlAV1+gi/wYHxOgWgWlpaWgN9j+0s3DqpKmGxIurKejqeqt7tgfcQD4aFVlS0sjyOcndi7E+LMbk/STpnS0G4fczDev8A5D++1uesN+5l61/8h/fa3LQROLx5QTL5xuPrU68T69v1KXRh5qR9mvEGgWnIAMhl7I3Pw8vien06b19voHKmcyMWbqT/AOAe4dAPdqb2Zx9MpsyoTnx5FiAAM1uWJ2At1vobpaDTuE0cELsWeB1WmVBOk0JKH25nWJwTILvhsA5B7l7kgL2HhjikqhNyw0aFOZzYfVi5DsiuCsqm2JwOdn7vW4petE4BQutNHyYqV2eMyxvK8OT1AJBGMjbJFGzHFgFLJc3uBoDsfEKWiZlElPN6TVWOHKdRG7OhEjMD3VjCNZbDIi52IK4rxiN4mfOGRA98+ZTK00UYjlRJIhEspkY8xMVwVL2Odrs7SU9Isk04kpUDLHyMRExDM0hPddWWJXZ8AWU4gXIAUaoPbDi7zJTqUgjGLuyQxRx4vzpV3ZVBPdVepPgepvoLhxqppVgq3pDCbh4mZZYYzbKYkgOrSOHMndEWJIRbkADWT6WloFrQuA9ofQaWjbvKzO5DLsUAY94eB6+ydiCR0OqBDHkwFwL+J2A9592iHHeIiZkVARHEojjB6kDxPvPX6tB6N7H9qo6moacPGZpoYkaC5RrRNMc4shaUNzb2U90DqTtol2s4q7jl0+EhHecOSsarg5Qzv7SqZFWwXribkC9vN1UJI1yjkeSFGCq294pBYi3ipv0YbHb4a9AfIpV50cyuPXR1DiZ735jEKQ/uJWw+Kk+OgrEVZxlNhRTOvgyzUtQPiJGiZz8Xdm8zqidqu0U6Th5QVkEoUpeMlY4zcqeWip3nd72HVQCTbW3fKhJTw0UwMKtPUI8UOMYLM5Vj7XhYAkm/htc2GvLfEKgSSFwuIPRQbhfcvkvkPAbaCw/KMQapSOhiU/a2qrov2hqeZ6O17n0dFPxUsD+jQjQLS0tLQLS0tLQFOHtnDLCeo9cnxX2x9KXP8mNC9SKCo5civ5HceY8R9IuPp03PHizL1sSL+egb0tLTtJTtK6RoLu7BVFwLkmwFzsNz46BrS1Kl4dIrMhXdRkbEEY2yuGBsVK7ggkEbjTAibEtY4ghSbbXNyBfzsD9Wg277mb/X/wCQ/vtblrC/uZm71ePMQn6ub+3W6aDib2T8Drw/r3ERrxlP2brEbFqScG5FuU/h5bb/AEaAVpaKf+nKz/Y6j+hf/Dpf+nKz/ZKj+hf/AA6AXpaJns9WDrSVH9E/+HTL8IqB1p5R8Y2H9mghaWpsfCKhjYQSknoBGxP1W1NPZKvtf0Cqt/ESf4dAF0tEpOAVai7Us4HmYnH9muIeC1L+zTTN8I2P6BoIGloqOzVaf9TqP6F/8Onh2P4h/sFX/wC3k/w6AJr6Dos/ZitHWiqR8YZB/wBumZeAVai7Us4HmYnH9mgJ8ClVYMXayzThCL9QI2BPwDOh+IHlrQfufO0oWqnpXNvSAJI7/vig5j4sCT+ZrIqmORQokVlAFlDAjxvtf3nXyiqJI5EkiZlkVgyMvUEdCPfoNW+6F7Scyrjo0Pdphm5H744BG/5K49PFz5ayN2JNybk7k6IPRVU7s5imldyWZsGYsT1JNtzrs9naz/ZKj+hf/DoBrOTYHwFh9ZP6Sdc6lPw2YdYZBbzRh/Zr4vD5j0ikP5h/ZoI2lqV97Zv3mT+Y37NfV4ZMekMh/Mb9mgiaWiP3iqrX9Fnt58p/02003Cpx1glH8m37NBD19Y31L+9M/wC8S/0bfs06nAapulLOfhE5/s0A7TtLI6urISHVgVI6hgbi3vvoxTdjOIyexQVJHnyXA+si2iVB2I4vC6yx0M6spuDhf61OxBGxBFjfQWXhqUskSzZC0iO/LvshCyK8agAbB6kkKTcrInUHuhe2IingaSnGaRujZqCqgNFCj5ZY5vnyx3FGN+9bIDRCg4XxKNgRwaRAgkZEjSRVMkiqpZyzM2IC+yhXoB0J0/xuq4y8LQjhU0YkFmKQyvtjibAbC63XcE2ta1r6Av8Ac0n19YP93H+s2t71i33P/ZyrpZap6inkhDIirzFKZG5O1/IdfiNbToFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFrkIOthfS0tB1paWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloFpaWloP//Z

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The 13th Amendment: Slavery is still legal under one condition

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14th Amendment: Simplified Summary, Text & Impact

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The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States—including former slaves—and guaranteed all citizens “equal protection of the laws.”

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National Constitution Center - The 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution

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The 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution

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SECTION. 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

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United States presidential election of 1876 , disputed American presidential election held on November 7, 1876, in which Republican Rutherford B. Hayes defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden . Tilden led Hayes by more than 260,000 popular votes, and preliminary returns showed Tilden with 184 electoral votes (one shy of the majority needed to win the election) to Hayes's 165, with the 19 electoral votes of three states (Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina) and one elector from Oregon (originally awarded to Tilden) still in doubt. The U.S. Congress subsequently created an Electoral Commission , which by early March 1877 had resolved all the disputed electoral votes in favour of Hayes, giving him a 185-184 electoral college victory.

The candidates

After the Civil War ended in 1865, the Republicans held a stranglehold on the presidency , with Gen. Ulysses S. Grant winning easily in both 1868 and 1872 . But Grant's administration and the Republicans generally had been beset by scandals and allegations of corruption, such as the Crédit Mobilier Scandal and the Whiskey Ring . The Democrats entered 1876 on an upswing, having won control of the House of Representatives in 1874, and from the outset the election was expected to be competitive.

The Republicans held their convention in Cincinnati, Ohio , in mid-June, and the front-runner for their nomination was James G. Blaine of Maine , the speaker of the House of Representatives. Republican reformers, however, hoped to thwart his nomination. Blaine led after the first ballot but without enough votes to secure the nomination. Among the challengers to Blaine were Roscoe Conkling , a senator from New York and a prominent Republican leader in the post-Civil War period; Oliver H.P.T. Morton , a senator from Indiana and that state's former governor; Benjamin Helm Bristow , the U.S. secretary of the Treasury (1874-76) and successful prosecutor of the Whiskey Ring; and Rutherford B. Hayes, the governor of Ohio. Eventually, with the withdrawal of Bristow, Conkling, and Morton in favour of Hayes, Hayes secured the nomination on the seventh ballot, and William A. Wheeler , a senator from New York, was selected as his running mate. Hayes's unblemished public record and high moral tone (as well as his deep sympathy toward the South) offered a striking contrast to widely publicized accusations of corruption in the Grant administration.

The Democrats held their convention two weeks later in St. Louis , Missouri-the first time a national convention was held west of the Mississippi. Samuel J. Tilden, the governor of New York, strongly appealed to delegates from Southern states, and on the first ballot he led Thomas A. Hendricks , the governor of Indiana. After a second ballot Tilden secured the nomination, and Hendricks was chosen as his running mate.

The platforms

The 1876 election occurred in the midst of an economic depression in the United States and continuing sectional animosity, particularly in the South, where opposition to federal occupation and Reconstruction had grown. Many Republicans had grown weary of Reconstruction and had come to believe that the time for compromise with Southern whites was at hand. Still, the Republicans continued their strong commitment to the civil rights of emancipated slaves, their party platform stating that "the permanent pacification of the Southern section of the Union and the complete protection of all its citizens in the free enjoyment of all their rights, are duties to which the Republican party is sacredly pledged." It further criticized the Democratic Party for its lack of commitment to civil rights, arguing that the "party counts, as its chief hope of success, upon the electoral vote of a united South, secured through the efforts of those who were recently arrayed against the nation and we invoke the earnest attention of the country to the grave truth, that a success thus achieved would reopen sectional strife and imperil national honor and human rights."

Meanwhile, the Democratic platform called for "immediate reform" of the federal government and, to forestall Republican charges of sectionalism, committed itself to the "permanence of the Federal Union." It also called for civil service reform and restrictions on Chinese immigration to the United States.

The disputed election

On election day Tilden led Hayes by more than 260,000 votes and appeared on the verge of winning an electoral college majority, having swept much of the South; he also won the border states and several states in the northeast, including his home state of New York, Connecticut , Delaware , Maryland, and New Jersey . However, three states were in doubt: Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina , with 19 electoral votes among them. The status of one of Oregon's three electors-which had already been given to Tilden-was also in question. Hayes and most of his associates were ready to concede when a New Hampshire Republican leader, William E. Chandler, observed that if Hayes were awarded every one of the doubtful votes, he would defeat Tilden 185-184. Both parties claimed victory in all three Southern states and sent teams of observers and lawyers into all three in hopes of influencing the official canvass.

The impasse continued into December, when the electors were to meet and cast their votes. When Congress convened on December 7, there were rival electoral reports, and, over the next six weeks, maneuvering and acrimony prevailed in Congress, and there were fears that another civil war might break out. On January 29, 1877, Congress created an Electoral Commission to break the deadlock. The commission was to have five members from the House of Representatives, five from the Senate , and five from the Supreme Court. As originally conceived, the commission was to comprise seven Democrats, seven Republicans, and one independent, the Supreme Court justice David Davis . Davis refused to serve, however, after the Republican-controlled legislature of Illinois engineered to have him elected to the state's vacant Senate seat, and Justice Joseph P. Bradley , a Republican, was named in his place by the other four justices.

While the commission was deliberating, Republican allies of Hayes engaged with moderate Southern Democrats in secret negotiations aimed at securing acquiescence to Hayes's election. Although Bradley leaned toward Tilden's claim in Florida, he was swayed to back Hayes, and thereafter every action by the Electoral Commission followed a strict 8-7 split in favour of the Republican claims. When the last issue was resolved after 4 am on March 2, Hayes was declared the winner, with a narrow 185-184 majority, and he was sworn in privately the following day (because March 4 was a Sunday, the public swearing in took place on March 5). Although the result was greeted with outrage and bitterness by some Northern Democrats, who dubbed Hayes "His Fraudulency," Hayes was sworn in without incident. Southern Democrats, however, found relative contentment with the outcome, when, as president, Hayes promptly made good on the secret pledges made during the electoral dispute to withdraw federal troops from states still under military occupation and thus end the era of Reconstruction. Thereafter the Democrats came to dominate what became known as the " Solid South ."

For the results of the previous election, see United States presidential election of 1872 . For the results of the subsequent election, see United States presidential election of 1880 .

Results of the 1876 election

The results of the 1876 U.S. presidential election are provided in the table.

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united states presidential election of 1876

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United States presidential election of 1876 | United States government

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United States presidential election of 1876 , disputed American presidential election held on November 7, 1876, in which Republican Rutherford B. Hayes defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden .

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Wounded Knee, located on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, was the site of two conflicts between Native Americans and representatives of the U.S. government, including the U.S. Army and, later, the FBI. An 1890 massacre left some 150 Native Americans dead, in what was the final clash between federal troops and the Sioux tribe. In 1973, members of the American Indian Movement occupied Wounded Knee for 71 days to protest conditions on the reservation.

Ghost Dance and Sitting Bull

Throughout 1890, the U.S. government was worried about the increasing influence at Pine Ridge Indian Reservation of the Ghost Dance spiritual movement, which taught that Native Americans had been defeated and confined to reservations because they had angered the gods by abandoning their traditional customs.

Many Sioux believed that if they practiced the Ghost Dance and rejected the ways of the white man, the gods would create the world anew and destroy all non-believers, including non-Indians. On December 15, 1890, reservation police tried to arrest Sitting Bull, the famous Sioux chief, whom they mistakenly believed was a Ghost Dancer, and killed him in the process, increasing the tensions at Pine Ridge in South Dakota.

Did you know? Nearly half of the Sioux killed at the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre were women and children.

Wounded Knee Massacre

On December 29, the U.S. Army's 7th Cavalry surrounded a band of Ghost Dancers under Big Foot, a Lakota Sioux chief, near Wounded Knee Creek and demanded they surrender their weapons. As that was happening, a fight broke out between an Indian and a U.S. soldier and a shot was fired, although it's unclear from which side.

A brutal massacre followed, in which an estimated 150 Indians were killed. (Some historians put this number at twice as high.) Nearly half of them were women and children. The U.S. cavalry lost 25 men.

The conflict at Wounded Knee was originally referred to as a battle-the Army troops involved were later rewarded with Medals of Honor-but in reality it was a tragic and avoidable massacre. Surrounded by heavily armed troops, it's unlikely that Big Foot's band would have intentionally started a fight. Some historians speculate that the soldiers of the 7th Cavalry were deliberately taking revenge for the regiment's defeat at Little Bighorn in 1876.

Whatever the motives, the massacre ended the Ghost Dance movement and was one of the last major confrontations in the Indian Wars, America's deadly series of wars against the Plains Indians and other Native Americans.

American Indian Movement

The American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in 1968 in an effort to stop police harassment of Indians in the Minneapolis area. Borrowing some tactics from the Vietnam war protests of the era, AIM soon gained national notoriety for its flamboyant demonstrations. However, many mainstream Indian leaders denounced the youth-dominated group as too radical.

In 1972, a faction of AIM members led by Dennis Banks and Leonard Peltier sought to close the divide by making alliances with traditional tribal elders on reservations. They had their greatest success on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, after a group of young white men murdered a Sioux man named Yellow Thunder.

Although Yellow Thunder's attackers received only six-year prison sentences, this was widely seen as a victory by the local Sioux accustomed to unfair treatment by the often racist judicial system. AIM's highly visible publicity campaign on the case was given considerable credit for the verdict, winning the organization a great deal of respect on the reservation.

Wounded Knee Siege

AIM's growing prestige and influence, however, threatened the conservative Sioux tribal chairman, Dick Wilson. When Wilson learned of a planned AIM protest against his administration at Pine Ridge, he retreated to tribal headquarters where he was under the protection of federal marshals and Bureau of Indian Affairs police.

Rather than confront the police in Pine Ridge, some 200 AIM members and their supporters decided to occupy the symbolically significant hamlet of Wounded Knee, site of the 1890 massacre. Wilson, with the backing of the federal government, responded by besieging Wounded Knee.

During the 71 days of the siege, which began on February 27, 1973, federal officers and AIM members exchanged gunfire almost nightly. Hundreds of arrests were made, and two Native Americans were killed and a federal marshal was permanently paralyzed by a bullet wound.

The leaders of AIM finally surrendered on May 8 after a negotiated settlement was reached. In a subsequent trial, the judge ordered their acquittal because of evidence that the FBI had manipulated key witnesses. AIM emerged victorious and succeeded in shining a national spotlight on the problems of modern Native Americans.

Trouble Continues at Pine Ridge

The troubles at Wounded Knee, however, were not over after the siege. A virtual civil war broke out between the opposing Indian factions on the Pine Ridge reservation, and a series of beatings, shootings and murders left more than 100 Indians dead. When two FBI agents were killed in a 1975 gunfight, the agency raided the reservation and arrested AIM leader Leonard Peltier for the crime.

The FBI crackdown coupled with AIM's own excesses ended its influence at Pine Ridge. In 1977, Peltier was convicted of killing the two FBI agents and sentenced to life in prison. To this day, Peltier's supporters continue to maintain his innocence and seek a presidential pardon for him.

And in 2021, members of the U.S. Congress petitioned President Joe Biden to revoke the Medals of Honor soldiers received for their participation in the 1890 Wounded Knee massacre.

HISTORY Vault: Native American History

Sources

Disaster at Wounded Knee. Library of Congress.
What really happened at Wounded Knee, the site of a historic massacre. National Geographic.
Warren, Merkley, Kahele Lead Bicameral Letter Urging Biden to Rescind Medals of Honor Awarded to Soldiers who Perpetrated Wounded Knee Massacre. Elizabeth Warren, U.S. Senate.
Wounded Knee Massacre. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains.

Fact Check

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Wounded Knee: Massacre, Memorial & Battle - HISTORY

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Wounded Knee in South Dakota was the site of an 1890 Indian massacre by U.S. Army troops, and a deadly 1973 occupation by Native American activists.

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Transcontinental Railroad
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
Massacre at Wounded Knee
https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/wounded-knee
Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dawes-General-Allotment-Act
The Homestead & Morril Acts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hsQ0FlCxVE

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Dawes General Allotment Act | History, Significance, & Facts

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Dawes General Allotment Act, U.S. law providing for the distribution of Indian reservation land among individual Native Americans, with the aim of creating farmers in the white man's image. It was sponsored several times by Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts and finally was enacted in February 1887.

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Sound Smart: The Homestead Act | History

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The Bessemer Process
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2F3.bp.blogspot.com%2F_vrlb5vm7MQE%2FTOz4VZzjx3I%2FAAAAAAAAADk%2FHV-bxkBYWLs%2Fs1600%2Fbessemer-converter.jpeg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fbelajar-engineering.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F11%2Fbessemer-process-bessemer-converter.html&docid=eMXn3QlUbqH57M&tbnid=pBI2g-VhUF8mrM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwj_gsXW1qbmAhUIUK0KHaVqDzkQMwhqKAcwBw..i&w=487&h=240&safe=active&bih=609&biw=1366&q=the%20bessemer%20process&ved=0ahUKEwj_gsXW1qbmAhUIUK0KHaVqDzkQMwhqKAcwBw&iact=mrc&uact=8
Growth of Invention - late 1800s
https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-stories/1870-1900-industrial-development
The Rise of Big Business
https://ehistory.osu.edu/exhibitions/1912/trusts/RiseBigBusiness
The Antitrust Movement
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/antitrust.asp

The Labor Movement

https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/labor

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After the Civil War, the United States rapidly transformed into an industrial, urbanized nation. Technological innovation, economic growth, development of large-scale agriculture, and the expansion of the federal government characterized the era, as did the social tensions brought about by immigration, financial turmoil, federal Indian policy, and increasing demands for rights by workers, women, and minorities.

This group of objects highlights innovation and industrialization in the late 1800s, and the benefits as well as detriments of becoming an economic and industrial power.

Century Vase, 1876

Made by Union Porcelain Works, Greenpoint, New York

The American Industrial Revolution transformed the nation from a scattering of isolated communities into an economic and industrial giant, in part due to the country’s wealth of natural resources. Forests, minerals, waterways, and huge tracts of arable land for farming and ranching provided the raw materials that fueled growth and development, often at the expense of the environment.

This vase celebrates 100 years of American progress and depicts now-vanished icons of the American landscape such as bison, a wooden reaper, and a steamship.

Railroad Spike, 1869

Commemorative of the final spike that completed the transcontinental railroad

Railroads were the basis of the nation’s industrial economy in the late 1800s, creating new markets, carrying billions of tons of freight to every corner of the country, and opening up the West for development. Thanks in part to the railroad providing access to new land for farming, agricultural production doubled in the 1870s, which in turn increased railroad traffic.

Gift of Union Pacific Railroad, Mr. A. E. Stoddard, President

Stock Ticker, about 1900

Made by the Western Union Telegraph Company

The U.S. economy grew rapidly after the Civil War, fueled by an astounding rise in wealth, wages, production, and corporate mergers, along with limited government regulation. The volume of stocks traded rose sharply with corporations’ need for investment capital and the development of new technologies. The 1867 invention of the stock ticker, transmitting up-to-the-minute share prices over telegraph lines, modernized the stock exchange.

Gift of Western Union Corporation

Incandescent Lamp, about 1891

Made by Edison General Electric Company

Many inventions in the late 1880s helped speed urban growth, allowing for taller buildings, more efficient factories, and better transportation. One of the most dramatic improvements occurred in artificial lighting. Thomas Edison’s development of an electric lamp that did not rely on open flames made lighting more practical for factories, offices, and homes, and transformed city life.

Gift of General Electric Lighting Company, through Terry K. McGowan

Tinfoil Phonograph, 1878

Invented by Thomas Alva Edison

Thomas Edison helped usher in an age of organized research in support of commerce and industry that reshaped American life. Vowing to turn out inventions on a regular basis, Edison and his team of scientists, engineers, draftsmen, and laborers developed or improved over 1,000 patents, from huge electric generators to this early phonograph.

Gift of American Telephone and Telegraph Company

Alexander Graham Bell's Big Box Telephone, 1876

One of the first commercially available telephones

Telegraph lines could carry only one coded message per wire at a time, which became a hindrance as the volume of communication increased. To overcome this problem, Alexander Bell used his knowledge of acoustics to devise a method of sending multiple tonal messages over a wire. This led to the telephone, and a communication revolution that transformed business and daily life.

Gift of American Telephone and Telegraph Company

Cross, 1875–99

Made by a Hispanic Catholic in New Mexico

New Mexico has experienced many cultural encounters since the arrival of the Spanish in the early 1500s. Following the United States’ 1848 annexation of the area at the end of war with Mexico, the population of the territory boomed, bringing together Catholics of Spanish descent, indigenous tribes, Protestant missionaries, and Anglo American settlers. Though often in conflict, these communities forged a distinctive regional identity that survives to the present.

Silver Presentation Cup, about 1900

Presented to Susan B. Anthony on her eightieth birthday

Although American women fought for black suffrage, they were unable to vote in federal elections themselves until 1920. As suffragists moved out of the parlor and into the streets, they challenged the notion that a woman’s place was solely in the home. Susan B. Anthony shocked the nation when she was jailed in 1872 for illegally trying to vote.

Gift of National American Woman Suffrage Association

Print, 1870s

Black politicians during Reconstruction

With the end of the Civil War, hard-won constitutional amendments abolished slavery and established citizenship and voting rights for black Americans. But during and after Reconstruction, blacks were often treated as second-class citizens. Southern states continued to restrict black voting, and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan led to decades of violence.

From the Ralph E. Becker Collection of Political Americana

Statue, late 1800s

Made by the Union Porcelain Works, Greenpoint, New York

In the late 1800s, black Americans gained citizenship and the vote, while immigrants from Europe and Asia came to the country in record numbers. As these minorities strove for economic prosperity and social justice, some white Americans reacted to the rapidly changing social order with apprehension and hostility. The relationship of the three figures in this statue captures this tension.

Gift of Mrs. Franklin Chace

Singer Sewing Machine Patent Model, 1889

Factory machine for making buttonholes

American goods were increasingly made in factories as companies adopted large-scale, standardized production methods in the late 1800s. Specialized machines took the place of manual tasks—such as sewing buttonholes for ready-made clothing—speeding up the work to meet the growing demands of a nation of consumers. The advent of more simply constructed women’s apparel in the 1890s gave a further boost to the clothing industry.

Sholes & Glidden Typewriter, 1873

Made by E. Remington & Sons

The development of corporations after the Civil War led to the creation of multiple layers of office management. The vast demand for professional managers and clerical staff encouraged education and the growth of the middle class. The introduction of the typewriter gave women the opportunity to enter the corporate workplace.

Gift of Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict

John Brown Lennon's Delegate Badge, 1893

From the Journeymen Tailors’ Union convention

Rapid industrial development in the late 1800s changed where and how Americans worked. By 1900, U.S. factories employed 4.5 million people, most working long hours for low wages in often unhealthful conditions. Workers organized local and national unions in response, leading to an intense period of political activity, strikes, and sometimes violent clashes in the fight for labor rights.

Gift of D. E. Lennon

Jeans, 1873-96

Made by Levi Strauss & Co., San Franscisco

Between 1870 and 1900 over 430 million acres were settled in the United States, most of them in the West. Mining, ranching, and farming drew waves of settlers, and cities and commerce followed. In 1873 San Francisco merchant LeviStrauss and tailor Jacob Davis patented a designfor rugged workers’ pants for western wear—the first jeans, advertised at right in 1875.

Gift of Walter Haas Jr.

Winchester Rifle, 1881

Captured from Sioux when Chief Low Dog surrendered in Montana Territory

Through most of the 1800s, Americans viewed the nation’s westward expansion as a symbol of its providence as a land of wealth and progress. But Indian tribes resisted the encroachment of settlers in their territories, setting off decades of violence. The federal government gradually pushed the tribes to more isolated areas, offering U.S. citizenship, but few opportunities, to those who agreed to accept allotments of land on reservations.

Man's Gown, about 1896

Ordered from China by Lee B. Lok in 1896

With the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869, thousands of Chinese laborers were left jobless in the western United States. Unwelcome in California, where it was feared they competed for low-paying jobs, many moved to the East Coast. Lee Lok emigrated from China to San Francisco in 1881 and then moved to New York City’s Chinatown where he worked in a general store. Although he could not become a U.S. citizen, his children could, and did.

Gift of James Edgar Mead and Virginia Lee Mead

The objects below are no longer on view

Harvester and Self-Raking Reaper Patent Model, 1877

Patented by William Whiteley

Increasingly mechanized farming meant fewer laborers were needed on farms, releasing them to work in urban industrial jobs. As the cities grew, demand increased for agricultural goods in turn. Inventors looked for new ways for farming to be more efficient and profitable, including making improvements to existing technology such as the mechanical reaper first developed by Cyrus McCormick in 1834.

Creeping Baby Doll, 1870s

Patented by Robert J. Clay

In the 1870s, changing notions of childhood meant that Anglo American parents had only recently accepted crawling, or creeping, as a natural stage in a baby’s development rather than a bad habit.  Prior to this, generations of American children had been prevented from crawling on all fours, an activity then associated with animals and the insane.

Child's Dress, 1876

Made from fabric purchased at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition

Celebrating innovations in industry and the arts, the international Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition commemorated the hundredth anniversary of the American Revolution, embodied Americans’ confidence in the future, and revealed the country’s potential to the rest of the world. Among the crowds attending the centennial was Henry Fletcher, who purchased the patriotic fabric his wife used to make this dress for their first child, born in 1876.

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After the Civil War, the United States rapidly transformed into an industrial, urbanized nation. Technological innovation, economic growth, development of large-scale agriculture, and the expansion of the federal government characterized the era, as did the social tensions brought about by immigrati…

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The late nineteenth century saw the rise of "big business" in important areas of economic activity. ("Big" is never defined precisely, but the quantitative term is popularly used to connote something important.) Big business firms were institutions that used management to control economic activity. Big business firms broke themselves into different functions, or "departments," and used managers to coordinate the work of departments, and "middle managers" to coordinate work among departments.

Railroads were the first "big businesses" in the United States. After railroad companies began to operate on tracks that stretched for fifty and more miles, their owners soon realized that they had to divide responsibilities among different managers, with coordination of the various functions of the company--from soliciting business, to operating trains, to maintaining facilities, to financing everything. By the 1850s railroad executives were perfecting systems of managerial control over their ever more complex firms.

After the railroads pioneered the formation of "big business," big businesses appeared in manufacturing and distribution.

Big city department stores were a form of "big business." They combined many different retail operations in one organization, and placed them together in one building. By 1912 department stores were principal features of the downtown districts of every city.

Still other big businesses, mail order firms such as Sears, Roebuck, were by 1912 serving rural areas and small towns.

Thus when Americans shopped in 1912, they were likely to encounter a "big business." In their stores, moreover, they were likely to find products manufactured by "big businesses."

The "big business" form of organization spread rapidly in manufacturing industries after about 1870.

In some lines of manufacturing, there were advantages to have a single organization control raw materials, transportation, fabrication, and distribution. When he sold his steel company in 1901, for example, Andrew Carnegie was the most efficient--and the wealthiest--steel maker in the world. Carnegie steel had control over sources of coal, coke, and iron ore. Carnegie steel exercised control over ships and railroads that brought raw materials to its mills in the Pittsburgh district. Carnegie insisted on his mill remaining the most advanced of their day. Not only did Carnegie Steel manufacture steel, the company also produced finished products like railroad rails and bridge girders. All of these operations were in a single managerial organization. Managers controlled the flow of materials. Carnegie Steel was so efficient that it could undercut all of its competitors and still make large profits.

Meatpacking was another industry that witnessed the rise and perfection of "big business" forms. After 1870, several Chicago meatpackers built huge, complex organizations for purchasing animals, butchering them, and distributing meat to markets all across the nation. Their companies used all of the byproducts of the animals they slaughtered. Skins went into leather goods, hoofs into glue, bones into fertilizer, and fat into soap. One wag commented that the only part of the hog the Chicago packers did not use and sell was the squeal!

By the end of the nineteenth century, Standard Oil, led by John D. Rockefeller, dominated the refining and distribution of petroleum products in the United States, and extended its reach well beyond the nation's borders.

When an entrepreneur like Carnegie was successful in building an efficient organization to control manufacturing processes, he drove competitors out of business. A steel maker either had to compete by mimicking Carnegie's managerial techniques, or go into a niche, or specialized, market that the big steel companies did not enter. In the case of meatpacking, by 1900 thousands of local butchers found themselves squeezed, because they were less efficient than the Chicago packers. Small shopkeepers sometimes faced ruin from large department store competitors. These businesses following older, more traditional practices sometimes fueled popular sentiment to "bust" the trusts.

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The late nineteenth century saw the rise of "big business" in important areas of economic activity. ("Big" is never defined precisely, but the quantitative term is popularly used to connote something important.) Big business firms were institutions that used management to control economic activity.

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The Sherman Anti-Trust Act Explained: US History Review

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Origins of The Labor Movement

The origins of the labor movement lay in the formative years of the American nation, when a free wage-labor market emerged in the artisan trades late in the colonial period. The earliest recorded strike occurred in 1768 when New York journeymen tailors protested a wage reduction. The formation of the Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers (shoemakers) in Philadelphia in 1794 marks the beginning of sustained trade union organization among American workers.
WATCH: The Labor Movement
From that time on, local craft unions proliferated in the cities, publishing lists of "prices" for their work, defending their trades against diluted and cheap labor and, increasingly, demanding a shorter workday in the face of the Industrial Revolution. Thus a job-conscious orientation was quick to emerge, and in its wake there followed the key structural elements characterizing American trade unionism. First, with the formation in 1827 of the Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations in Philadelphia, central labor bodies began uniting craft unions within a single city, and then, with the creation of the International Typographical Union in 1852, national unions began bringing together local unions of the same trade from across the United States and Canada (hence the frequent union designation "international"). Although the factory system was springing up during these years, industrial workers played little part in the early trade union development. In the 19th century, trade unionism was mainly a movement of skilled workers.

Did you know? In 2009, 12 percent of American workers belonged to unions.

Early Labor Unions

The early labor movement was, however, inspired by more than the immediate job interest of its craft members. It harbored a conception of the just society, deriving from the Ricardian labor theory of value and from the republican ideals of the American Revolution, which fostered social equality, celebrated honest labor, and relied on an independent, virtuous citizenship. The transforming economic changes of industrial capitalism ran counter to labor's vision. The result, as early labor leaders saw it, was to raise up "two distinct classes, the rich and the poor." Beginning with the workingmen's parties of the 1830s, the advocates of equal rights mounted a series of reform efforts that spanned the nineteenth century. Most notable were the National Labor Union, launched in 1866, and the Knights of Labor, which reached its zenith in the mid-1880s.

On their face, these reform movements might have seemed at odds with trade unionism, aiming as they did at the cooperative commonwealth rather than a higher wage, appealing broadly to all "producers" rather than strictly to wageworkers, and eschewing the trade union reliance on the strike and boycott. But contemporaries saw no contradiction: trade unionism tended to the workers' immediate needs, labor reform to their higher hopes. The two were held to be strands of a single movement, rooted in a common working-class constituency and to some degree sharing a common leadership. But equally important, they were strands that had to be kept operationally separate and functionally distinct.
PHOTOS: These Appalling Images Exposed Child Labor in America
American Federation of Labor

During the 1880s, that division fatally eroded. Despite its labor reform rhetoric, the Knights of Labor attracted large numbers of workers hoping to improve their immediate conditions. As the Knights carried on strikes and organized along industrial lines, the threatened national trade unions demanded that the group confine itself to its professed labor reform purposes. When it refused, they joined in December 1886 to form the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The new federation marked a break with the past, for it denied to labor reform any further role in the struggles of American workers. In part, the assertion of trade union supremacy stemmed from an undeniable reality. As industrialism matured, labor reform lost its meaning-hence the confusion and ultimate failure of the Knights of Labor. Marxism taught Samuel Gompers and his fellow socialists that trade unionism was the indispensable instrument for preparing the working class for revolution. The founders of theAFL translated this notion into the principle of "pure and simple" unionism: only by self-organization along occupational lines and by a concentration on job-conscious goals would the worker be "furnished with the weapons which shall secure his industrial emancipation."

That class formulation necessarily defined trade unionism as the movement of the entire working class. The AFL asserted as a formal policy that it represented all workers, irrespective of skill, race, religion, nationality or gender. But the national unions that had created the AFL in fact comprised only the skilled trades. Almost at once, therefore, the trade union movement encountered a dilemma: How to square ideological aspirations against contrary institutional realities?

Discrimination in The Labor Movement

As sweeping technological change began to undermine the craft system of production, some national unions did move toward an industrial structure, most notably in coal mining and the garment trades. But most craft unions either refused or, as in iron and steel and in meat-packing, failed to organize the less skilled. And since skill lines tended to conform to racial, ethnic and gender divisions, the trade union movement took on a racist and sexist coloration as well. For a short period, the AFL resisted that tendency. But in 1895, unable to launch an interracial machinists' union of its own, the Federation reversed an earlier principled decision and chartered the whites-only International Association of Machinists. Formally or informally, the color bar thereafter spread throughout the trade union movement. In 1902, blacks made up scarcely 3 percent of total membership, most of them segregated in Jim Crow locals. In the case of women and eastern European immigrants, a similar devolution occurred-welcomed as equals in theory, excluded or segregated in practice. (Only the fate of Asian workers was unproblematic; their rights had never been asserted by the AFLin the first place.)

Samuel Gompers

Gompers justified the subordination of principle to organizational reality on the constitutional grounds of "trade autonomy," by which each national union was assured the right to regulate its own internal affairs. But the organizational dynamism of the labor movement was in fact located in the national unions. Only as they experienced inner change might the labor movement expand beyond the narrow limits-roughly 10 percent of the labor force-at which it stabilized before World War I.

In the political realm, the founding doctrine of pure-and-simple unionism meant an arm's-length relationship to the state and the least possible entanglement in partisan politics. A total separation had, of course, never been seriously contemplated; some objectives, such as immigration restriction, could be achieved only through state action, and the predecessor to the AFL, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (1881), had in fact been created to serve as labor's lobbying arm in Washington. Partly because of the lure of progressive labor legislation, even more in response to increasingly damaging court attacks on the trade unions, political activity quickened after 1900. With the enunciation of Labor's Bill of Grievances (1906), the AFL laid down a challenge to the major parties. Henceforth it would campaign for its friends and seek the defeat of its enemies.

This nonpartisan entry into electoral politics, paradoxically, undercut the left-wing advocates of an independent working-class politics. That question had been repeatedly debated within theAFL, first in 1890 over Socialist Labor party representation, then in 1893-1894 over an alliance with the Populist Party and after 1901 over affiliation with the Socialist party of America. Although Gompers prevailed each time, he never found it easy. Now, as labor's leverage with the major parties began to pay off, Gompers had an effective answer to his critics on the left: the labor movement could not afford to waste its political capital on socialist parties or independent politics. When that nonpartisan strategy failed, as it did in the reaction following World War I, an independent political strategy took hold, first through the robust campaigning of the Conference for Progressive Political Action in 1922, and in 1924 through labor's endorsement of Robert La Follette on the Progressive ticket. By then, however, the Republican administration was moderating its hard line, evident especially in Herbert Hoover's efforts to resolve the simmering crises in mining and on the railroads. In response, the trade unions abandoned the Progressive party, retreated to nonpartisanship, and, as their power waned, lapsed into inactivity.

The Labor Movement and The Great Depression
WATCH: Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal
It took the Great Depression to knock the labor movement off dead center. The discontent of industrial workers, combined with New Deal collective bargaining legislation, at last brought the great mass production industries within striking distance. When the craft unions stymied the ALF's organizing efforts, John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and his followers broke away in 1935 and formed the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO), which crucially aided the emerging unions in auto, rubber, steel and other basic industries. In 1938 the CIO was formally established as the Congress of Industrial Organizations. By the end of World War II, more than 12 million workers belonged to unions and collective bargaining had taken hold throughout the industrial economy.

In politics, its enhanced power led the union movement not to a new departure but to a variant on the policy of nonpartisanship. As far back as the Progressive Era, organized labor had been drifting toward the Democratic party, partly because of the latter's greater programmatic appeal, perhaps even more because of its ethno-cultural basis of support within an increasingly "new" immigrant working class. With the coming of Roosevelt's New Deal, this incipient alliance solidified, and from 1936 onward the Democratic Party could count on-and came to rely on-the campaigning resources of the labor movement.

Collective Bargaining

That this alliance partook of the nonpartisan logic of Gompers's authorship-too much was at stake for organized labor to waste its political capital on third parties-became clear in the unsettled period of the early cold war. Not only did theCIO oppose the Progressive party of 1948, but it expelled the left-wing unions that broke ranks and supported Henry Wallace for the presidency that year.

The formation of the AFL-CIOin 1955 visibly testified to the powerful continuities persisting through the age of industrial unionism. Above all, the central purpose remained what it had always been-to advance the economic and job interests of the union membership. Collective bargaining performed impressively after World War II, more than tripling weekly earnings in manufacturing between 1945 and 1970, gaining for union workers an unprecedented measure of security against old age, illness and unemployment, and, through contractual protections, greatly strengthening their right to fair treatment at the workplace. But if the benefits were greater and if they went to more people, the basic job-conscious thrust remained intact. Organized labor was still a sectional movement, covering at most only a third of America's wage earners and inaccessible to those cut off in the low-wage secondary labor market.

Women and Minorities in the Labor Movement

Nothing better captures the uneasy amalgam of old and new in the postwar labor movement than the treatment of minorities and women who flocked in, initially from the mass production industries, but after 1960 from the public and service sectors as well. Labor's historic commitment to racial and gender equality was thereby much strengthened, but not to the point of challenging the status quo within the labor movement itself. Thus the leadership structure remained largely closed to minorities-as did the skilled jobs that were historically the preserve of white male workers-notoriously so in the construction trades but in the industrial unions as well. Yet the AFL-CIOplayed a crucial role in the battle for civil rights legislation in 1964-1965. That this legislation might be directed against discriminatory trade union practices was anticipated (and quietly welcomed) by the more progressive labor leaders. But more significant was the meaning they found in championing this kind of reform: the chance to act on the broad ideals of the labor movement. And, so motivated, they deployed labor's power with great effect in the achievement of John F. Kennedy's and Lyndon B. Johnson 's domestic programs during the 1960s.

Decline in Unions

This was ultimately economic, not political power, however, and as organized labor's grip on the industrial sector began to weaken, so did its political capability. From the early 1970s onward, new competitive forces swept through the heavily unionized industries, set off by deregulation in communications and transportation, by industrial restructuring and by an unprecedented onslaught of foreign goods. As oligopolistic and regulated market structures broke down, nonunion competition spurted, concession bargaining became widespread and plant closings decimated union memberships. The once-celebrated National Labor Relations Act increasingly hamstrung the labor movement; an all-out reform campaign to get the law amended failed in 1978. And with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, there came to power an anti-union administration the likes of which had not been seen since the Harding era.

Between 1975 and 1985, union membership fell by 5 million. In manufacturing, the unionized portion of the labor force dropped below 25 percent, while mining and construction, once labor's flagship industries, were decimated. Only in the public sector did the unions hold their own. By the end of the 1980s, less than 17 percent of American workers were organized, half the proportion of the early 1950s.

The labor movement has never been swift to change. But if the new high-tech and service sectors seemed beyond its reach in 1989, so did the mass production industries in 1929. There is a silver lining: Compared to the old AFL, organized labor is today much more diverse and broadly based: In 2018, of the 14.7 million wage and salary workers who were part of a union (compared to 17.7 million in 1983), 25 percent are women and 28 percent are Black.

Sources

TED: The Economics Daily. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

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The origins of the labor movement lay in the formative years of the American nation, when a free wage-labor market emerged in the artisan trades late in the colonial period. The earliest recorded strike occurred in 1768 when New York journeymen tailors protested a wage reduction.

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The Rise of Immigration - late 1800s
https://bit.ly/2Pu7I5a
The Growth of Cities
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/city/
Tenement Life - Causes and Effectshttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-us-history/period-6/apush-reform-in-the-gilded-age-lesson/v/reform-in-the-gilded-age
The Growth of Mass Communication - late 1800s

https://www.onecallnow.com/blog/02/evolution-of-communication-1800s-and-1900s/

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Between 1880 and 1900, cities in the United States grew at a dramatic rate. Owing most of their population growth to the expansion of industry, U.S. cities grew by about 15 million people in the two decades before 1900. Many of those who helped account for the population growth of cities were immigrants arriving from around the world. A steady stream of people from rural America also migrated to the cities during this period. Between 1880 and 1890, almost 40 percent of the townships in the United States lost population because of migration.

Industrial expansion and population growth radically changed the face of the nation's cities. Noise, traffic jams, slums, air pollution, and sanitation and health problems became commonplace. Mass transit, in the form of trolleys, cable cars, and subways, was built, and skyscrapers began to dominate city skylines. New communities, known as suburbs, began to be built just beyond the city. Commuters, those who lived in the suburbs and traveled in and out of the city for work, began to increase in number.

Many of those who resided in the city lived in rental apartments or tenement housing. Neighborhoods, especially for immigrant populations, were often the center of community life. In the enclave neighborhoods, many immigrant groups attempted to hold onto and practice precious customs and traditions. Even today, many neighborhoods or sections of some of the great cities in the United States reflect those ethnic heritages.

During the final years of the 1800s, industrial cities, with all the problems brought on by rapid population growth and lack of infrastructure to support the growth, occupied a special place in U.S. history. For all the problems, and there were many, the cities promoted a special bond between people and laid the foundation for the multiethnic, multicultural society that we cherish today.

To find additional sources in American Memory on this general topic, use such keywords as city, neighborhood, immigration, industry, urbanization, transportation, suburbs, slums, tenements, and skyscrapers.

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City Life in the Late 19th Century - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation | Teacher Resources - Library of Congress

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Between 1880 and 1900, cities in the United States grew at a dramatic rate. Owing most of their population growth to the expansion of industry, U.S. cities grew by about 15 million people in the two decades before 1900. Many of those who helped account for the population growth of cities were immigrants arriving from around the world.

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Tanagra, The Builders, New York

Artists make choices in communicating ideas. What can we learn from this painting about life in the rapidly changing city at the turn of the 20th century? What clues does Child Hassam give the viewer? Observing details and analyzing components of the painting, then putting them in historical context, enables the viewer to interpret the overall message of the work of art. Observation: What do you see?
A woman with pale ivory skin wears a delicate, flowing gown and calmly stands in a richly decorated interior. The same colors, textured brushstroke, and pattern used to portray the woman and her dress are repeated throughout the room, closely connecting her with her surroundings. She is in no rush as she languidly grazes her hand across the finely polished table. Rather than gaze out the window at the progress rising in the streets, she casts her gaze inward, lost in thought.
What is she holding?
The woman holds a Tanagra figurine, an ancient Greek statuette of a fashionable woman. These small terracotta figures, which were excavated in great numbers from sites in Greece during the late 19th century, were used as decoration in wealthy homes around the turn of the century. They relate ideas of femininity and female culture in ancient times.
What's going on outside the window?
Looking outside the window, we see the growth of Manhattan. Tall buildings reach several stories high. while in the foreground, workers on a scaffolding construct a new building.
Interpretation: What does it mean?
The artist created two contrasting worlds: an ordered interior and a rapidly changing exterior cityscape. The woman in the painting is a contemporary version of the decorative statue she holds. Appropriately for a wealthy woman in her day and age, she is not at work. Instead she appears idle and a thing of beauty; her home, an extension of herself. Outside the window, the beauty and comfort of the interior gives way to industry. In 1918 the United States was changing rapidly: cities were growing, skyscrapers were rising, and urban populations were increasing. Women were beginning to work outside the home; and the country faced fighting in Europe as it neared the end of World War I. The same immigrants who flooded the cities and provided the cheap labor that fueled American industry were sometimes feared by established Americans. What changes would these new immigrants, some very different in their manner, class, and wealth, bring to the cultivated way of life of the moneyed upper-class? How would the changing roles of women impact the woman depicted in Hassam's scene? Will her beauty and her way of life, like the cut roses on the table, soon wilt and fade?

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Eviction

Artists make choices in communicating ideas. Contemporary newspapers reveal that in 1904, the year Shinn created this work, Eviction (Lower East Side), there was a fierce rent war between tenement landlords and renters in the Lower East Side of New York City. Meetings and parades were held and many cases were contested in court. What is an eviction? How can you tell it is taking place here? What do you see in the painting that makes you think the artist depicted the scene objectively or sympathetically? Observation: What do you see?
What different groups of people do you see? Describe them.
The central group of figures sits amongst bags and furnishings along the curb. Take a look at their clothing, posture, and expressions. What do you think they are feeling? Behind them we see movers haul a rug and heavy trunk. Do you think they are moving these objects up or down the stairs? Onlookers watch the scene from the background of the artwork; one man stands out among this group, standing rigidly with his hands clasped behind his back. What can you tell about him from his posture and dress?
What is the setting? What clues in the picture tell you about the time and place of this scene?
This city street is crowded with buildings, filled with onlookers, high staircases, and lights glowing in some of the windows. It gives us the impression that this is an urban dwelling, with many people living in close proximity to one another. The glowing lights in the windows give the impression that this scene takes place in the evening or at dawn, when lighting would necessary.
What colors do you see?
The artist painted this work in gouache - a paint that is similar to an opaque watercolor. This allowed him to create ghostly white highlights over the dark, muted gray, brick, and muddied colors of the dark street. How does this artistic technique effect the mood the artist is trying to portray?
Interpretation: What does it mean? What does this scene tell us about tenement life?
Tenements were laid out in a way that should have been humane, but in practice wasn't - there were only narrow shafts for light and for air to circulate. The apartments within them were laid out for four families to live in tight quarters per floor, but often as many as 16 families would live there. Family members, including children, would also often work there doing what was called "home work" - shelling nuts, cutting and sewing clothing etc. This practice was outlawed in 1901, but many such arrangements remained.
What did this scene mean to the artist?
In Everett Shinn's typescript "I Remember New York," he recalled the subject matter for Eviction, "I had talked to this old man. He had been a musician in Austria, having migrated to this country as a youth for he waited for recognition until his beard became a mattress for his weary head. . . . Living, only in his exaulted [ sic] dream that brought his family and himself among the curb glutted pile of his possessions." Shinn added a hand written note to his typed description of Eviction, "The Eviction on Hester Street: This, I saw and felt. I was then two months in arrears with my own rent. I saw the cop as he might be serving me, sunk in a clutter of canvases waiting to be flushed along to the city dump."

Immigration in the Early 20th Century

At the time Everett Shinn created Eviction (Lower East Side) in 1904 the United States had undergone decades of accelerating immigration. Unprecedented numbers of immigrants flocked to our shores, dreaming of a life of freedom and prosperity. Between 1820 and 1920, approximately 34 million immigrants came to this country, and New York City was by the far the most popular destination. By 1910, immigrants and their American-born children accounted for more than 70 percent New York City's population. As steamships sailed to Ellis Island, the Statue of Liberty greeted them, her inscription calling out, "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free." Immigrants flocking to this country saw Lady Liberty as a symbol of a new life, a new beginning.

"Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free."

Like most immigrants that came before them, early 20th century immigrants came to better their lives. In Europe, many left their homelands in search of economic prosperity and religious freedom. Living conditions in Europe were degraded, as poverty and an exploding European population led to food shortages. One immigrant would later state that, "Hunger brought me . . . here [and] hunger is the cause of European immigration to this country." Religious persecution of Eastern European Jews became significantly more pronounced after 1881, following the assassination of Czar Alexander II in that same year. Government sponsored pogroms were organized and laws were passed that severely restricted Jewish residency, along with educational and occupational mobility. The outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 (the same year Eviction was created) forced many Jews to leave Europe to avoid conscription into the army. New York's Evening Post wrote in 1905 that, "Russia, while denying her Jewish subjects all civil rights, does not object to sending them to Manchuria [Northeast China] to stop Japanese bullets." These many reasons propelled Jewish people to seek refuge in a new country. In 1906 alone, nearly 150,000 Jewish immigrants came to America from Russia. Nearly 7 in 10 Jewish immigrants settled in New York's Lower East Side. Advances in steam engine technology allowed ships to travel faster to America, carrying greater numbers of people than ever before.

Everett Shinn's Eviction and Childe Hassam's Tanagra provide us with two different views of the changing face of New York in the early twentieth century. Everett Shinn was part of the ground-breaking Ashcan School of art, a group of eight artists that sought subjects in the everyday, common-place and even ugly aspects of daily life. Everett Shinn's images of tenement life on the Lower East Side provided some of the most compelling depictions of the struggles faced by immigrant communities. On the other side of the artistic and social spectrum, Childe Hassam's genteel views of uptown city life rarely showed the city in a negative manner. Even bustling crowds were made to look as elegant as possible through his Impressionist style. Hassam, more established in New York's art world and seventeen years older than Shinn, disregarded the plight of the immigrants living in squalor downtown and instead focused on the beauty of the civilized and enlightened world found uptown where, not coincidentally, he found his patrons.

The artists themselves explained their compositions, providing us with insight into the artworks. Writing in a hand written note, Shinn confirmed that the individuals depicted in Eviction were Jewish immigrants on the Lower East Side. The artist recalled, "The Eviction on Hester Street: This, I saw and felt. I was then two months in arrears with my own rent. I saw the cop as he might be serving me, sunk in a clutter of canvases waiting to be flushed along to the city dump." Hassam described his composition in an interview stating that, " Tanagra - the blond Aryan girl [is] intended to typify and symbolize growth - the growth of a great city." Additionally, the construction of the high-rise building seen through the apartment window in Tanagra serves to personify the growth and greatness of America. By including representative objects of bygone great civilizations, including the Asian screen, the Chinese lilies perched on the windowsill and the Greek Hellenistic Tanagra figurine held by the woman, Hassam has effectively positioned the United States as the cultural successor to these exalted ancient civilizations.

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Technological Innovations

The rapid growth of the urban population caused by the arrival of immigrants necessitated new advances in technology. Resulting from land shortage and technological breakthroughs, the high-rise building was one of the most significant engineering developments at the time. The introduction of steel in construction and the use of electric elevators made high-rise buildings feasible. These innovations sought to alleviate the dense urban landscape by creating more space for people to live and work.

In 1896 artist Childe Hassam proclaimed that "New York is the most wonderful and most beautiful city in the world. All life is in it . . . No street, no section of Paris or any other city I have seen equal to New York." When he returned to New York City in 1910 after a stay in Europe, the city had changed dramatically. Previously, the New York City skyline consisted mainly of church spires and the towers of public buildings. But with the dawn of the skyscraper, the skyline took on a drastically modern appearance. Gone was the picturesque city made of brick and timber, its streets filled with horse drawn carriages. In its place was a metropolis laden with soaring steel towers and streets teeming with noisy streetcars and crowds of new immigrants.

Before the high rise, buildings in New York City were made of iron, timber or brick. Due to the weight of these materials, buildings could only reach up to ten stories in height. As the city's population steadily increased and these older buildings became less efficient. More people needed more space to live and work, having reached the outer limits of Manhattan Island, there was no land available for construction and expansion. Consequently engineers were tasked with constructing buildings upward, freeing up infinite space. This was achieved by replacing the older, heavier construction materials with steel, a lighter and stronger material.

The modern era of steelmaking began in the mid-nineteenth century with the Bessemer process. Named for its inventor, Englishman Henry Bessemer, the process turned iron into large, inexpensive quantities of steel. By 1910, the United States became the leading producer of steel in the world, producing 24 million tons annually. Scottish immigrant and American steel magnate Andrew Carnegie revolutionized the American steel industry by capitalizing on Bessemer's cheap and efficient process. Carnegie realized that steel, a cheaper and stronger material, would eventually replace iron as the preferred material not only for skyscrapers but also for bridges and railroads.

Along with a structural steel beam framework, the use of plate glass windows and lighter masonry walls enabled architects and engineers to build structures that towered over anything that had been built before. The first building in New York to use these construction materials was the Woolworth Building. Completed in 1913, the building soared to an impressive 760 feet in height, or 55 stories. For a short time it was the tallest building in the world until surpassed by the Chrysler Building, constructed in 1929, and the Empire State Building, built in 1931.

Tall buildings expanded the physical space in New York City, but they were useless unless people and goods could be transported from top to bottom. The introduction of the electric elevator to high-rise construction was essential as buildings over six stories would have been virtually unusable without them. Mechanical elevators had been in use for centuries but with the addition of electricity, people and goods could move from floor to floor with ease and speed. Further modern technologies like electric light, modern plumbing and heating, and the telephone all made high-rise buildings habitable.

American Impressionists like Hassam avoided depicting these new innovations in their artworks. Hassam viewed the skyscraper as "a wildly formed architectural freak," and not a "marvel of art." Some contemporary literary figures, like British-American writer Henry James, remarked in 1907 that New York City's, "multitudinous skyscrapers" resembled "extravagant pins in a cushion already overplanted." The more progressive looking the building, the less appealing it was to Hassam. He preferred suggestions of skyscrapers, as seen through the window in Tanagra, as evidence of the city's evolving modern character.

Hassam associated the constant construction of skyscrapers with the wave of immigrants permeating the city that he idealized in his artwork. His concentration on the more refined views of New York City was not accidental. He specifically depicted genteel, cheerful scenes of the city to please his affluent clientele, all the while ignoring the presence of the heterogeneous immigrant population.

Traditionalists like Hassam viewed high-rises as ugly, representative of an ever-expanding heterogeneous immigrant population. Yet proponents like photographer Alfred Stieglitz extolled them as symbols of American spirit and power, divergent from European culture. Indeed, prior to the twentieth-century the graphic representation of America's progress and expansion had been visualized as a horizontal line, epitomized by wagon trains and railroads that plunged westward. With the West settled in the previous century, artists reoriented the line of progress vertically, positioning skyscrapers as the new emblems of American expansion and progress.
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Tenement Life

The Jewish immigrants that flocked to New York City's Lower East Side in the early twentieth century were greeted with appalling living conditions. The mass influx of primarily European immigrants spawned the construction of cheaply made, densely packed housing structures called tenements. They were built on lots that measured 25 feet by 100 feet. Noted New York architect Ernest Flagg (1857-1947) believed that, "The greatest evil which ever befell New York City was the division of the blocks into lots of 25 x 100 feet . . . for from this division has arisen the New York system of tenement-houses, the worst curse which ever afflicted any great community."

Four to six stories in height, tenements contained four separate apartments on each floor, measuring 300 to 400 square feet. Apartments contained just three rooms; a windowless bedroom, a kitchen and a front room with windows. A contemporary magazine described tenements as, "great prison-like structures of brick, with narrow doors and windows, cramped passages and steep rickety stairs. . . . In case of fire they would be prefect death-traps, for it would be impossible for the occupants of the crowded rooms to escape by the narrow stairways." Tenement buildings had adjoining walls so interior rooms could not receive natural light or ventilation. Expensive modern conveniences like indoor plumbing and elevators were not included in the cheaply built tenements. Hallway lighting was rare, forcing tenants to climb up flights of stairs in the dark, or climb down in the dark to reach the outdoor toilets located in the back of the lot.

The deteriorating conditions of the apartments were described in 1902 by newly arrived immigrant Emma Beckerman: "The furnishings were worn and shabby. Four rickety chairs, a scarred wooden table, a leaky icebox, and a rusty coal stove greeted us. The bedroom contained a sagging double bed and a broken-down bureau." The space was so small that people slept on whatever they could find - rugs and even orange crates doubled as beds. During the hot summer months, the fire escapes that clung to the fronts of the buildings were used a place to sleep. Additionally, the Tenement House Department reported in 1903 that, "often at night, when the small rooms opening upon the air shaft are so close and ill-ventilated that sleep is impossible, mattresses are dragged upon the floor of the parlor and there the family sleeps altogether in one room. In summer the small bedrooms are so hot and stifling that a large part of the tenement house population sleep on the roofs, sidewalk and fire escapes."

To make matters worse, tenements were severely overcrowded. At the turn of the century the Lower East Side, populated mostly by Eastern European Jews, reached density levels of 350,000 people per square mile. In other words by 1900, approximately 43,000 New York City tenement buildings housed 1.6 million of the city's total 2 million person population. The Jewish population alone was 700,000 in 1905. Several factors contributed to the accumulation of Jews in the Lower East Side. Residing in an ethnic enclave was vital because of close access to other European Jews. Immigrants that did not speak English felt comfortable settling close to others that spoke the same language, had the same customs and practiced the same religion. The garment industry, which provided a majority of Jews with jobs, was within walking distance to their homes on the Lower East Side. There was little opportunity for them to venture out of the Lower East Side.

In 1879 a new law imposed requirements for tenements. The Tenement Reform Law of 1879 enacted minimum requirements for light and air. As a result of this law "dumbbell" tenements were constructed, so-called because of the shape of their perimeter. The dumbbell shape allowed for air shafts between tenements. Unfortunately the 1879 law did not alleviate the overcrowding and filthy conditions of the tenements as many of the older style of tenements were still in use. Additionally, the air shafts that had been installed to provide ventilation were often used to dump refuse.

The streets of the Lower East Side were filthy, filled with sewage and droppings from transport horses that was regularly dumped on the sides of the streets. The New York Times wrote of the conditions, "It is in the downtown East Side district that this present offense to the eye and prospective stench to the nostrils exist to an extent that warrants alarm. Hester Street, Forsyth Street, Stanton Street, Essex Street, and other streets in the neighborhood which is largely populated by Russian and Polish Jews, Bohemians, Slavs, etc., the most unclean population which the city has, are really in a terrible condition. Every pile of snow is garnished with rubbish and decaying matter, and even the sidewalks are not clear of it."

The Tenement House Act of 1901 hoped to improve conditions for tenement tenants. The law required the removal of outhouses and the installation of indoor plumbing and lighting. These improvements proved costly, and many landlords resisted making the necessary changes. To offset the cost, landlords increased the rent of their tenements. For those who could not meet their rent, they were swiftly evicted from their homes, their belongings unceremoniously dumped onto the sidewalks. This led to "rent wars" between landlords and tenants who protested the increase in rent.
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Immigrant Evictions

Evictions in the Lower East Side were rampant in the beginning of the twentieth century. Fierce rent wars waged between tenants and landlords, who kept increasing the prices of rent. Most immigrants were poor and worked menial labor jobs to support their family, usually in the garment industry on the Lower East Side. With rent averaging between 10 and 20 dollars per month and wages as little as 50 cents per day, many immigrants could not make the rent payments and still afford to put food on the table. Additionally, many immigrants were trying to save money to send to loved ones back home in Europe or to purchase steamship tickets for them to travel to America.

It was common to provide renters with two weeks' free rent, which for many poor families meant moving regularly. A Jewish immigrant, Samuel Green, reported that as a child when coming home from school, "I could never be sure if we'd still be living at the same address." Immigrant Martha Dolinko echoed Green's sentiment recalling, "I used to come home from school or work, sometimes I didn't know where we lived. The neighbors had to tell me."

The Tenement House Act of 1901 required landlords to upgrade their tenements to include lighted hallways and indoor plumbing. These changes proved costly, so to compensate, tenants' rent was increased. Landlords and tenement builders alike were particularly merciless in their approach to tenants. They sought to maximize their profit at the expense of the welfare of the tenants. Builders constructed tenements cheaply on densely packed on plots of land, while many landlords insisted on collecting rent in advance, with failure to do so resulting in eviction. Perhaps what made the situation even more shameless was that many landlords were older immigrants preying on the newer immigrants.

Newspapers of the day were packed full of eviction stories. The New York Times headline of April 5, 1904 read, "Many evictions on East Side Threatened." The article states that, "Nearly 800 evictions are impending on the east side because of the advance in rents." The following day, the New York Times headline read "Two Thousand Warrants for East Side Tenants." The article states, "It required no extraordinary power of perception to see that the indignation aroused by the evictions following the wholesale raising of rents on the lower east side of this city yesterday was at a high pitch. The City Marshalls were busy all day serving dispossess papers, and they say that never in their career have they been called on to undertake so stupendous a task as at present." Again on the next day, April 7, the New York Times ran an article that illustrated the magnitude of the evictions affirming, "Last year there were over 60,000 evictions in this city and you may judge for yourselves how many evictions there will be during the coming twelve months."

Everett Shinn was responding to these rent wars and immigrant life when he created Eviction in that same year in 1904. The artist empathized with the evicted immigrants he observed on the Lower East Side, writing in the accompanying note to this drawing, "The Eviction on Hester Street: This, I saw and felt. I was then two months in arrears with my own rent. I saw the cop as he might be serving me, sunk in a clutter of canvases waiting to be flushed along to the city dump." Shinn had planned to publish a book of these drawings illustrating the plight of the immigrant poor on the Lower East Side, but the publication never came to fruition.

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New York City through the Eyes of Its Artists

In the nineteenth century, American Impressionist artist Childe Hassam described New York City as "the most wonderful and most beautiful city in the world. All life is in it . . . No street, no section of Paris or any other city I have seen equal to New York." His artwork was inspired by parks, pristine residential districts and genteel strolling pedestrians. Yet the dawn of the twentieth century would bring a deluge of European immigrants to the shores of New York City and a plethora of rapidly advancing technology, creating a new modern metropolis unlike anything that had been seen before. Gone was the picturesque city of the nineteenth century Hassam adored; a city made of brick and timber, its streets filled with horse drawn carriages. These remnants of a by-gone century had been replaced with soaring towers of glass and steel, streets teeming with noisy streetcars, electrified subways and elevated railroads, motor buses and electric streetlights. Advances in technology had revolutionized the look and feel of the city. The skyscraper towered above it all, its verticality an emblem for urban innovation.

For Hassam, a stalwart proponent of the picturesque nineteenth century New York, these new tall buildings were, "wildly formed architectural freak[s]" and not "marvel[s] of art." The more progressive looking the building, the less appealing it was for Hassam to represent it in his artwork. When he did include modern buildings in his artwork, they were often anonymous and generic, blending in with the older buildings he favored. Hassam's preference for unspecified skyscrapers coupled with the older brick and timber buildings suggests a wish to cling to bygone days, desirous to slow the pace of the city's rapid modernization.

Other artists working in New York City at the time, such as American photographer Alfred Stieglitz , viewed the skyscrapers as symbolic of the progression of American civilization; patriotic symbols which could rival the great castles of Europe. Hassam seems to have reconciled these advances by associating American progress with the continuation of traditional and classical ideals into the modern twentieth century world. Every element in Tanagra, from the objects in the room to the woman's classically inspired clothing, is evocative of embodiments of classical civilizations and can be equated to the modern American skyscraper seen through the window. Great bygone civilizations are evoked through the Greek Tanagra figurine, the Chinese lilies on the windowsill, and the golden Oriental screen.

Hassam's depictions of urban America illustrated a city that was refined and elite, while purposely minimizing workaday figures such as street sweepers and cab drivers. Hassam was class-aware, so when these types of people were included in his artwork they were shown as service employees who, while lower class, were essential to his view of society that was sharply divided along class lines. Art critic Eliot Clark remarked that Hassam did not "indulge in the sentimental aspect of squalor, or look with sympathetic gaze upon the picturesque life of the humble." Hassam's paintings ignored the problems caused by mass immigration and urban poverty.

There were, however, artists that chose to depict the more unpleasant, yet all-too-real views of city life and the class of people who occupied it. This younger generation of progressive American artists became dissatisfied with the work produced by the American Impressionists and the art extolled by the National Academy of Visual Arts, which they viewed as idealized and removed. These radical young artists preferred to depict the reality of urban life; particularly the less than ideal lives led by the majority of urban inhabitants - the impoverished immigrants. These artists believed that art was not to be idealized and set upon a pedestal, solely reserved for the consumption of the elite. This new generation painted for and about the common man. Their gritty works depicted the harsh reality of life in Lower Manhattan; the tenement slums, the refuse filled streets, the shoeless children, the dock workers (see Cumulus Clouds above). Their radical, unvarnished views of city life challenged the accepted vision of the city as beautiful and genteel. These artists would become known by their collective name, the Ashcan School.

The Ashcan School's approach to painting challenged the conventions of American art. Artists like Childe Hassam devoted their canvases to the depiction of the refined features of urban living, more specifically the lives of the Anglo-Saxon middle and upper-classes. These artists equated beauty with sophistication and civilization, whereas the Ashcan School artists found a certain beauty in the everyday lives of the downtown poor. Their interest lay in the energy and drama produced by the bustling crowds, shouting push cart peddlers, and hurried newspaper boys - scenes that on that canvas portrayed a churning whirlwind of human activity. A reviewer of Shinn's artwork wrote that, "Beauty rarely tempts Mr. Shinn's fancy. . . . He is distinctly of the world. Humanity, yes, even sordid humanity, interests him. Reality, not romance or poetry, appeals to him. . . . Lovers of the merely "pretty" will find little in common with Mr. Shinn; students of modern life, its workaday people, the bustle and movement of its streets, will find in his pictures an endless fund of interest."
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Immigrant Discrimination

As more and more immigrants poured onto American shores, a rising wave of discrimination against the immigrants began to arise. Immigrants were blamed for contributing to the socio-economic problems that were common in industrialized societies such as poverty, crime, labor unrest, and overcrowding. Congested tenement buildings, in which the majority of immigrants resided, were seen to foster violence and disease, and further burdening social programs, charities and police forces who tried to maintain order. This strong xenophobic reaction was primarily fostered by a select group of Americans known as "nativists." They strove to maintain the nation's character and believed that the mass arrival of Irish, Italian, Japanese, Chinese and Jewish immigrants would pollute this character. In their assessment of the multitudes of immigrants flooding American shores, nativists saw only a deluge of poor, uneducated, religiously and linguistically dissimilar people who would never be able to assimilate and who would destroy American culture with their foreign lifestyle.

"To the cry of Mr. Riis, 'Abolish the tenements!' there may be suggested an alternative. Why not abolish the tenants?"

Immigrants were also accused of causing a variety of economic problems, chief among them the seizure of jobs previously held by American citizens. Immigrants became a prime source of cheap unskilled labor and were consequently favored by employers. It was also argued that immigrants resisted American assimilation, with claims that "the mother tongue is preserved, the English language is ignored, the institutions of the home country are revered, and American habits are despised." Growing opposition to immigrant entry was voiced in social commentary publications of the day. One author, John C. Van Dyke, wrote in 1909: "To the cry of Mr. [Jacob] Riis, 'Abolish the tenements!' there may be suggested an alternative. Why not abolish the tenants?"

Artist Childe Hassam leaned toward nativist beliefs, a fact that can be seen through his compositions. Initially purely proud of his Anglo-Saxon heritage, Hassam's bias morphed into nativism with age. He believed in the ethnic purity of Anglo-Saxon America espoused by the nativist groups and his propensity to only feature middle and upper-class subjects is illustrative of these sentiments towards the evolving industrialization of the city, and consequently, the immigrant population. Scenes of industrialization were equated with a more heterogeneous urban population which included a large amount of so-called undesirables. Hassam was a man much aligned with tradition, favoring the old style of Impressionist painting and abhorring the new style advocated by the Ashcan School. His adherence to the older style of painting and to genteel subjects was also of matter of great economic importance matter to the artist. Hassam was keenly aware that his views of the city in their most attractive form resonated with his upper-class patrons. The cheerless images of immigrant ethnic enclaves depicted by his Ashcan School contemporaries such as Everett Shinn were less likely to attract sales. As such, Hassam's work always seems to suggest to its viewers that despite the rapid industrial growth, a heavy influx of immigration and all-over modernization, New York remained a civilized, charmingly picturesque city.

One prominent proponent of immigration restriction was Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, a founder of the Boston-based Immigration Restriction League. He and the League maintained that America's open-door policy admitted "races most alien to the body of the American people and from the lowest and most illiterate classes among these races." Legislation supported by the League advocated for literacy tests for all incoming immigrants, in addition to severely restricting entry and levying higher head taxes so as to discourage immigration. This first bill, which was passed by Congress, was vetoed by President Grover Cleveland in 1897. In defending his veto, Cleveland stated:

I cannot believe that we would be protected against these evils by limiting immigration to those who can read and write in any language twenty-five words of our Constitution. In my opinion it is infinitely more safe to admit a hundred thousand immigrants who, though unable to read and write, seek among us only a home and opportunity to work, than to admit one of those unruly agitators and enemies of governmental control, who can not only read and write but delights in arousing by inflammatory speech the illiterate and peacefully inclined to discontent and tumult. Violence and disorder do not originate with illiterate laborers.

Literacy tests were vetoed again in 1913 by President William Howard Taft. The president explained his veto stating, "It was a visit through the [lower] east side [of Manhattan] that led me to veto the Immigration Bill containing the literacy test when it finally came to me. I saw among the young men and girls of the east side a spirit of appreciation, a gratitude, a patriotism that wouldn't hurt some of those whose fathers and great-grandfathers were born in this country."

A further bill to institute a literacy test was vetoed in 1916 by President Woodrow Wilson. The president declared that the bill, "seeks to all but close entirely the gates of asylum which have always been open to those who could find nowhere else . . . and it excludes those to whom the opportunities of elementary education have been denied, without regard to their character, their purposes, or their natural capacity." However, Wilson's veto was subsequently overturned by Congress by a two-thirds majority the following year and the first literacy test was officially made into law as part of the Immigration Act of 1917. The passage of the law directly related to the increase in xenophobia Americans succumbed to as the country formally declared war on Germany and entered World War I that same year. Those that were largely suspected of disloyalty were German immigrants and even German-American citizens.
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Progressivism and Reform

As the country continued its progression from a rural society to an urban society in a period of immense population growth and industrialization, many were concerned with the social and economic effects of this change, especially in the cities. Morality was low and corruption high. Many blamed the conditions of immigrant life in these cities as the source of all urban ills. In the early twentieth century an era of reform called the Progressive Movement emerged as a series of attempts to address social and economic issues.

A chief concern of progressives was that immigrants would never assimilate or "Americanize." A contemporary wrote that. "The influx of foreigners into our urban centers, many of whom have liquor habits, is a menace. . . The hope of perpetuating our liberties is to help the foreigner correct any demoralizing custom, and through self-restraint, to assimilate American ideals." Many saw the ideals of the founding fathers being swept away and vowed to re-institute social justice and democratic ideals.

Progressives theorized that advances in science, technology, economic development and social organization could improve the human condition; essentially, reform through improvement. They believed that at the root of all urban problems, moral and behavioral, lay the tenement housing system. By improving the living conditions of immigrants, Progressives reasoned that many other social problems would be resolved. Tenement house investigators noted at the time that, "the physical conditions under which these people live lessen their power of resisting evil." In 1900, the New York Tribune wrote of the Lower East Side that:

The squalor, the poverty, the hopeless drudgery, and the queer features of this foreign district are evident to the visitor, no matter how hurriedly he goes over the ground, but the crime with which that part of the city is infested has been concealed from the general public until it gained such proportions . . . other parts of the East Side tenement-house district . . . shelter crime in its worst form, and the inmates of these apartments contaminate their neighbors and create an atmosphere in which good morals cannot exist.

Journalist, photographer and social activist Jacob Riis was one of the most prolific reformers of the time. His groundbreaking, searing exposé, How the Other Half Lives, shed light on the plight of the immigrant poor living in New York City's Lower East Side. His social criticism centered on the disparity between the rich and poor: "That half that was on top cared little for the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath." His publication shocked the nation. Furthermore, it became a catalyst and call to action for some, including then-New York City Police Commissioner Theodore Roosevelt. The two became allies in the fight for reform in 1894 when Riis worked as a journalist for the Evening Sun. As Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt wrote of Riis in April of 1901:

The countless evils which lurk in the dark corners of our civic institutions, which stalk abroad in the slums, and have their permanent abode in the crowded tenement houses, have met in Mr. Riis the most formidable opponent ever encountered by them in New York. . . . Mr. Riis was given, in addition to earnestness and zeal, the great gift of expression, the great gift of making others see what he saw and feel what he felt. His book, "How the Other Half Lives," did really go a long way toward removing the ignorance on which one-half of the world of New York dwelt concerning the life of the other half.

In an effort to combat the social and economic issues facing the urban destitute, a political party called the Progressive Party was founded by Roosevelt in 1912. The short-lived party's platform contained a number of social, economic and political reforms. The social reforms advocated by the party set the foundation for programs that still exist today: insurance to provide for the elderly, disabled and unemployed; an eight hour workday; and workers' compensation for on-the-job injuries.

Just as Jacob Riis's photographs shed light on the plight of immigrants, so too did the artworks of Everett Shinn. Yet despite the identical subject manner, Shinn's intent was not to exact social change like Riis, but merely to evoke a mood or a particular activity. In an interview Shinn recalled the ambitions of the Ashcan School: "Not one of us had a program . . . sure we were against the monocle-pictures at the Academy, but that was all. None of us had a message - and it's funny now when they try to make me a 'protest' painter. I wasn't." Nevertheless, his illustrations aided and inspired reformers and socially concerned citizens in accurately representing the squalor of downtown life. Shinn remembered a conversation with Mrs. Frances Morgan, wife of famed American financier J. Pierpont Morgan, in which she had asked him if his artworks "represented truth," to which Shinn replied, "Truth, yes, but understated, as odor couldn't be unless I dipped my drawing in refuse." He recalled that, "A week later, Mrs. Morgan's secretary told me that Mrs. Morgan had opened a haven for those unfortunate souls on the Lower East Side. But I had no such intention in mind."

Supporters of restricted immigration also wanted saloons closed as it was assumed that immigrants were the chief patrons of drinking establishments. It was believed that alcohol demoralized the character of the immigrant, kept him in poverty, contributed to the decline of family life, and prevented him from becoming a responsible American citizen. A chief concern was the economic impact of alcohol consumption. Supporters of prohibition argued that consuming alcohol limited an individual's efficiency to function at work, in turn hampering industrial production, which on a larger scale interfered with the prosperity and progress of America. Just like the literacy tests, the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution establishing the Prohibition era was another attempt at social control over the immigrant population. Prohibition eventually backfired as the illegal manufacturing and sale of alcohol increased the volume of organized crime. The amendment was repealed in 1933, just thirteen years after its institution.
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Interview of Anonymous Russian Jewish Male, 1911
Excerpt: " I was born in Russia thirty-six years ago and came to this country at the age of seven. In Russia, I remember not having enough to eat. We were a family of eight. I remember living in a house with no floor. We were jammed into two rooms. We slept above an old country stove to keep warm. I remember my mother taking all of us in great haste outside of the village in which we lived. She anticipated a pogrom the following day. Pogroms were frequent in our village. My father left for the United States when I was two. . . . Later, we followed and landed in New York in 1911. We moved to the East Side, where the entire family, including my father, were reunited. We lived in a four-room railroad flat. The younger children slept on the floor. The older children doubled up in the available beds, which cluttered up the two bedrooms. The toilet was in the yard, and there was no hot water. My sisters worked fifteen hours a day in a dress shop. They had to supply their own machines. When the season slacked in one shop, they had to cart their machines in a pushcart to another shop. During the busy season, for about four months out of the year, there was ample food in the house. During slow season, which was the balance of the year, we lived from hand to mouth. We were evicted from two places for nonpayment of rent. I remember some very bitterly fought needletrade strikes, in which my sisters were involved. . . . I did not know there was such a thing as pajamas until I was sixteen. Did not sleep in a bed until I was sixteen. Until that time, I slept on the floor or on a bed composed of chairs and the extension boards from our dining-room table. One of my older sisters once treated my mother to some fancy vegetables by bringing home a bunch of celery. Never having seen celery before, Mother thought they were flowers and put them in a vase in the center of the table."

Source: "Lived from Hand to Mouth" in America, The Dream of My Life, 1990, David Steven Cohen

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How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York
Jacob Riis, 1890.

The classic exposé of the suffering of tenement occupants and street life in turn-of-the-century New York City.
Read the Google E-Book Poster, Cleveland: Many Peoples, One Language, 1917
"Waves of non-English-speaking European immigrants flooded the cities of industrial America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Local governments and civic groups sought to encourage immigrants to learn to speak, read, and write English. This 1917 poster from the Americanization Committee of the Cleveland Board of Education was posted in schools in an attempt to reach immigrant parents through their children. An appeal to attend free evening English classes appears on this poster in six languages : Italian, Hungarian, Slovenian, Polish, Yiddish, and English. Cleveland's factories, steel mills, port facilities, and assembly plants teemed with the new working-class arrivals from central and eastern Europe." - Smithsonian National Museum of American History

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"Reform Through Social Work" 1901, McClure's Magazine
An article on the poor living conditions in Lower Manhattan authored by future president, Theodore Roosevelt.
Download (PDF) New York World, May 1, 1898
This article, illustrated by Ashcan School artist William Glackens, appeared in the April 30, 1898 edition of New York World , a newspaper published in New York City from 1860 until 1931. From 1883 to 1911 under publisher Joseph Pulitzer, the paper captured readers' attention through sensational stories, and reached a circulation of over one million readers. New York World reporter Nellie Bly became one of America's first investigative journalists, often working undercover.

The charges of sensationalism were most frequently leveled at the paper by more established publishers, who resented Pulitzer's courting of the immigrant classes. And while the World presented its fair share of crime stories, it also published damning exposés of tenement abuses. This article highlights the May 1 st "Day of Eviction and Misery to the People of the East Side." Notably, the illustration by William Glackens echoes the subject of Eviction (Lower East Side).

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Maggie: Girl of the Streets, 1893, Stephen Crane
The plight of the immigrant poor was frequently dramatized in gritty detail in the literature of the day. Contemporary writers did not shy away from vividly describing tenement life in all of its shocking detail. The Red Badge of Courage author Stephen Crane tackled the subject of immigrant life in New York City in his 1893 novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. Crane describes a densely packed tenement building as it, " quivered and creaked from the weight of humanity stamping about in its bowels. " Crane is considered part of the American realism movement - the same movement of which artist Everett Shinn, the Ashcan School of art, and social activist and photographer Jacob Riis were associated. No matter their medium, these cultural purveyors all strove to provide a candid look at the ills plaguing American cities, particularly New York City.
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Yekl: A Tale of the New York Ghetto, 1896, Abraham Cahan
In his 1896 novel, Yekl: A Tale of the New York Ghetto, Jewish immigrant author Abraham Cahan vividly depicts the life of Jewish immigrants on the Lower East Side. Cahan vividly describes the novel's protagonist Jake walking through a crowded tenement neighborhood, " through dense swarms of bedraggled half-naked humanity; past garbage barrels rearing their overflowing contents in sickening piles, and lining the streets in malicious suggestion of rows of trees; underneath tiers and tiers of fire escapes, barricaded and festooned with mattresses, pillows, and featherbeds not yet gathered in for the night. The pent-in sultry atmosphere was laden with nausea and pierced with a discordant and, as it were, plaintive buzz. "
Read it and Download at Archive.org The Age of Innocence, 1920, Edith Wharton
A fictional novel that probes the inner workings of New York high society elite class in the early 20th century; the section of society Hassam depicts in his paintings.
Read the Google E-book The House of Mirth, 1905, Edith Wharton Read it and Download at Archive.org The Yellow Wallpaper, 1892, Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Wharton's New York society novel chronicles the life of a young, upper class woman navigating the upper echelons New York society. Often read as a satire, the novel relates to the artwork Tanagra in that the main character Lily participates in a tableau vivant, blending the lines between art and life. She essentially becomes an object, much like the woman in Tanagra.
Read and Download at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (PDF)
This short story is a semi-autobiographical work of fiction, published in 1892, illustrates nineteenth-century views towards women and women's mental health. Considered an early piece of feminist literature, the protagonist is relegated to a third floor room of her country house by her husband for a period of rest, a remedy thought then to cure depression and/or nervous disorder. She descents into a psychosis, essentially trapped in the room with the yellow wallpaper as her social interactions, movement and intellectual activities such as reading and writing are restricted.

Manhattan, 1932, Georgia O'Keeffe Liberty, ca. 1884, Frederic Auguste Bartholdi Maréchal Niel Roses, 1919, Childe Hassam The Steerage, 1907, printed 1915, Alfred Stieglitz
O'Keeffe began painting her "New Yorks" in the mid 1920s. In 1925, O'Keeffe and her partner photographer Alfred Stieglitz moved into the Shelton Hotel in Manhattan, where O'Keeffe became enamored with the spectacular views of the city seen from their 28th floor suite. O'Keeffe soon expressed a desire to paint the city. In a letter of that year, O'Keeffe stated that the subject of New York "goes round in my head." In 1932 the Museum of Modern Art commissioned sixty-five painters and photographers to submit mural designs for an exhibition, Murals by American Painters and Photographers. They were asked to create a small mockup of a hypothetical mural, then develop one piece of the overall design into a large painting. O'Keeffe paired this large panel Manhattan with her smaller mural design.
The Figurine, 1921, William M. Paxton
The American Art Museum's sculpture Liberty is a model for Frederic Auguste Bartholdi's colossal sculpture Liberty Enlightening the World, more commonly known as the Statue of Liberty. Bartholdi made at least two terra cotta casts of this 4-foot model, which represents the sculptor's final design for Liberty. The model was exhibited in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda until around 1887 when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution.
Cumulus Clouds, East River, 1901-1902, Robert Henri
Childe Hassam posed a young model at a mahogany table with two vases of Maréchal Niel roses, a flower named for Napoléon III's secretary of war. Hassam believed that people were shaped by their environments, and here the hybrid roses symbolize America's culture, which he thought had absorbed the best elements of European and Asian history. The two women in the painting, a blonde and a brunette, similarly evoke different "strains" that had blended to create an American hybrid of womanhood.

"There were men, women and children on the lower level of the steerage....The scene fascinated me: A round straw hat; the funnel leaning left, the stairway leaning right; the white drawbridge, its railings made of chain; white suspenders crossed on the back of a man below; circular iron machinery; a mast that cut into the sky, completing a triangle. I stood spellbound for a while. I saw shapes related to one another - a picture of shapes, and underlying it, a new vision that held me." - Alfred Stieglitz, 1932

The Figurine illustrates the vogue for Asian decorative wares that informed American collecting tastes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Here, a Chinese blue-and-white jar is shown alongside a Chinese figurine; a maid delicately cleans the glass encasing the figurine. Paxton's compositions often portray women in beautiful interiors. The light source from the left highlighting the woman's rosy complexion, combined with the sensitive attention to detail, recall the works of the seventeenth-century Dutch master Johannes Vermeer.

In 1901, when Robert Henri and his wife Linda had moved into their new home at 512 East 58th Street, at least two blocks south of the scene in this painting, they were conscious that they lived in a district that was not elegant (although elegant residence were not far away), but they had a view that the artist enjoyed and made much of. Cumulous Clouds, East River, is one of a series of evocative river views that Henri painted near his home over the next two years. In April 1902, Cumulous Clouds, East River, was featured in a one-man exhibition of Henri's works at the Macbeth Gallery in New York. This was the same gallery where Henri and his fellow Ashcan-School painters and two outside artists would famously show in 1908 as "The Eight." Henri's 1902 show included views of the East River and New York streets, such as Cumulous Clouds, as well as scenes the artist had recently painted during his travels in France.

Growth, Cities, and Immigration: Crash Course US History - PBS (13 min) TV-G
This PBS video teaches you about the massive immigration to the United States during the late 19th and early 20th century. Immigrants flocked to the US from all over the world in this time period. Millions of Europeans moved to the US where they drove the growth of cities and manned the rapid industrialization that was taking place.

Exploring all 19 Smithsonian museums is a great way to enhance your curriculum, no matter what your discipline may be. In this section, you'll find resources that we have put together from a variety of Smithsonian museums to enhance your students' learning experience, broaden their skill set, and not only meet education standards, but exceed them.

Subject: Art
The Gilded Age: Treasures from the Smithsonian American Art Museum American Impressionism: Treasures from the Smithsonian American Art Museum
Subject: History

Pioneering Social Reformer Jacob Riis Revealed "How the Other Half Lives" in America - Smithsonian Magazine
The article explores how innovations in photography helped this 19th century journalist improve life for many of his fellow immigrants.

Alfred Stieglitz: (1864-1946) American photographer and modern art exhibitions organizer.

Andrew Carnegie: (1835-1919) One of the most successful industrialists of the 19th century, after making a fortune in the steel industry he donated much of his wealth to scientific, cultural, and educational institutions.

Bessemer process: A process of making steel from pig iron by burning out impurities (as carbon) by means of a blast of air forced through the hot liquid metal.

head taxes: Essentially an entry fee for arriving immigrants. The charge of one to two dollars per person was instituted to discourage immigration of poor immigrants who might become a public burden to American taxpayers.

Immigration Act of 1917: The first federal law that imposed a restriction on immigration in the form of a literacy test. It also designated an "Asiatic Barred Zone," which barred immigration to the United States for much of Asia and the Pacific Islands.

nativists: primary from Anglo-Saxon Protestant backgrounds, they favored the rights and interests for those already established in America.

pogrom: the organized killing of many helpless people usually because of their race or religion; comes from the Yiddish (from Russian) word meaning devastation.

Tanagra figurine: Made of terracotta, these figurines originated from the 4th century B.C. in the city of Tanagra located in central Greece. The discovery of these fashionable ancient figurines in the 1870s produced an immediate vogue for the wealthy to acquire one for their art collection.

Tenement House Act of 1901: a New York State Progressive Era law which outlawed the construction of the dumbbell-shaped style tenement housing and set minimum size requirements for tenement housing. It also mandated the installation of lighting, better ventilation, and indoor bathrooms.

Standard 1A - The student understands the connections among industrialization, the advent of the modern corporation, and material well-being.
5-12 - Explain how organized industrial research produced technological breakthroughs, especially the Bessemer steel process, conversion to electrical power, and telephonic communication, and how these innovations transformed the economy, work processes, and domestic life.

Standard 2A - The student understands the sources and experiences of the new immigrants.
7-12 - Distinguish between the "old" and "new" immigration in terms of its volume and the immigrants' ethnicity, religion, language, place of origin, and motives for emigrating from their homelands.

Standard 2C - The student understands how new cultural movements at different social levels affected American life.
5-12 - Investigate new forms of popular culture and leisure activities at different levels of American society.

The preceding information supports these Common Core-based concepts:

Cite pieces of visual and textual evidence to support analysis and inferences drawn from the text.

Determine the central ideas of an artwork and how they are conveyed through particular details.

Determine the meaning of symbols as they are used in a visual text, including figurative, connotative, and technical meanings. Analyze the impact.

Analyze the structure an artist uses to organize a text, and how it fits into the overall structure and contributes to the development of the ideas.

Determine an artist's point of view and explain how it is conveyed.

Compare and contrast a visual text to audio, video, or multimedia sources, analyzing each medium's portrayal of the subject.

Trace and evaluate the argument and specific claims presented, distinguishing claims that are supported by reasons and evidence from claims that are not. Assess whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient to support the claims.

Analyze a case in which two or more texts provide conflicting information on the same topic and identify where the texts disagree on matters of fact or interpretation.

Download a comprehensive look at the specific related Common Core Standards (PDF)

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Artists make choices in communicating ideas. What can we learn from this painting about life in the rapidly changing city at the turn of the 20th century? What clues does Child Hassam give the viewer? Observing details and analyzing components of the painting, then putting them in historical context, enables the viewer to interpret the overall message of the work of art.

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Evolution of Communication is our latest ebook that explores the development of human communication methods from prehistoric times until today. This is the second of a three-part blog series that highlights the in-depth information available in that publication.
Can you imagine not being able to reach anyone, no matter their location, at a moment's notice? Until just a few centuries ago, communications were limited by distance. Once we entered the 19 th century, our communications methods advanced with innovations that made communications simpler and able to happen over longer distances than previously possible (remember the methods we talked about in our previous post?.

The 1800s: A Major Leap
During the 19 th century, signal lamps, newspapers, and the electric telegraph made it possible to transmit information farther and to more people at once than ever before. First known to be available around 1867, signal lamps were used to transmit Morse code between towns, between ships at sea, and from land to sea.

By the late 1800s, many small town and cities published their own newspaper which allowed for passing along information to very large groups of people at a time. People could learn about events in towns and cities from all over by subscribing to papers from other places. The electric telegraph led to many additional telegraph innovations including the trans-Atlantic telegraph, the acoustic phonograph, and wireless telegraphy.

The telegraph played a major role in the development of communication; in 1858, the completion of the first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable marked a new era in communication between Europe and the United States. Of course, one of the biggest technological breakthroughs of all time may be the telephone, which became a prime method of communication between individuals starting 1876. No discussion of communication would be complete without mention of the radio, which became publicly available in the late 1800s.

The 1900s: Technology Soars
America was already going mobile by the early 20 th century. Believe it or not, the first experimental videophone was available around 1936, and telephone service for automobiles was available shortly after that, though availability was limited.

Television changed the landscape of communication forever when it was first introduced in 1927. A few decades later, many families would have their own television sets, making it possible for the latest news and information to come directly into an individual's home almost as soon as it happened. Though many forms of communication have come and gone, television remains one of the most widely used inventions. People all around the world still depend on TV for up-to-date information, as well as entertainment.

Do these inventions sound more familiar? Go ahead and breathe a sigh of relief at the familiarity of these more common methods of communication. They are here and we are no longer relying on a pigeon to transmit our messages (probably). While many of these came out less than a century ago, they have already been improved quite a lot in the years following their inventions.

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Evolution of Communication: 1800s and 1900s | OCN

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Evolution of Communication is our latest ebook that explores the development of human communication methods from prehistoric times until today. This is the second of a three-part blog series that highlights the in-depth information available in that publication. Can you imagine not being able to reach anyone, no matter their location, at a moment's notice?

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Rise of Political Machines
https://study.com/academy/lesson/political-machine-definition-lesson.html
Progressive Reform
https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/progressive-era.cfm
Rise of Labor Organizations
http://bit.ly/31xJBZ5
Women’s Suffrage & the Temperance Movement
https://amazingwomeninhistory.com/womens-suffrage-and-temperance-movement/
Election of 1912
https://www.britannica.com/video/81667/election-1912
Isolationism vs. Imperialism
http://ms.pleasantvilleschools.com/ourpages/auto/2014/11/29/61279542/Imperialism%20Powerpoint%202014.pdf

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The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project is a university-chartered research center associated with the Department of History of The George Washington University

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by Keri Engel

It might seem like women's rights and alcohol prohibition would be on opposite sides of the political spectrum. But did you know that throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women's suffrage and the temperance movement were both considered radical causes? Many suffragists, in addition to their work for women's rights, were also a part of the temperance movement, which advocated for reduced or no alcohol consumption.

Both movements culminated in the same year: 1920, when the 18th Amendment prohibiting alcohol came into effect and the 19th Amendment enfranchising women was ratified.

How was the women's suffrage movement connected to the temperance movement?

Let's take a look at how it started...

Why Did the Temperance Movement Want Prohibition?

As the United States developed, its people started turning from light alcoholic beverages, such as beer and hard cider, to stronger beverages like rum and whiskey as they became cheaper.

The production of rum especially was part of the whole slave trade. Slaves from Africa were brought to the West Indies to grow sugar, which was used to make rum. That's why it started to become available so cheaply.

What many citizens saw as an epidemic of alcoholism followed.

Remember that at this time, women had no rights. A woman was legally not a person, and was considered to be the property of her father or husband.

So what happened if a woman got married to a man who turned out to be an alcoholic? If he spent all their money on booze, or even became violent?

Legally, there was no escape.

What could women do?

All they could do was ask men to stop drinking so much.

"THE BOTTLE: He is discharged from his employment for drunkenness: They pawn their clothes to supply the bottle."

That's how the rise of cheap alcohol and growing alcoholism led to the growth of the women's temperance movement in the early 19th century.

Advocates for temperance linked the consumption of alcohol with greater issues like violent crime, poverty, unemployment, and domestic violence.

Though at first campaigning for moderation, the movement became more radical after the Civil War and began calling for complete prohibition of all alcohol. National organizations such as the Anti-Saloon League and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union grew quickly, and by the late 19th century became very powerful in lobbying for prohibition legislation.

"Fearful quarrels and brutal violence are the natural consequences of the frequent use of the bottle."

Women's Suffrage and Prohibition

Around the turn of the 20th century, Western society still overwhelmingly believed in biological determinism: that men and women had different inherent natures determined by their respective biology.

Women were thought to be morally superior to men by nature, and many advocates for women's suffrage argued that women should have the vote because of this.

Advocates for temperance wanted women to have the vote because it was believed they would vote for prohibition due to their moral superiority. Many breweries, on the other hand, lobbied against the suffrage movement out of fear of losing their businesses to prohibition.

A Respectable Suffrage Movement

Groups such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1873, linked together the causes of Christianity, temperance, and social reform.

As a religious organization, the WCTU was seen as a more ladylike and respectable way for women to become involved in the struggle for suffrage. Since each local chapter of the WCTU was autonomous, local leaders had the freedom to act on issues such as women's suffrage under the banner of a respectable religious organization.

Francis Willard (1839-1898) was a suffragist and a temperance movement leader

Suffrage and Temperance Movement Leaders

Many of the most famous early feminists and women's suffrage advocates were also supporters of prohibition. The WCTU's second president, Francis Willard, broadened the organization's activism with her slogan "Do everything." A feminist and suffragist, Francis Willard fought not only for temperance and women's suffrage, but for other radical causes such as workers' unions, federal aid for education, and an eight-hour workday.

Perhaps the most famous pair of United States suffragists, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, were temperance activists before they became involved in the women's suffrage movement. Susan B. Anthony, before becoming a famous speaker on women's rights, gave her first speech at a Daughters of Temperance dinner. Together Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton co-founded the Woman's State Temperance Society in 1852, the first women's state temperance society in America.

Though the temperance movement mostly died out after the repeal of the 18th Amendment in 1933, adherents to the movement continue to exist to this day.

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union still fights for social reform, though they are now considered extremely conservative in their current stance against abortion rights and same-sex marriage. The feminist movement, on the other hand, is now mainly considered a liberal cause. This strange alliance, though it lasted almost a century, died out soon after the death of prohibition as each movement went its separate way.

Radfem Graphic Tee - "Prude Is a Slur Against Any Woman With Boundaries"

This radfem t-shir...

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Women's Suffrage and the Temperance Movement: Strange Allies

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by Keri Engel It might seem like women's rights and alcohol prohibition would be on opposite sides of the political spectrum. But did you know that throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women's suffrage and the temperance movement were both considered radical causes?

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U.S. presidential election of 1912 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

NARRATOR: In 1912 all three presidential candidates were Progressives. Theodore Roosevelt had been president in 1902. He had forced the coal mine owners to settle with the union. He had stopped Hill and Harriman when they tried to monopolize the western railroads. He accepted trusts as inevitable, but insisted the federal government regulate them. He denounced Woodrow Wilson's call for the limitations of federal power as the surest way to allow the employer to work his employees to death.

ROOSEVELT: The liberty of which Mr. Wilson speaks today means merely the liberty of the factory owner to close his operatives into some crazy death trap on a stuffed floor where, if fire starts, the slaughter is immense.

NARRATOR: Roosevelt was running as a Progressive against the incumbent William Howard Taft.

But Taft, too, ran as a Progressive. He claimed accurately that he had carried out more legal actions against the trusts than Roosevelt ever had.

TAFT: We must make up the abuses in the good old Anglo-Saxon ways, adjust our statutory remedies to the fitness of the thing, place our confidence in the public servants who show themselves alive to public need, and courageous and energetic enough to prosecute the offenders to convictions.

NARRATOR: Which brings us back to the beginning--Woodrow Wilson's campaign film starring everybody's favorite villain, the fat capitalist. By 1912 the Muckrakers had done their work well. Our villain carried on his back the accumulated sins of a thousand trusts. He carried with him the stench of the tenements, the nameless miners who had been killed in his mine shafts, the hordes of farmers who had been dispossessed by his sheriffs, the anguished children who had collapsed at his looms, the army of politicians who were on his payroll. He was behind it all. If he could be regulated by law, the world would be a better and a happier place.

And so Teddy Roosevelt said, let the federal government control him. And William Howard Taft replied, yes, but I can control him better than Teddy Roosevelt ever did. And Woodrow Wilson added, he's too fat, too big; let us break him up into a thousand smaller businessmen; send me your dollars, and I will bring forth the Progressive world. For Wilson, too, preached the Progressive litany.

WILSON: We hold that the night labor of women and children is abnormal and should be prohibited; we hold that the employment of women over 48 hours per week is abnormal and should be prohibited; we hold that the 7 day working week is abnormal; we hold that one day of rest in 7 should be provided by law.

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NARRATOR: In 1912 all three presidential candidates were Progressives. Theodore Roosevelt had been president in 1902. He had forced the coal mine owners to settle with the union. He had stopped Hill and Harriman when they tried to monopolize the western railroads. He accepted trusts as inevitable, but insisted the federal government regulate them.

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Deeply in love, Ferdinand chose to marry Sophie Chotek in 1900 despite the opposition of his uncle, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef, who refused to attend their wedding. Though not exactly a commoner, Sophie came from a family of obscure Czech nobles and not from a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty of Europe. As a result, her and Ferdinand's children were declared ineligible for the throne. Sophie also became the victim of countless petty slights. At imperial banquets, for example, she entered each room last, without an escort, and was then seated far away from her husband at the dinner table.

His marriage notwithstanding, Ferdinand remained Franz Josef's heir and inspector general of the army. In that capacity, he agreed to attend a series of June 1914 military exercises in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Austria-Hungary had just annexed these provinces a few years earlier against the wishes of neighboring Serbia, which likewise coveted them. Ferdinand believed the Serbs to be "pigs," "thieves," "murderers" and "scoundrels." Yet he had opposed annexation for fear that it would make an already turbulent political situation even worse. Formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire, Bosnia-Herzegovina's population was roughly 40 percent Serb, 30 percent Muslim and 20 percent Croat, with various other ethnicities making up the remainder.

Upon learning of Ferdinand's upcoming visit, the Young Bosnians, a secret revolutionary society of peasant students, began plotting to assassinate him. In May, Gavrilo Princip, Trifko Grabez and Nedeljko Cabrinovic traveled to the Serbian capital of Belgrade, where they received six handheld bombs, four semi-automatic pistols and cyanide suicide capsules from members of the so-called Black Hand, a terrorist group with close ties to the Serbian army. After practicing with their pistols in a Belgrade park, the three men journeyed back to Bosnia-Herzegovina, receiving help from Black Hand associates to smuggle their weapons across the border. To this day, it remains unclear whether the Serbian government participated in the scheme.

Ferdinand and Sophie departed their estate for Bosnia-Herzegovina on June 23. Having received multiple warnings to cancel the trip, the archduke knew that danger potentially awaited them. "Our journey starts with an extremely promising omen," he purportedly said when the axles on his car overheated. "Here our car burns, and down there they will throw bombs at us." After arriving at a spa town a few miles outside of Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina's capital, Ferdinand attended two days of military exercises while Sophie visited schools and orphanages. On a whim, the couple drove in one evening to check out Sarajevo's bazaars. While there, they attracted a crowd of onlookers, including Princip, but were apparently treated with warmth and politeness.

Following a banquet with religious and political leaders, only one day of events remained before Ferdinand and Sophie were to return home. That morning, June 28, the archduke sent a telegram to his eldest son congratulating him on his latest exam results. He and Sophie then boarded a train for the short ride into Sarajevo. For once, Sophie was permitted to walk alongside Ferdinand during a brief troop inspection, after which the couple got in an open-topped car for a motorcade ride to city hall. The car in front of them was supposed to carry six specially trained officers but instead had only one, plus three local policemen. In fact, throughout the trip, Austro-Hungarian officials allegedly focused more attention on dinner menus than security details.

Meanwhile, seven Young Bosnians had fanned out along the Appel Quay, a main avenue in Sarajevo running parallel to the Miljacka River. When the motorcade passed by, its route having been published in advance, Cabrinovic asked which car carried the archduke. He then hurled his bomb at the car, only to watch it bounce off the folded-up roof and roll underneath the wrong vehicle. The subsequent explosion wounded two army officers and several bystanders but left Ferdinand and Sophie essentially unharmed. Cabrinovic jumped into the mostly dry riverbed and made a half-hearted attempt to kill himself before being apprehended. "I am a Serbian hero," he purportedly shouted as the police led him away. At least two other Young Bosnians also had good looks at the archduke but apparently lost the nerve to attempt an assassination.

Rather than immediately flee Sarajevo, Ferdinand decided to continue on to the planned event at city hall. Upon finishing that up, he insisted on visiting the wounded officers in the hospital. In order to dissuade any other bomb throwers, the motorcade zipped down the Appel Quay at high speeds. By mistake, however, the first three cars turned onto a side street right where Princip happened to be standing. As the cars attempted to reverse back onto the Appel Quay, Princip whipped out his pistol and fired two shots at the archduke from point-blank range, piercing him in the neck and also striking Sophie's abdomen. "Sophie, Sophie, don't die-stay alive for our children," Ferdinand murmured. Within minutes, though, both had passed away. Princip, a slender, 19-year-old Serbian army reject, later admitted to killing Ferdinand but said he had not meant to hit Sophie. Three weeks too young for the death penalty, Princip was given a 20-year sentence, but contracted tuberculosis and died in jail in April 1918, at the age of just 23.

With tensions already running high among Europe's powers, the assassination precipitated a rapid descent into World War I. First, Austria-Hungary gained German support for punitive action against Serbia. It then sent Serbia an ultimatum, worded in a way that made acceptance unlikely. Serbia proposed arbitration to resolve the dispute, but Austria-Hungary instead declared war on July 28, 1914, exactly a month after Ferdinand's death. By the following week, Germany, Russia, France, Belgium, Montenegro and Great Britain had all been drawn into the conflict, and other countries like the United States would enter later. Overall, more than 9 million soldiers and nearly that many civilians would die in fighting that lasted until 1918.

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The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 100 Years Ago

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Deeply in love, Ferdinand chose to marry Sophie Chotek in 1900 despite the opposition of his uncle, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef, who refused to attend their wedding. Though not exactly a commoner, Sophie came from a family of obscure Czech nobles and not from a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty of Europe.

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Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
https://www.history.com/news/the-assassination-of-archduke-franz-ferdinand-100-years-ago
New Technology of World War I
https://www.ncpedia.org/wwi-technology-and-weapons-war
President Wilson’s Fourteen Points
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbdhxLVlrhI
Treaty of Versailles
http://bit.ly/2UuCQ8Q

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by A. Torrey McLean
Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993.
Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History

See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front

One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914. New technology made war more horrible and more complex than ever before. The United States and other countries felt the effects of the war for years afterwards.

The popular image of World War I is soldiers in muddy trenches and dugouts, living miserably until the next attack. This is basically correct. Technological developments in engineering, metallurgy, chemistry, and optics had produced weapons deadlier than anything known before. The power of defensive weapons made winning the war on the western front all but impossible for either side.

When attacks were ordered, Allied soldiers went "over the top," climbing out of their trenches and crossing no-man's-land to reach enemy trenches. They had to cut through belts of barbed wire before they could use rifles, bayonets, pistols, and hand grenades to capture enemy positions. A victory usually meant they had seized only a few hundred yards of shell-torn earth at a terrible cost in lives. Wounded men often lay helpless in the open until they died. Those lucky enough to be rescued still faced horrible sanitary conditions before they could be taken to proper medical facilities. Between attacks,the snipers, artillery, and poison gas caused misery and death.

Airplanes, products of the new technology, were primarily made of canvas, wood, and wire. At first they were used only to observe enemy troops. As their effectiveness became apparent, both sides shot planes down with artillery from the ground and with rifles, pistols, and machine guns from other planes. In 1916, the Germans armed planes with machine guns that could fire forward without shooting off the fighters' propellers. The Allies soon armed their airplanes the same way, and war in the air became a deadly business. These light, highly maneuverable fighter planes attacked each other in wild air battles called dogfights. Pilots who were shot down often remained trapped in their falling, burning planes, for they had no parachutes. Airmen at the front did not often live long. Germany also used its fleet of huge dirigibles, or zeppelins, and large bomber planes to drop bombs on British and French cities. Britain retaliated by bombing German cities.

Back on the ground, the tank proved to be the answer to stalemate in the trenches. This British invention used American-designed caterpillar tracks to move the armored vehicle equipped with machine guns and sometimes light cannon. Tanks worked effectively on firm, dry ground, in spite of their slow speed, mechanical problems, and vulnerability to artillery. Able to crush barbed wire and cross trenches, tanks moved forward through machine gun fire and often terrified German soldiers with their unstoppable approach.

Chemical warfare first appeared when the Germans used poison gas during a surprise attack in Flanders, Belgium, in 1915. At first, gas was just released from large cylinders and carried by the wind into nearby enemy lines. Later, phosgene and other gases were loaded into artillery shells and shot into enemy trenches. The Germans used this weapon the most, realizing that enemy soldiers wearing gas masks did not fight as well. All sides used gas frequently by 1918. Its use was a frightening development that caused its victims a great deal of suffering, if not death.

Both sides used a variety of big guns on the western front, ranging from huge naval guns mounted on railroad cars to short-range trench mortars. The result was a war in which soldiers near the front were seldom safe from artillery bombardment. The Germans used super-long-range artillery to shell Paris from almost eighty miles away. Artillery shell blasts created vast, cratered, moonlike landscapes where beautiful fields and woods had once stood.

Perhaps the most significant technological advance during World War I was the improvement of the machine gun, a weapon originally developed by an American, Hiram Maxim. The Germans recognized its military potential and had large numbers ready to use in 1914. They also developed air-cooled machine guns for airplanes and improved those used on the ground, making them lighter and easier to move. The weapon's full potential was demonstrated on the Somme battlefield in July 1916 when German machine guns killed or wounded almost 60,000 British soldiers in only one day.

At sea, submarines attacked ships far from port. In order to locate and sink German U-boats, British scientists developed underwater listening devices and underwater explosives called depth charges. Warships became faster and more powerful than ever before and used newly invented radios to communicate effectively. The British naval blockade of Germany, which was made possible by developments in naval technology, brought a total war to civilians. The blockade caused a famine that finally brought about the collapse of Germany and its allies in late 1918. Starvation and malnutrition continued to take the lives of German adults and children for years after the war.

The firing stopped on November 11, 1918, but modern war technology had changed the course of civilization. Millions had been killed, gassed, maimed, or starved. Famine and disease continued to rage through central Europe, taking countless lives. Because of rapid technological advances in every area, the nature of warfare had changed forever, affecting soldiers, airmen, sailors, and civilians alike.
A. Torrey McLean, a former United States Army officer who served in Vietnam, studied World War I for more than thirty years, personally interviewing a number of World War I veterans.

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by A. Torrey McLean Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993. Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914.

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Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points | History